Section III b(2) Gaseous Exchange in humans

The general plan of the human breathing system

1. The breathing system consists of the respiratory tract (呼吸道) and the lungs. The respiratory tract serves
as a passage for air while the lungs are the surface for gaseous exchange.

2. Passage of air :
Nostrils  nasal cavity  pharynx larynx  trachea  bronchi  bronchiole  alveoli

3. It is better to breathe through the nose than through the mouth because the nasal cavity contains

(a) hairs to filter dust particles and germs in air ;

(b) mucus to trap dust and germs and to moisten the air;
(c) blood capillaries to warm the air.

4. The inner lining of the nasal cavity, the trachea and the bronchi are covered with a layer of ciliated
epithelium (纖毛上皮) and mucus (黏液). The mucus traps dust particles and germs from the incoming air.
The beating of the cilia moves the mucus with trapped particles towards the pharynx (咽), where it is
swallowed.

5. The pharynx (咽) is a common passage for both air and food. The larynx (喉) contains vocal cords
(聲帶) which vibrate as air passes between them to produce sound.

6. The trachea (氣管) is supported by C-shaped cartilages (軟骨) which keep the trachea open and prevent
it from collapsing. At its lower end, the trachea divides into two bronchi (支氣管) which are also supported by
cartilages.

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7. Each bronchus branches repeatedly into numerous smaller and narrower tubes called bronchioles (小支氣
管). Each bronchiole ends in a tiny air sac (氣囊) whose surface is folded up to form many alveoli (肺泡).
Each lung contains millions of alveoli which provide a very large surface area for gaseous exchange.

8. Each lung is protected by two pleural membranes (胸膜). In between the membranes is an air-tight (密
封的) cavity which contains the pleural fluid (胸膜液). The fluid acts as a lubricant (潤滑劑) to reduce
friction between the lungs and the ribs during breathing.

9. The lungs and the pleural membranes are protected by the rib cage (胸籃), which is formed by

(a) the vertebral column (脊柱) at the back ,

(b) the sternum (胸骨) in front , and
(c) the ribs (肋骨) on the two sides.

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 Adaptive features of the air sacs ( alveoli ) for gaseous exchange

Adaptation
1. The alveoli are numerous and are highly folded.
2. The wall of the alveoli is very thin.
3. The alveoli are surrounded by many blood
capillaries.
4. The inner surface is moist.
Importance
This provides a large surface area for diffusion of
gases.
This shortens the diffusion distance and enables
faster diffusion of gases.
This allows a rapid transportation of gases to and
from the lungs. This can help to maintain a steep
concentration gradient of the respiratory gases
for rapid diffusion.
This allows gases to dissolve first to facilitate
their diffusion.

Differences in composition between inhaled and exhaled air

Inhaled air Exhaled air

1. Oxygen 21% 16%
2. Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
3. Nitrogen 78% 78%
4. Other gases 1% 1%
5. Water vapour Variable Saturated ( 100% )
6. Temperature Variable Body temperature ( 37C)

1. Exhaled air contains less oxygen because some oxygen in the inhaled air has diffused into the blood.

2. Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide which is produced from respiration by living cells.

3. The nitrogen content remains unchanged because it is neither used nor produced by body cells.

4. Exhaled air is saturated with water vapour because it is moistened by the water film on the surface of the
alveoli.

5. Exhaled air is at body temperature because it is warmed by the blood capillaries along the respiratory
tract.

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  An experiment to compare the carbon dioxide content of inhaled and exhaled air

Bicarbonate
Observe the change in colour of
indicator
bicarbonate indicator.

A B

Results :

Tube Colour of indicator CO2 concentration

A Red 0.03%
B Yellow  0.03% ( =4% )

Note : The indicator will turn purple when the CO2 concentration  0.03%

Conclusion :

Exhaled air contains more CO2 than inspired air

The mechanism of ventilation

1. Breathing/ ventilation is the movement of air to and from the lungs. It includes inhalation ( 吸氣
inspiration / breathing in ) and exhalation ( 呼氣 expiration/ breathing out ). These processes depend on the
differences in air pressure between the lungs and the atmosphere.

2. The thorax (胸腔) is an air-tight (密封的) cavity enclosed by the rib cage at the sides and the diaphragm
below. Movements of the ribs and diaphragm cause changes in the volume of the thorax, and this in turn leads
to corresponding changes in the volume and pressure of the lungs.

3. Inhalation occurs when the air pressure inside the lungs is lower than the atmospheric pressure. Exhalation
occurs when the air pressure inside the lungs is higher than that the atmospheric pressure.

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4. A summary of the mechanism of breathing :

Inhalation Exhalation
1. Intercostal muscles (肋間肌) Contract Relax
2. Ribs Move upwards and outwards Move downwards and inwards
3. Diaphragm muscles (横隔膜肌) Contract Relax
4. Diaphragm Flattened Returns to dome-shape
5. Volume of the thorax Increases Decreases
6. Volume of the lungs Increases Decreases
7. Air pressure in the lungs Decreases and becomes lower than Increases and becomes higher than
atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure
8. Movement of air Into the lungs Out of the lungs
9. State of the lungs Inflated Deflated

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  Examination tips :

One breathe : P  T Inspiration : R  T Expiration : P  Q

At H : Intercostal muscles relax, ribs move downwards and inwards . The alveoli collapse.
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped
At J : Interconstal muscles contract, ribs move upwards and outwards. The alveoli are fully extended.
Diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened.
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 Using a bell jar model to show the action of the diaphragm during breathing

/ Ribs / Rib cage

The bell jar model cannot truly represent the breathing movements in the human body because :

Bell jar model Actual conditions in the human body

1. The rubber sheet is moved by hand. 1. The diaphragm moves automatically.

2. Shape of rubber sheet : 2. Shape of the diaphragm

Inhalation : curved downwards
Exhalation : flattened
3. The wall of the bell jar is immovable.
4. The space inside the bell jar is filled with
air.
5. No cartilage to support the glass tube.
Inhalation : flattened
Exhalation : dome-shape
3. The ribs can be moved by contraction of
intercostals muscles..
4. The pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid
5. The trachea is supported by cartilages.

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  Using the rib model to demonstrate the action of the intercostals muscles during breathing

Volumes of air exchanged (Additional)

Lung volume Definition Volume ( litres )

Men Women
Tidal volume The volume of air breathed into and out of the lungs 0.5 0.5
(肺潮量) during quiet breathing.
Vital capacity The maximum volume of air that can be expired 3–4 2.5 – 3
(肺活量) after the deepest possible inhalation.
Residual volