38
Cells—staying
alive!
OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter, you will be
able to:
1 identify historical examples of how
scientific knowledge concerning cells
and the microscope has changed our
understanding of the world;
2 use examples to illustrate how the cell
theory has contributed to our
understanding of living things;
3 describe areas of current research
concerning cells;
4 identify that living things are made of
cells;
5 identify and describe the functions of
the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane,
cell wall and chloroplast;
6 identify that nutrients and oxygen move
into cells and waste moves out of cells;
WORD BANK
cilia: microscopic hairs on the surfaces of cells
clarity: clearness
coarse: not delicate in movement
concave: curved like the inside of a circle
diffusion: a spreading out from a region of high
concentration to one of low concentration
longitudinal: running lengthwise
monocular: with a single eye lens
7 distinguish between unicellular and
multicellular organisms;
8 explain that reproduction in unicellular
organisms takes place by cell division;
9 identify the materials required by
multicellular organisms for the processes
of respiration and photosynthesis;
10 discuss technological developments that
have extended the ability of scientists to
collect information about cells;
11 use given criteria to gather first-hand
data;
12 access information from secondary
sources;
13 draw conclusions based on information
available;
14 complete individual and team tasks with
guidance.
protozoa: unicellular aquatic organism
transverse: in a crosswise direction
history and nature of science Cells—staying alive! 39

Figure 2.1

PERSPECTIVES
Australia’s top swimmers and athletes know
how important a fit and healthy body is for
optimum performance. They are careful in
training sessions to exercise and not strain
their muscles.
Sports scientists investigate the way your
muscles and skeleton interact during
activity. They also study how energy is
supplied to your muscles from the food
you eat and the oxygen you breathe. A
proper understanding of these complex
interactions begins with an understanding
of the cells of your body. Cells are the
‘bricks’ that are used to build your body.
(a) Muscles of an athlete
They also supply the body with energy.
Cells are repaired during their lives and
replaced eventually by new cells.
In this chapter, you will investigate the
wide variety of cells and the way that cells
obtain and use energy. You will also
examine how cells reproduce themselves.

CORE SECTION 1:
DIVERSITY OF CELLS
In Science Tracks 7, you learnt of the five
kingdoms of living things: animals, plants,
fungi, protista and monera. The first three
kingdoms are easy to study because most (b) Muscle cells under a microscope
of their members are large enough to see
and observe. But our knowledge of the tiny Glass ball to
organisms that belong to the protista and focus light
the monera kingdoms depended upon the
Eyepiece lens
invention of the magnifying glass and the
Lamp
microscope. Leonardo da Vinci used a
magnifying glass to study small objects in
1485, but the first microscope was not
invented until about 1590 by the Dutch
spectacle makers Hans and Zacharias
Janssen. In 1665, a two-lens microscope
was invented by the Englishman,
Robert Hooke.

Figure 2.2 Robert Hooke’s microscope and drawings Cork cells

of cork cells
40 Science Tracks 8
Lens
Specimen
placed
on needle Specimen
tip viewed
by looking
through
the lens
from behind
the plate
Front of
plate
Figure 2.3 Leeuwenhoek’s microscope
Hooke used his microscope to examine
thin slices of cork. He observed structures
that resembled boxes of a honeycomb. He
called these boxes ‘cells’ because they
reminded him of the tiny cells or rooms in
which monks lived in a monastery. This
term has been used ever since. Hooke’s
microscope could only magnify 30 times.
Another Dutchman, Antoine van
Leeuwenhoek developed a single-lens
microscope in 1676 that could magnify
270 times. His hobby was to grind perfect
lenses. These lenses allowed him to see the
microscopic world with wonderful clarity.
He examined a whole range of materials,
including blood and pond water. He
discovered the existence of many different
types of protozoa in pond water and many
different types of bacteria in his own saliva.
Improvements in microscope design
occurred over the next two centuries, and
by 1838–39 enough evidence had
accumulated about the microscopic
structure of living matter to allow two
German scientists (Matthias Schleiden and
Theodor Schwann) to propose the cell
theory:
1 All living things are made up of one or
more cells.
2 Cells are the smallest units of living
things.
Sixteen years later, a third statement was
added (by Rudolf Virchow) to the cell
theory:
3 All cells come from other pre-existing
living cells.
Cell structures
The cells that Hooke saw in cork were
dead. There are many similarities between
living cells, no matter what living thing the
cells come from. All living cells are
composed of a watery protoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane. Within
the protoplasm are smaller structures called
organelles. Figure 2.4 shows the typical
structure of animal and plant cells.
The protoplasm is divided into two parts:
the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Within the
jelly-like liquid cytoplasm are smaller
structures such as mitochondria and
vacuoles. In green plant cells, organelles
called chloroplasts are also found. Plant
cells are also surrounded by a rigid cell
wall. The functions of all of these
structures is shown in Table 2.1.
Plant cell
Mitochondrion Nucleus
Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane Vacuole
Green plant cells also contain
chloroplasts in the cytoplasm
Animal cell
Mitochondrion
Cell
membrane
Nucleus Cytoplasm
Figure 2.4 Typical structure of plant and animal cells
 Cells—staying alive! 41

Cell structure Description

Cell membrane Thin layer surrounding the cell; controls entry of nutrients (such
as food and oxygen) and exit of materials (such as waste) from
the cell; protects cell contents
Nucleus Control centre of the cell; contains inherited (genetic) codes in
structures called chromosomes; surrounded by a nuclear
membrane
Cytoplasm Clear, jelly-like liquid; many chemical reactions occur within the
cytoplasm
Mitochondrion Site where energy is generated by a process called respiration
Vacuole Storage area for water, food and waste substances; usually large
in plant cells, but tiny or non-existent in animal cells
Cell wall (plants only) Provide strength and support for the plant; composed of woody
cellulose
Chloroplast Contain the green chemical called chlorophyll which
(green plant cell) absorbs sunlight; site of photosynthesis (conversion of solar
energy into chemical energy)

Table 2.1 Cell structures

Types of cells Flagellum

Cell
membrane
Many unicellular organisms exist. Their cell
Cell wall
shape is quite varied, as shown by the
examples in Figure 2.5. Some unicellular
organisms have whip-like tails (flagella) or
hairs (cilia) to help them move though Vacuole
the water. Green
chloroplast Nucleus
Multicellular organisms are composed of
many different types of cells arranged in Euglena Diatom
groups called tissues. Cells within a tissue
have a similar structure and function. The Nucleus
cells of skin tissue are different to the cells
of muscular tissue because they have
different functions. Figure 2.6 shows some
typical cells found in plants and animals.
Table 2.2 summarises some of the
different functions of plant and animal cells.
Cilia

Paramecium

Figure 2.5 Shapes of the cells of unicellular organisms

42 Science Tracks 8

Plant cells Animal cells

Palisade Guard Onion epidermal

cell (leaf) cells (leaf) cell Nerve Red blood Muscle
cell cell cell

Root Phloem Xylem White Human Flat

hair cell sieve tube cell cell blood cell egg cell epithelial cells

Figure 2.6 Some plant and animal cells

Name of cell Function

Animal
Red blood cell Carries oxygen through the blood vessels
White blood cell Fights against invading disease organisms
Smooth muscle cell Contracts and relaxes to allow a muscle to work
Nerve cell Carries messages from one cell to another
Gamete (egg and sperm) Sex cells for reproduction
Epidermal cell Surface cell of leaf, stem and root (covering and protection)
Plant
Xylem cell Forms water transport tubes
Phloem cell Forms food transport tubes
Guard cell Opens and closes leaf pores for gas exchange

Table 2.2 Functions of particular cells

INFOBOX 2.1
USING A MICROSCOPE
Your school microscopes are called light
microscopes because they use visible light to
observe the specimen. During your science
course you will use two common types of light
microscopes: monocular microscopes and
binocular microscopes.
Monocular microscopes have one eyepiece
lens and a choice of two or three objective
lenses of different magnifications. These
microscopes are used for examining thin
specimens on glass slides. The specimens can
be magnified up to 200 to 400 times their
normal size. As the light passes through the
specimen, an image is formed on the retina of
your eye.
Binocular or stereo microscopes have two
eyepiece lenses so that you can see a specimen
with both eyes open. This gives a more three-
dimensional effect. These microscopes are used
to examine larger specimens (such as flower
 Cells—staying alive! 43

Figure 2.7 Using microscopes

Using a monocular
Use the coarse focus to raise the
bodytube upwards to bring the
microscope
specimen into focus It is easy to damage a microscope;
it is also easy to damage the
Check that a bright circle of light specimen you are observing. Here
can be seen—if not, you need to are some rules that will help you
Eyepiece lens adjust the position of the lamp avoid any damage.
Coarse and angle of the mirror
focus 1 Always carry the microscope
Start with the low with two hands. Use one hand
Fine Body tube to support the base and the
focus power objective
when you examine other to hold the body.
Nosepiece
the specimen
Arm 2 Place the microscope on a flat
Objective lens bench so that the arm is
Lamp shines
Stage closest to you and the mirror
light on mirror
Iris lever faces away towards the lamp.
Slide and Do not touch lenses with your
specimen Mirror fingers. They must be kept
clean.
Base
3 Rotate the nosepiece to select
(a) Setting up a monocular microscope the lowest power objective
lens.
4 Adjust the angle of the lamp and the
mirror so that the light reflects off the
mirror into the lens and up the tube. As
you look through the eyepiece lens you
should see a bright circle of light if you
have the angles adjusted correctly. (Use the
concave surface of the mirror if your
microscope does not have condenser lenses
below the stage.)
5 Adjust the light intensity by using the iris
lever.
6 Place the specimen (which will be on a
glass slide) on the stage and secure it with
the clips.
7 Looking from the side, lower the objective
lens until it is just above the slide surface.
(b) Using a binocular microscope
8 Looking through the eyepiece lens, use the
coarse focus knob to raise the tube
parts, insects and minerals). Their upwards (away from the specimen) until it
magnification is usually much less than a comes into focus. Complete the focusing
monocular microscope. Light reflects off these using the fine focus knob. Never focus
specimens before it enters the lens system of downwards towards the slide as you might
the microscope. break the glass and the lens.
9 View the specimen at higher magnification
by rotating a new objective lens into place.
Use the fine focus knob to refocus.
44 Science Tracks 8

Using a binocular Magnification

microscope
1 Treat the microscope with the same care as
the monocular microscope.
2 Select the lowest power objective lens.
3 Place the specimen on a tile or glass dish
and shine the lamp to illuminate the
specimen.
4 Lower the tube by looking from the side
and then use the focus knob to raise the
tube and focus while looking through the
eyepiece lenses.
Each lens has a number engraved on the side
that tells you its magnification. By multiplying
the magnification of the eyepiece and
objective lenses you get the overall
magnification.
Total magnification = eyepiece magnification ×
objective magnification
For example, if the eyepiece is 10× and the
objective is 20×, then,
Total magnification = 10 × 20 = 200×

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

1 a Name three organisms that belong to each of the following kingdoms.

i animal
ii plant
iii fungus
b Why didn’t scientists know about the members of the protista and monera
kingdoms before the late seventeenth century?
2 a What specimen did Robert Hooke observe with his microscope?
b Why did he call the tiny boxes he saw ‘cells’?
3 a In what ways was Leeuwenhoek’s microscope superior to Hooke’s?
b What did Leeuwenhoek discover in the following?
i pond water
ii saliva
4 a Why did it take over a century from the discovery of cells for the cell theory to be
developed?
b Are the following statements true or false?
i Cells are the smallest units of living things.
ii All cells are the same size.
iii Living cells can arise from non-living matter.
 Cells—staying alive! 45

5 a All cells are composed of at least two parts. Name these parts.
b What is the purpose of the cell membrane?
6 Name a structure in the cell for each of the following functions.
a generating energy by a process called respiration
b storing water and other chemicals
c controlling the entry of nutrients and removing wastes from the cell
d containing codes that control cell processes
e site of photosynthesis in plant cells
7 Figure 2.8 shows a cell.
a Is this cell from a plant or an A
animal? Explain.
b Use the scale to determine
the length of the cell.
c Name the structures that are
labelled A, B and C.
8 a State the functions of the
following cell types.
i xylem cells
ii nerve cells B Scale: C

iii guard cells 100 µm

iv white blood cells

Figure 2.8 Is this a plant or animal cell?
b Which of these cells are found
in plants and which are found
in animals such as humans?
9 Infobox 2.1 names two common types of microscopes used in schools.
a In which type does light do the following?
i pass through the specimen
ii reflect off the specimen
b Which type has the higher magnification?
c Which type uses a concave mirror to reflect the light?
d Why should you look from the side to lower the tube towards the specimen on
the stage?
10 A student uses a monocular microscope with the following lens magnifications.
Calculate the total magnification of the lens system used.
eyepiece lens: 15×
objective lens: 40×
46 Science Tracks 8

LANGUAGE FOCUS

1 Match the words on the left with those on the right.

a larger in plant cells than animal cells i iris
b adjusts light intensity ii Schleiden and Schwann
c carries oxygen around the body iii Robert Hooke
d cork cells iv red blood cells
e cell theory v vacuole
2 Insert words from the following list into the spaces in the sentences in the passage
below.
functioning function
first replaced
nucleus scientist
blood
A Scottish ______ called Robert Brown (1773–1858) was the ______ scientist to
clearly see the nucleus of a plant cell. Eventually scientists realised that the ______
was necessary for the ______ of the cell. Without it the cell would die. Mature red
______ cells do not have a nucleus and are only able to ______ for a short time. When
they die they are ______ by new red blood cells.
3 The following steps refer to the correct procedure for setting up a monocular
microscope to view a specimen of a plant root. The steps are jumbled. Arrange them
in the correct order.
a Place the slide on the stage.
b While looking through the eyepiece, adjust the lamp and the angle of the mirror
to get a bright circle of light in the field of view.
c While looking through the eyepiece, use the coarse focus knob to wind the tube
up until the specimen is in focus.
d Look from the side and lower the tube till the objective lens is just above the slide.
e Rotate the nosepiece to select the lowest power objective lens.
f Adjust the position of the slide and use the fine focus knob to complete the
focusing.
g Adjust the light intensity with the iris lever.
 Cells—staying alive! 47

Practical activity 2.1: Using microscopes

AIM
To gain practice in using monocular and binocular microscopes.

PRELAB
Read through the practical activity and answer these questions in your workbook before you
begin.
1 Suggest a reason for using the lowest power objective lens first in any investigation.
2 Why do you look from the side to lower the objective lens close to the slide surface?
3 How is the diameter of the low power field measured?

EQUIPMENT
(per team or shared)
binocular microscope monocular microscope
lamp glass slides
millimetre grid paper specimens of stamens and
photocopied onto plastic stigmas of flowers
stained prepared slides (such as transverse salt and mineral crystals
sections of stem and root tissue; smooth
muscle fibres; red blood cells)

METHOD
PART A: FINDING DIAMETER OF FIELD OF VIEW ON A MONOCULAR MICROSCOPE
1 Read Infobox 2.1 to find out the correct way of handling
and setting up the monocular microscope. Select the
lowest power objective lens.
2 Place a small square of a millimetre grid photocopied
onto clear plastic on a glass slide.
3 Use the method described in Infobox 2.1 to focus on 1 mm grid
the specimen using the lowest power objective lens.
Record the magnification of the eyepiece and objective
lens used.
4 In your field of view, you will see the lines of the Field of view
millimetre grid. Use this scale to work out the diameter
of your field of view (Figure 2.9). Draw what you see in Figure 2.9 Millimetre grid in low power
your book. Next to your drawing, record the field field of view

diameter (in millimetres) and the total magnification used.

48 Science Tracks 8

5 Rotate the nosepiece to the next highest power objective lens. Refocus and work out the
diameter of this higher power field. Draw what you see. Next to your drawing, record
the new field diameter and the new total magnification.

PART B: EXAMINING STAINED PREPARED SLIDES WITH A MONOCULAR MICROSCOPE

6 Collect some prepared slides that have been stained with special dyes so that you can
see the cell contents clearly. Take great care not to damage these slides.
7 Follow the procedure in Infobox 2.1 for examining a slide on low power.
8 For each slide you examine, do the following.
a Draw and label some typical cells. (Use a pencil and rubber only.)
b Record the total magnification used to examine the specimen.
c Use the field diameter (from Part A) to estimate the size of the cells you have drawn.

PART C: USING A BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE

9 Follow the procedure in Infobox 2.1 to set up the microscope.
10 Place a plastic millimetre ruler on the stage and focus on the ruler. Work out the
diameter of the field for low and high power. Record this information in your workbook.
11 Examine some of the specimens. Stamens and stigmas of flowers and crystals of different
salts or minerals make excellent specimens to observe. Start with low power and then
move to a higher power.
12 Carefully draw what you observe at each magnification. Include the magnification in
your drawing. Use the field diameter to provide a scale for your drawing.

RESULTS AND QUESTIONS

1 What is the diameter of the low power field of the monocular microscope in the
following units? (1000 micrometres (µm) = 1 mm)
a millimetres
b micrometres
2 What is the diameter of the low power field of the binocular microscope in millimetres?
3 In which cells of the stained tissue could you see the nucleus?
4 What is the purpose of staining cells?

CONCLUSION
Write a suitable conclusion for this activity.
 Cells—staying alive! 49

Practical activity 2.2: Plant cells

AIM
1 To prepare wet mounts of some plant tissue and to identify cells containing chloroplasts.
2 To prepare and view an acrylic impression of the surface of a leaf.

PRELAB
Read through the practical activity and answer these questions in your workbook before you
begin.
1 What plants are used in this experiment?
2 What is meant by a ‘wet mount’?
3 How can you avoid getting air bubbles in the wet mount?
4 Why must the tissue stripped from the onion be as thin as possible?

EQUIPMENT
(per team or shared)
monocular microscope lamp microscope slides and coverslips
probes tweezers safety blade
onion or eschalot moss leaves pond weed (elodea)
geranium leaves iodine solution Petri dish
clear acrylic nail varnish

METHOD

PART A: EXAMINING ELODEA AND MOSS

1 Select a new leaf from the elodea near the
tip and mount it in a drop of water on a Coverslip Probe
microscope slide. Place a coverslip over the
Lower
specimen in the correct way to avoid air coverslip
bubbles (Figure 2.10).
2 Examine the leaf under low power and Microscope slide
look for the cells containing green
chloroplasts. Try a higher powered
objective lens. Drop of water and elodea leaf

3 Draw a labelled diagram of one of the Figure 2.10 Placing a coverslip to avoid air bubbles
cells. Include the magnification used.
4 Repeat this procedure for a moss leaf. Compare with the elodea leaf. Draw a labelled
diagram of the moss leaf.
50 Science Tracks 8

PART B: PREPARING A WET MOUNT OF EPIDERMAL CELLS

5 Use a safety blade and tweezers to strip
several thin pieces of onion or eschalot Cut section of onion
skin (epidermis) from an inner surface
Tweezers Lower
of the bulb (Figure 2.11).
coverslip
6 Place one piece of the onion tissue on Coverslip
a glass slide and add a drop of water.
Gently lower a coverslip over the
specimen using a probe. Water
Onion
7 Examine the specimen under low Pull back thin tissue epidermis
power and note the shape of the cells.
View at a higher power. Figure 2.11 Preparing a slide of onion epidermis

8 Place a second piece of onion tissue in a Petri dish containing some strong iodine
solution. Leave the tissue to absorb the stain (about 5 to 15 minutes). Mount the tissue
in a drop of water as before and examine under low power and then higher power. Has
the stain made the cell structures clearer? Have any structures absorbed more stain than
others?
9 Use your knowledge of the field diameter from Practical activity 2.1 to estimate the
length of the onion epidermal cells. Draw a labelled diagram of several cells and include
a scale on your diagram.

PART C: PREPARING AN ACRYLIC IMPRESSION OF A GERANIUM LEAF SURFACE

10 Collect a geranium leaf.
11 Carefully paint a layer (1 cm × 2 cm) of clear nail varnish on the front and back of the
leaf. Leave it to dry for 10 to 20 minutes.
12 When completely dry, use tweezers to pull the varnish away from the leaf surface. This is
now an acrylic impression of the leaf. Place the two specimens next to each other on a
glass slide. If necessary, add a drop of water and a coverslip to flatten the specimens.
13 Examine under low power and then a higher power. How do the impressions of the
surfaces of the upper and lower leaves compare? Are there differences? Can you find the
small pores (called ‘stomates’) in the leaf surface?
14 Make a careful drawing of what you have observed.

RESULTS AND QUESTIONS

1 Did all the cells of the elodea or moss Place acrylic
leaf contain chloroplasts? impression on slide
Brush
2 Why would chloroplasts be located in
cells close to the leaf surface?
3 What was the purpose of staining the Allow
to dry
onion epidermis with iodine?
4 In the onion or eschalot cells, was Paint on acrylic Carefully remove
to the front and dried acrylic
the nucleus visible? How did you rear surface impression
recognise it?
Figure 2.12 Preparing an acrylic impression of a leaf
 Cells—staying alive! 51

5 In the onion cell, could the large vacuole be distinguished from the cytoplasm?
6 What did you observe in the acrylic impression of the plant leaf?

CONCLUSION
Write a suitable conclusion for this activity.

Problem solving 2.1: Magnification and sections

of cells
1 Figure 2.13 shows a millimetre grid
(a) (b)
viewed under low power (eyepiece
lens = 10×; low power objective = 10×).
a What is the total magnification of 1 mm
the low power field?
b What is the diameter of the low
power field in the following units.
i millimetres
Millimetre grid
ii micrometres
Figure 2.13
c What is the maximum length (in (a) Millimetre grid under low power
micrometres) of the cells viewed in (b) Cells under low power
the low power field?
d A higher powered objective lens (20×) is now selected to examine the same cells.
i What will be the total magnification now?
ii What will be the new field diameter (in micrometres)?
iii Draw one of the previous cells as it would appear in the field of view under this
higher magnification.
2 Figure 2.14 shows different microscopic organisms that live in the water. The
magnification is shown next to each organism.
a Which organism is the largest?
b Which organism is the smallest?
c Accurately redraw the daphnia to half its current magnification.
d Design a simple key to classify these organisms.
3 Cells are three-dimensional objects, but you only see them in two dimensions when you
look through a monocular microscope. The view of the cell you get depends on the way
the tissue is cut. Figure 2.15 shows two views of the same cell.
a The view in Figure 2.15a is a longitudinal section (LS).
i What does ‘longitudinal’ mean? Use your dictionary if you need to.
52 Science Tracks 8

Crag Lava × 10 Daphnia × 25

Transparent shell

Long antennae

Segmented limbs

Stylonychia × 150

Cyclops × 15
Cilia
Eye

Antennae

Segmented body
Egg sacs

Hair-like spines Spines

Figure 2.14 Microscopic water organisms at different magnifications

ii Redraw the diagram and label

the structures that are visible. (a) (b)
View 1
b Both drawings in Figure 2.15b are
called transverse sections (TS). Section
line 1
i What does ‘transverse’ mean?
ii These two views correspond
to two sections taken along
lines shown in the longitudinal Section
line 2
section. Which two lines in View 2
Figure 2.15a would produce
each of these transverse
sectional views shown in Section
Figure 2.15b? line 3

c These sectional views have been

combined in Figure 2.16 to Figure 2.15 Two views of the same plant cell
produce a three-dimensional view (a) Longitudinal section
of the cell. Which drawing in Figure (b) Two transverse sections
2.16 is consistent with the sections
in Figure 2.15?
 history and practice of science
(a) (b)
Figure 2.16 Which of these three-dimensional views
matches Figure 2.15?
Homework set 2.1: Cells and microscopes
1 Figure 2.17 shows different types of
cells. Compare their similarities and
differences and design a simple
branching key to classify them.
2 In recent years, scientists have been
able to see minute structures within
cells by using the electron microscope.
Use library or electronic resources to
write a one-page report about the
electron microscope. In your report,
include answers to the following.
Leaf epidermal cell
Bone cells
Nerve cell Xylem cell Red blood Columnar
cells cell in skin
Figure 2.17 Construct a key for these cells
Cells—staying alive! 53
(c)
a When was the electron microscope
invented?
b What are its typical magnifications?
c How is material prepared for
viewing?
d What cell structures can be seen
and studied using an electron
microscope?
3 Mathias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann developed the cell theory.
a What are the essential points in this
theory?
b Some life forms are non-cellular.
Name one non-cellular life form.
c Use Internet or multimedia
resources to discover information
about the research work conducted
by Schleiden and Schwann.
Summarise this information and
present a paragraph about each
scientist.
54 Science Tracks 8
CORE SECTION 2: CELLS
ARE POWERHOUSES
Now that you have investigated the wide
diversity of cells, you will examine how
cells use energy. To do this, you need to
know some history.
Historical experiment
Joseph Priestley lived in England in the late
eighteenth century. Although he is
remembered as a scientist, he was also
involved in the political events of the time.
His biography tells us that he supported
both the French and American revolutions.
For this support, the followers of the British
king burnt down his house and he was
forced to flee with his family to the United
States in 1791.
Long before these terrible times, Joseph
Priestley was busy investigating gases. He
discovered oxygen, and it is oxygen that
led to understanding how cells use energy.
In 1771, Priestley conducted a series of
experiments with plants and small animals
such as mice. Here are the facts about air
that were known in 1771.
• Burning materials such as candles make
the air unfit to breathe.
• A sealed container of air becomes
noxious when animals (such as mice)
Figure 2.18 Joseph Priestley (1733–1804)
Bell jars
Mint
Live
mouse Dead
mouse
Water
Figure 2.19 Priestley’s mint experiment
breathe it for a period of time. If left in
the sealed jar, the animals die.
• Candles will not stay alight in this
noxious air.
• Nature has the ability to purify noxious
air.
Priestley developed a hypothesis:
Green plants can purify noxious air.
He carried out the following experiment.
1 Priestley placed a sprig of mint in one of
two glass vessels containing noxious air
which were inverted over a pool of water.
2 He left the apparatus set up for eight
days.
Priestley observed that the mint continued
to grow in the first jar. He tested his
hypothesis.
1 Priestley tested his hypothesis by placing
a mouse in each jar. The mouse in the
jar with the mint breathed as well as it
did in normal fresh air. The mouse in the
second jar died.
2 He repeated the experiment and also
tested the air in each jar after eight days
with a lighted candle. He found that it
burnt quite well in the mint jar but was
extinguished in the second jar.
Priestley concluded that, ‘Plants instead of
affecting the air in the same manner with
animal respiration, reverse the effects of

breathing, and tend to keep the
atmosphere sweet and wholesome, when it
becomes noxious, in consequence of
animals living and breathing ... in it’.
These early experiments led scientists to
the conclusion that animals and plants are
dependent on each other. Carbon dioxide
is breathed out by animals and released by
burning fuels. When green plants are
exposed to sunlight, they are able to
remove carbon dioxide from the air and
release life-giving oxygen which most
living things need to survive.
Role of green plant cells
As green plants absorb carbon dioxide,
they take up water and release oxygen.
During this process, they manufacture
organic matter such as sugar (glucose)
which is later used by the plant. This
process is called photosynthesis. The
process can be summarised by this word
equation:
Carbon sugar
light
dioxide
+ water → (glucose) + oxygen
Because only the green parts of plants
carry out photosynthesis, the green
pigment called chlorophyll must be
involved. The chlorophyll molecule is able
to absorb light energy and use that energy
Upper epidermis cells (no chloroplasts)
Many
chloroplasts
in long cells
Chloroplasts
Water
conducting
cells
(no
chloroplasts)
Air spaces
between cells
Lower
epidermis
(no chloroplasts)
Stomate (gaseous exchange opening)
Figure 2.20 Section of a green leaf
Cells—staying alive! 55
to power the photosynthetic process.
Chlorophyll is present only in certain cells
containing chloroplasts (see Figure 2.20).
This is where the chlorophyll is located.
Chloroplasts contain starch granules
formed from glucose. The granules store
the chemical energy until it is needed.
The chloroplast is the place where light
energy is converted into chemical energy.
That chemical energy has to be made
available to all the cells of the plant. To do
this, plants must transport the glucose to
each cell where the glucose is recombined
with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide,
water and useable energy. This process is
called respiration. Respiration occurs in
both plants and animals.
Animal cells and their energy
needs
Animal and plant cells use molecules like
glucose to supply their energy needs. In
the cytoplasm of the plant or animal cell
some energy can be obtained by splitting
the glucose in two. Oxygen is not required
for this first step. Most energy is generated
in the cell by aerobic respiration which
requires oxygen. The overall aerobic
respiration process can be summarised by
the following word equation:
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + useable energy
Where does this process happen in the
cells of a plant or animal? Scientists have
discovered another important structure in
cells called a mitochondrion. It is a
Cross section of
Tail (flagellum) tail behind head
Head
Mitochondria
Figure 2.21 The mitochondria in sperm cells are near the tail
where the energy is needed
56 Science Tracks 8
Figure 2.22 This sprinter is using the
chemical energy stored in his cells
miniature powerhouse where chemical
energy is converted into other useful
forms. Muscle cells (especially heart muscle
cells) are packed with thousands of
mitochondria. In sperm cells, the
mitochondria are clustered near the tail of
the sperm where the energy is required.
Muscles and short-distance
running
In rapid sprint events, such as the 100-m
dash, the chemical energy stored in the
muscle cells is used. This is because there is
not enough time for respiration to occur. In
races such as the 400 m and the 800 m,
after 40 seconds most useable energy is
produced by splitting glucose molecules.
Carbon dioxide is a waste product of this
reaction and must be rapidly removed
from the cells. This occurs by diffusion
across the cell membrane.
Muscles and long-distance
running
After running for 5 minutes, athletes rely
on aerobic respiration to keep their
muscles working. If you are a long-distance
athlete, your body requires a constant
supply of energy. Glucose drinks can help
to supply some of this need. Glucose is
rapidly moved into the muscle cells and
the mitochondria generate the useable
Figure 2.23 Glucose drinks help long-distance
athletes keep going
energy. Scientists have found that
molecules from fats called fatty acids are
also an important energy source for
muscles in long distance events.
Some athletes complain of sore muscles
during a race. This soreness is caused by
the build up of lactic acid, which irritates
the muscles. Lactic acid builds up when
there is a lack of oxygen. Once the glucose
is split and a little energy released,
anaerobic respiration or fermentation
occurs in the cytoplasm. This produces
lactic acid. This can happen in rapid sprints
or in cases where an animal senses danger
and has to quickly escape.
Respiration keeps us warm
All energy transformation processes are not
100 per cent efficient. Some energy is
always lost along the way. Even while
resting or running, your cells are actively
respiring and losing some heat energy. This
lost heat keeps your muscles warm.
Mammals and birds are called
endotherms because their bodies are able
to produce heat to maintain a constant
temperature which is usually higher than
the surrounding environment. Ectotherms,
such as reptiles, are less able to control
their body temperatures through
respiration and must sun themselves
during the day or hibernate in the winter
to keep their body heat.
 Cells—staying alive! 57

Figure 2.24 Endotherms produce heat to maintain a constant temperature; ectotherms do not

(a) A goanna is an ectotherm (b) A sheep is an endotherm

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

1 What important gas was discovered by Joseph Priestley?

2 What evidence is there in the text to show that Priestley was interested in other issues
apart from science?
3 Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
a Burning candles make the air in a container unfit to breathe.
b Priestley proved that carbon dioxide was released from burning candles.
c Animals such as mice can breathe well in a container in which a candle has been
burning for a long time.
d Green plants can restore the oxygen in the air.
e Animals remove oxygen from the air as they breathe.
4 Reread Priestley’s experiment of 1771 and then answer these questions.
a What did Priestley hope to prove?
b Did Priestley use a control in his experiment? What was it?
c What variables did Priestley keep constant in his experiments?
d Did Priestley’s results support his hypothesis?
e Do you support the use of animals such as mice in such experiments? Give
reasons for and against the use of animals in experiments.
58 Science Tracks 8

5 Read the following quotation from Priestley’s writings.

I flatter myself that I have accidentally hit upon a method of restoring air which has
been injured by the burning of candles, and that I have discovered at least one of the
restoratives which nature employs for this purpose. It is vegetation.
a Explain what he meant in your own words.
b Do you think his discoveries were accidental?
6 In what way are plants and animals dependent upon each other?
7 a What gas makes air noxious or bad?
b What gas is needed to replace the gas in the bad air to make it fresh?
c Name the process that produces the gas that made the air:
i bad
ii fresh
8 In what cell structures in a green plant cell are chlorophyll molecules located?
9 In what ways are the processes of photosynthesis and cell respiration similar? In what
ways are they different?
10 Why do heart muscle cells and sperm cells have large numbers of mitochondria?
11 Compare and contrast the energy needs of short-distance and long-distance runners.
12 Apart from supplying our cells with energy, what is another important use of
respiration?

LANGUAGE FOCUS

1 Some interesting facts about Joseph Priestley have been provided by his biographer.
Choose the correct meaning for the word ‘biography’.
A the study of graphs
B the study of living things
C the written life of a person
D a description of the life cycle of an animal
2 Priestley’s experiments dealt with ‘noxious’ air. Select the words in the following list
that have a similar meaning.
foul
wholesome
bad
fresh
harmful
 Cells—staying alive! 59

3 Carbon dioxide is the gas produced by cell respiration.

a Which of the following elements are present in this molecule?
nitrogen (N)
oxygen (O)
sulfur (S)
carbon (C)
b Predict the formula of carbon dioxide. Choose from the following list.
H2O
CO
CO2
CO3
C2O
4 Examine the following Greek roots:
khloros (green)
thithemi (put)
phullon (leaf)
photo (light)
syn (with)
Find two scientific words in the text that can be derived from combinations of these
Greek roots.
5 The words ‘aerobic’ and ‘anaerobic’ are used in the text.
a How does the prefix an alter the meaning of the word ‘aerobic’?
b What gas must be present for respiration to be aerobic?
c Use your dictionary to find the two Greek roots used to construct the word
‘aerobic’.
d Doctors tell us that unless exercise is aerobic there can be little gain in fitness.
What do they mean by aerobic exercises?
6 Copy and complete the following sentences by inserting the correct words from the
list.
endotherm
endothermic
ectotherm
ectothermic
hibernate
hibernation
respire
respiration
60 Science Tracks 8

A wallaby is an ______ organism as it is able to maintain its body temperature through

heat released from cell ______. Some mammals, however, ______ in very cold climates
when food sources are scarce. A snake is an ______ and spends its day sunning and
cooling itself to maintain a balance in its body temperature.

Practical activity 2.3: Stressing muscle cells

AIM
To investigate what happens to muscle cells when they are overworked.

PRELAB
Read through the practical activity and answer these questions in your workbook before you
begin.
1 Explain how the equipment in this experiment works.
2 How is the fatigue time measured?
3 Should more than one run be done for each tested variable? Why?
4 Is there a benefit in collecting data from all groups in the class?

EQUIPMENT
(per team or shared)
6 masses (50 g each) and mass carrier stopwatch
bench pulley glucose drinks
string non-sugar high-caffeine drink (such as PepsiMax)
curtain ring thermometer

METHOD
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.25. You are to investigate the variables that
influence the time it takes to fatigue the muscles in your fingers.
 Cells—staying alive! 61

2 Practice raising and lowering the

100-g mass by bending your selected Curtain ring around finger
finger. You need to be able to raise
Bench
and lower the mass a fixed height (say pulley
4 cm) in 1 second or less. Stop once
your muscles become sore or tired, or Bend finger up and down
(back of hand must not String
once you cannot lift and lower the leave the table surface)
mass by this amount in this time. This
is the point of fatigue.
3 Measure the time to the point of
fatigue using a stopwatch.
4 cm
4 Between each run, massage the finger
and allow a rest period of 2 minutes.
5 The variables to be tested are as
follows.
Figure 2.25 Testing fatigue of muscles in a finger
a different fingers
b different masses to lift (100 g, 200 g,
300 g)
c glucose intake prior to testing (drink different amounts of a high energy glucose drink
15 minutes before the trials)
d PepsiMax (a low joule drink high in caffeine) intake prior to testing.
e temperature of hand prior to testing (immerse your hands in water held at different
temperatures in the 5 minutes before testing—10°C, 20°C, 30°C, 40°C)
Have different members of the team investigate the different variables.
6 Check your method with your teacher and then
perform your investigations. Tabulate your results Variable Fatigue times
in a table like the one on the right.

RESULTS AND QUESTIONS

1 Examine your results and discuss any trends.
2 Plot column graphs of your data.
3 Relate your findings to your knowledge of cellular respiration and the requirements for
maximum energy output.
4 How were controls used in this experiment?

CONCLUSION
Write a suitable conclusion to this activity.

See Practical activity: Mitochondria and chloroplasts, Practical activity: Investigating oxygen
levels in water and Practical activity: Photosynthesis in water plants on the Resource Disk
62 Science Tracks 8

Problem solving 2.2: Plants and oxygen

1 A sprig of pond weed (spirogyra) was

placed under an inverted funnel in a
beaker of carbonated water coloured with
phenol red indicator. A test tube full of
carbonated water was placed over the Gas collects Light
funnel as shown in Figure 2.26. (The
indicator is red in low concentrations of
carbon dioxide and yellow in high
concentrations.) The apparatus was
Inverted
exposed to a light source for 24 hours. funnel
The following observations were made.
Green pond weed
• Bubbles of a colourless gas formed on
the surface of the pond weed. Carbonated water and
phenol red indicator
• The bubbles collected in the inverted
test tube and displaced the water
downwards. Figure 2.26 Pond weed and oxygen experiment

• The indicator gradually changed from yellow to bright red.

• The gas in the test tube was tested with a glowing splint of wood. The splint burst
into flame when exposed to the gas.
a Name the gas collected in the test tube.
b Explain why the glowing splint of wood behaved in the way it did.
c What can you conclude from the colour change in the indicator?
d Why was the apparatus left exposed to a light source?
e Write a word equation for the process occurring in this experiment.
2 Lydia and Jim were interested in organisms that live in the soil. They had read that some
organisms were producers and others were consumers. They conducted the following
experiment at home. Read their experiment and then answer the questions.
We placed moist garden soil in two separate test tubes. We added water to each test tube.
We covered the sides of one of the test tubes with black plastic. We stood each of the test
tubes in a beaker of cool water and left them on a sunny table for three days. At the end
of this time we examined both test tubes. The water in the uncovered test tube was quite
green. But the water in the tube covered with black plastic was clear. We then placed the
black covering on the green test tube, leaving the clear test tube uncovered. We were
surprised to find that after several more days the clear test tube turned green and the
covered tube started to become clearer.
a What could have caused the test tubes of soil and water to turn green?
b Why didn’t the covered test tube turn green?
c If you examined the green water under a microscope, what would you expect to see?
d Rewrite Lydia and Jim’s experiment with an aim, method, result and conclusion.

See Problem solving: The effect of light on iris plants, Problem solving: Photosynthesis and
light intensity and Problem solving: Photosynthesis and colour on the Resource Disk
 issue and application of science
Homework set 2.2: Using energy
1 Copy and complete the following
sentences by selecting words from the
list.
tissue same
muscle ratio
proportion bulk
weight lower
greater
People of the same ______ and size do
not necessarily have the ______
energy needs. Some people have a
higher ______ of fat to muscle. Fat
______ uses energy at a slower rate
than does _______ tissue.
Consequently athletes with large
muscle ______ have greater energy
needs. Women use energy at a ______
rate than men because women have a
higher fat to muscle ______ than men.
Teenagers and children use energy at
a ______ rate than adults, except for
women during pregnancy.
2 Bartholomew has just joined an
exercise class. He measured his pulse
150
Pulse rate (beats per minute)
100
50
0 That is why she is a clone. Normal lambs
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (minutes)
Warm Exercise period
up
Figure 2.27 Bartholomew’s pulse rate
Cells—staying alive! 63
rate during the class. His measurements
are shown in Figure 2.27.
a Explain the shape of the graph in
terms of the energy needs of cells.
b Explain how Bartholomew’s muscle
cells produce the energy needed
for his exercises.
c The pulse rate of astronauts
increases during launch even
though they are not exercising.
Why does the pulse rate increase?
d Why is the warm-up period
important in exercise programs?
CORE SECTION 3: CELLS
REPRODUCE
Making copies
In January 1998, the science magazine
Discover reviewed one of the most
exciting discoveries of 1997: the cloning
of Dolly the sheep in Scotland (Figure
2.28). In simple terms, the recipe for Dolly
was as follows.
1 Suck the nucleus from an egg.
2 Take an adult cell.
3 Insert it into the egg.
4 Wait and hope.
Unlike other lambs whose cells contain
information from the father and the
mother, Dolly’s cells are identical to the
cell that was extracted from her ‘mother’.
10 11 are produced by sexual reproduction
when an egg cell is fertilised by a sperm
Cooling Resting
cell. (Sexual reproduction will be studied
down
in depth in Science Tracks 9.)
Cloning is not unusual. It is happening
64 Science Tracks 8
Figure 2.28 Dolly the cloned sheep
in nature all the time. It occurs when new
organisms arise from ordinary body cells.
This process is often called asexual
reproduction.
Fission and budding
Simple unicellular organisms, such as
bacteria and protozoa, can divide in half to
produce two new and identical cells. This
process is called fission.
In unicellular organisms, such as yeast, or
simple multicellular organisms, such as
hydra (Figure 2.29), the body cells divide
to form a bud that grows out from the side
of the parent’s body. Once the budding is
Cell fission
Amoeba
Budding
Hydra
Tentacles
Bud
Figure 2.29 Two forms of asexual reproduction
complete, the new organism usually
detaches and leads its own life. Fungi
produce spores by budding. In Penicillium,
the spores form long chains. As the chains
disintegrate, the spores are shed into the
wind to be dispersed to a new site to grow.
Fragmentation
Fragmentation occurs most commonly in
worms and echinoderms, such as seastars.
A seastar can regrow missing parts of its
body. Some marine worms can regrow
whole bodies from quite small pieces.
Broken-off seastar arm New arms grow
Figure 2.30 Seastars can grow new arms
Vegetative reproduction
Strawberries, ferns and grasses produce
runners that grow out from the parent
plant. New shoots, stems and leaves are
produced along this runner. Rapid growth
into unpopulated areas is achieved by this
process.
Many plants produce special food
storage organs in the summer. These
organs remain dormant in the ground even
though the rest of the plant has withered
and died. When the winter is over, the
young shoot emerges. Potato tubers are
the swollen tips of underground stems.
Starch is stored to provide food for the
developing shoot. Potatoes have buds (or
‘eyes’) that readily shoot and grow into
new plants identical to the parent. The
bulb of an onion is formed from swollen
leaf bases. Food is stored in the bulb to
supply nutrients to the new shoot. Carrots
have a swollen taproot which stores food
for the developing shoot.
 Cells—staying alive! 65

Runners
Side stem (runner) grows out New plants develop from the
from the base of the main stem lateral buds of the runner
Animal cell Nucleus Cytoplasm Two
Lateral about to has divided divides daughter cells
buds divide

Runner
Growth to
maturity
Buds
New shoot
Figure 2.32 Animal cell division and growth

Bud (’eye’)
Food storage
tuber
Figure 2.31 Vegetative reproduction
Cell division and growth
You probably think of your skeleton as
being the same all your life. You may be
surprised to know that the cells of your
skeleton wear out and have to be replaced,
just like your skin and blood cells. New
cells come from old cells. To achieve this
two things must happen to the cell:
• the cell must divide;
• the cell must grow larger.
Animal cells
When an animal cell is about to divide, the
nucleus starts to split. The cytoplasm then
starts to pinch inwards as the two separate
daughter nuclei separate. Eventually two
separate and smaller cells are formed. In
the cytoplasm, structures such as
mitochondria also divide and are shared
about equally between each daughter cell.
The new daughter cells absorb nutrients
and grow. Often one of the daughter cells
will keep its ability to divide, while the
other may become specialised to form
certain tissues and organs of the animal.
Some cells become muscle cells; others
become cells of the intestines.
Plant cells
When a plant cell is about to divide, the
nucleus becomes larger and the vacuole
disappears. The nucleus then divides. New
cell walls grow to separate the two
daughter cells. Small vacuoles (which join
to produce a large vacuole) form in one
daughter cell. Chloroplasts also divide and
are shared between each daughter cell.
Water is then absorbed to make this cell
larger. The second daughter cell prepares
to divide again.

New cell Small Large

wall forming vacuoles form vacuole

This cell will

divide again

Plant cell • Nucleus has divided Nucleus Large vacuole forms

about to divide • New cell wall Cellulose thickens from small vacuoles
has developed the cell wall

Figure 2.33 Plant cell division and growth

66 Science Tracks 8

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

1 a What is a clone?
b Give an example of natural and artificial cloning.
2 When a cell reproduces asexually, how do the new daughter cells compare to the
parent cell in terms of the following.
a size
b inherited information
3 For each of the following examples, state how asexual reproduction is achieved.
a mould on fruit
b bacteria
c marine worm’s tail is broken off
d potato tubers
e strawberries
4 Compare and contrast cell division in animal and plant cells.

LANGUAGE FOCUS

1 a The word ‘fission’ has a particular meaning in this text. Which of the following is the
definition of ‘fission’ in this context?
A natural splitting of an atomic nucleus
B division of a cell into two new cells
C cell death
D cell enlargement during growth
b Use the word ‘fission’ in a sentence to show that you understand its meaning in the
context of this topic.
2 When a cell divides, two daughter cells are produced. What is the meaning of
‘daughter’ in this sentence? How is this different to your normal use of this word?
3 a Bacterial cells divide by fission. Read the following description and draw a labelled
diagram to show the appearance of the bacterial cells after two hours.
A bacillus is a bacterium that appears rod-shaped in a two-dimensional view, but like a long
breakfast sausage in a three-dimensional view. No membrane bound nucleus can be seen in
the cell, although the nuclear material is present in the central zone of the cytoplasm. The
bacillus undergoes fission to produce two new daughter cells which enlarge and grow to
maturity each 30 minutes. After two hours, a chain of bacilli have formed.
b What word is the plural form of bacillus?
 Cells—staying alive! 67

Practical activity 2.4: Asexual reproduction

AIM
To observe living things that reproduce asexually.

PRELAB
Read through the practical activity and answer these questions in your workbook before you
begin.
1 What type of organism are the following?
a a yeast cell
b a hydra
2 How is a spore different from a seed?
3 What is the correct term for the ‘eye’ of a potato?

EQUIPMENT
(per team)
large plastic Petri dishes with lids binocular microscope
filter papers mature mushrooms
hand lens prepared slides of budding yeast and budding hydra
monocular microscope shooting potato tubers

METHOD

PART A: MUSHROOM SPORES

1 Carefully cut off the stalk of a mature mushroom.
Mushroom Petri dish
2 Place a filter paper in a large plastic Petri dish. Place the
mushroom on the paper in the dish with its gills
downwards.
3 Cover the mushroom with the lid of the Petri dish. Leave
the specimen until your next lesson.
4 Carefully lift the mushroom from the dish. Examine the
paper and describe your observations.
5 Place some spores on a glass slide using a soft paint
brush. Examine the spores under low power and then Gill surface down Filter paper
high power. Make a careful drawing of some of
these spores. Figure 2.34 Placing the mushroom in the
Petri dish
68 Science Tracks 8

PART B: BUDDING
6 Examine the prepared slides of a budding hydra or a budding yeast.
7 Look at each slide under low power and then high power.
8 Make a carefully labelled drawing of each specimen.

PART C: POTATO EYES

9 Select a potato that is beginning to shoot from one of its eyes.
10 Use a hand lens or stereomicroscope to examine eyes (buds) which have not grown and
compare them to the ones that are shooting.
11 Make a careful drawing of the eyes and the shoot.

RESULTS AND QUESTIONS

1 For each specimen examined, state the type of asexual reproduction which is occurring.
2 Are there any benefits in an organism being able to reproduce asexually? Explain.

CONCLUSION
Write a suitable conclusion for this activity.

Practical activity 2.5: Growth in roots

AIM
To determine the sites of growth in the roots of a pea seedling.

PRELAB
This experiment requires pea seeds to be germinated before the laboratory session. Read through
the practical activity and answer the questions in your workbook before you begin.
1 How can pea seeds be quickly germinated?
2 Why are lines marked on the roots?

PREPARATION
1 Pea seeds can be germinated in germination trays or in damp filter paper in a 50-mL
beaker.
2 The roots need to be about 2 to 3 cm long before the experiment begins.
 Cells—staying alive! 69

EQUIPMENT
(per team)
germinating trays or 50-mL beakers with damp filter paper
pea seeds
permanent markers

METHOD
1 Select two seedlings as similar in development as possible.
2 Use a fine permanent marker and a millimetre ruler to mark each root with a line every
2 mm. Start from the root tip and move up towards the seed.
3 At each 10-mm mark, mark the line completely around
the root as a ring. Each 10-mm interval is a growth zone. mm Shoot
4 Work quickly and carefully to prevent the root drying
out. 44 Pea
seed
5 Place your two seedlings back in their beaker or tray and
30
keep them moist. Place the container in a dark cupboard.
6 After two days, remove the seedlings and observe the 20
markings on the roots. Complete ring
7 Measure the distances between each of the rings in 10 each 10 mm
millimetres. Root
8 Tabulate your results. 0
Figure 2.35 Growth rings on pea seedling
root
RESULTS AND QUESTIONS
1 Calculate the increase in length in each growth zone in the two days.
2 Which zone shows the greatest rate of growth?
3 Which zone shows the least rate of growth?

CONCLUSION See Practical activity: Cell division in

Write a suitable conclusion to this activity. root tips on the Resource Disk

Problem solving 2.3: Cells and growth

1 Figure 2.36 shows jumbled diagrams thread-like objects appear and, as they
of the different stages of cell division shorten, the chromosomes become
in an onion root tip. Initially, the visible. Eventually, the strands of the
nucleus appears uniform. Gradually, chromosomes split and move to
70 Science Tracks 8

(a) Thread like (b) Nucleus (c) New cell (a) (b) (c) (d)
objects begin wall starts
to appear to form

(e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

(d) Nuclear (e) (f) Separating
membrane chromosomes
breaks down

Figure 2.37 Arrange these plant shoot cells in their proper

order from the top down

Distinct
chromosomes
Figure 2.36 Arrange these stages of cell division in the correct
order
opposite ends of the cell. Arrange the
diagrams in Figure 2.36 in their correct
sequence.
2 Insects such as cockroaches must shed
their outer covering before they can
grow. This is called moulting. Examine
the following data for the length of an
insect over a period of time.
a Plot a column graph of this data.
b Use your graph to determine
approximately how many moultings
occurred.
c Does the insect grow in the period
between moults?
3 In plants, the growth of the shoot is
restricted to the tips. Cells just behind
the tip are dividing. Below this region
the cells are expanding as the young
cells absorb water into their vacuoles.
Some of the cells in Figure 2.37 come
from the actively dividing region and
others come from the expanding
region. Unfortunately the cells are all
jumbled up and not in a logical
sequence.
Photocopy Figure 2.37. Cut out the
cells and arrange them in a logical
sequence from the top of the shoot
down.
4 The following text and Figures 2.38,
2.39 and 2.40 present information
about the cells in the growth rings of
trees. Use them to answer the questions
that follow.
Unlike trees in north America and
Europe, most Australian trees do not
have annual growth rings because the
seasons are not as well defined. In the
alpine regions of Australia, trees such as
the alpine ash and snow gums (both
eucalypts) do have growth rings.
Growth rings are caused by different
seasonal growth rates in the year.
Rapidly growing cells in the spring
produce paler wood than the slower
growing cells in the late summer which
produce dark wood.
Trees that are not cut down for timber
are valuable for many reasons. They
help to stop soil and gully erosion as
well as lowering the water table which
helps prevent soil salinity.

Time (days) 0 4 6 10 12 16 18 22 25 32
Length (cm) 8 8 15 15 20 25 25 50 50 78
 Cells—staying alive! 71

Cambium layer Growth ring Sapwood Heartwood Sapwood

d
oo
tw
ar
He

od
pwo Key:
Sa Cambium
(actively dividing cells
which produce new
phloem and xylem cells)
Cork layer Phloem layer
Bark Phloem cells Cambium Xylem cells in wood
(carry nutrients from
the leaves to feed all Living Tissue Phloem Cork
living cells) • Cambium
• Phloem
Xylem cells
(found in sapwood and Dead tissue
heartwood; conduct • Cork (protective)
water from the root • Xylem (in sapwood, acts to conduct water and
in sapwood only) minerals; in heartwood, acts to support the tree)

Figure 2.38 Tree sector Figure 2.39 Longitudinal section of a tree

Outside Phloem (cells involved in the transport

of sugary liquids from leaf to root)
Cambium
(dividing cells that produce
Xylem (long water-filled tubes
new phloem cells on the outside
with thick walls; watery sap is
and xylem cells on the inside)
transported through these long pipes
from root to leaf)

Inside

Figure 2.40 Vascular tissue—transverse section

1 Which cells of the tree are alive? Which
are dead?
2 A tissue is a group of cells with similar
structure and function. Which tissue
contains actively growing cells?
3 The number of growth rings tells us the
age of the tree. What is the age of the
tree in Figure 2.38?
4 Farmers used to clear trees from their
land by ringbarking them. A deep circle
of tissue was cut out around the tree
trunk. This procedure killed the tree
by stopping nutrients from reaching
the roots.
a Which layers of the tree would need
to be cut into to ringbark it?
b Why is the federal government
continuing to promote the planting
of millions of trees?
5 Suggest a reason for alpine trees in
Australia having growth rings.
72 Science Tracks 8
Homework set 2.3: More about cells
reproducing
1 Examine each of the following random
sentences. Group them into a logical
sequence. Some sentences may be
combined if it improves the flow of
text. Write out the sentences in your
preferred order.
a If you look at the root of a cress
seedling, you can see that it gets
longer.
b Before it can split into two halves,
the cell must grow to maturity.
c The roots get longer because of the
elongation of cells within it.
d The two daughter cells then
mature and divide once more into
two cells.
e When the cells divide they produce
exact copies of themselves.
f All living things start life as a single
cell.
g Behind the root cap of an actively
growing root are rapidly dividing
cells.
2 a What does the term ‘fission’ mean
in relation to cells?
b Illustrate your answer to (a) using a
diagram of an amoeba which is
reproducing asexually.
REVIEW
Key ideas
1 All living things are made up of one or more cells.
2 Cells are the smallest units of living things. They vary in shape and have many
different functions.
3 Mosses and ferns reproduce by spores.
Use the Internet or library resources to
answer the following questions.
a Where are the spores produced in
each of these plants?
b Illustrate your answer to (a) with
appropriate drawings.
c Name another living thing that
produces spores but is not a
member of the plant kingdom.
4 You have been asked to come up with
a method to find the region of growth
in a leaf.
a What equipment and plant
materials will you need?
b Write out the method of your
investigation.
c How will you be able to find the
growth region of the leaf from your
results?
See Scientific literacy exercise: Membranes are
the gatekeepers, Practical activity: Osmosis and
honey, Practical activity: Osmosis and
potatoes and Internet activity: Safety in
numbers on the Resource Disk
 Cells—staying alive! 73

3 Cell membranes control the diffusion of nutrients into the cell and the removal of
wastes to the external environment.
4 Light microscopes allow us to view the structures within a cell.
5 Living cells require oxygen for cell respiration. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste
product from this reaction.
6 Green plants use carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis. The process of
photosynthesis requires light energy. Oxygen and organic matter are produced in this
reaction.
7 Cell respiration occurs in the cell’s cytoplasm as well as in organelles called
mitochondria.
8 Photosynthesis occurs in organelles called chloroplasts which contain the pigment
called chlorophyll.
9 Anaeroboic fermentation can occur when cells are depleted of oxygen.
10 Cells reproduce by asexual and sexual means.
11 Asexual reproductive methods include fission, budding, fragmentation and vegetative
reproduction.
12 New cells are produced from old cells by the processes of cell division and cell
enlargement.

Spelling

Check that you know how to spell the following words. Copy them into a two-column
table in your workbook and use your dictionary or this chapter to write the meaning of
each word.
chlorophyll chloroplast cytoplasm diffusion
membrane mitochondrion nucleus organelle
protoplasm respiration vacuole xylem

Topic test

This test will help you determine your knowledge and understanding of the topic as well
as test your skills in interpretation and analysis.
1 A plant cell is distinguished from an animal cell because of the presence of:
A a nucleus. B a cell membrane.
C a cell wall. D mitochondria.
2 The structure of a cell is very closely related to its:
A size. B age.
C function. D ability to move.
74 Science Tracks 8

3 Select the statement about cells that is true.

A Plant cell walls are largely composed of cellulose.
B All cells contain cell walls.
C Mitochondria are the site of photosynthesis in a cell.
D Vacuoles are quite small in most plant cells.
4 Plant cells can carry out photosynthesis if they possess:
A chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, water and light.
B oxygen, carbon dioxide and light.
C carbon dioxide, water and light.
D chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and light.
5 A unicellular organism is respiring glucose. The gas that is produced can be identified
by using the:
A glowing splint test. B limewater test.
C glucose test. D cobalt chloride paper test.
6 Joseph Priestley concluded from his experiments with green plants and mice that:
A plants release carbon dioxide into the air.
B plants remove those gases from the air that animals breathe out.
C only animals use oxygen for living.
D mint plants should be grown in gardens.
7 Which of the following statements is true about cell respiration?
A The initial step of respiration occurs in the cytoplasm.
B Oxygen is required at all stages of the cell respiration process.
C Cell respiration occurs in chloroplasts.
D Anaerobic respiration occurs in
mitochondria. X
8 Runners can get sore muscles
because of:
A aerobic respiration in the cell’s Y W
mitochondria.
B the formation of lactic acid by
anaerobic fermentation.
C the respiration of fatty acids.
D too much carbon dioxide in the
muscle cells.
9 Examine the diagram of the cells of
a leaf in Figure 2.41. The cells where
photosynthesis occurs are labelled: Z
A W B X C Y D Z Figure 2.41 Leaf cells
 Cells—staying alive! 75

10 Bread mould reproduces by the production of spores.

Spores are an example of what type of asexual
reproduction?
Zone 1
A vegetative propagation
B fission
Zone 2
C fragmentation
D budding Zone 3
11 Figure 2.42 shows various cellular zones in the root of
an onion. The tip is protected by a root cap. Behind Zone 4
the root cap is a zone of dividing cells. The next zone
is an elongation zone and the final zone is composed Figure 2.42 Zone map of an onion root
of mature cells. Which zone contains rapidly
dividing cells?
A zone 1 B zone 2 C zone 3
D zone 4
12 Bessie had germinated some wheat seeds in
Syringe
a dish. She placed half the germinating seeds
in a test tube (A) covered with aluminium Gas collects
foil. The remaining germinating seeds were
boiled in hot water for 3 minutes and then
placed in a second test tube (B) covered with Foil
foil. After 30 minutes, samples of air from
Air sample
each test tube were drawn into syringes drawn into syringe
(Figure 2.43). The air samples were bubbled
through clear samples of limewater.
Germinating seeds
a The air from test tube A turned the
limewater milky. What does this indicate?
b The air from test tube B did not cause any Figure 2.43 Withdrawing air from seedling test tubes
change to the limewater. What does this
indicate?
c Which seeds were actively respiring?
d Which test tube was the control? Why was it
necessary?
D = 3000 µm

13 A student examined some cells using a low power

objective lens (magnification 10×). The diameter of
the field of view was 3000 µm. He drew the cells he
observed (Figure 2.44).
a Estimate the diameter of these cells.
b Are these cells from an animal or a plant? Explain.
c The student used a new objective lens
(magnification 20×) to examine the same cells. Figure 2.44 Cells observed in the low power
field
Redraw the diagram to show what the student
observed at this higher magnification.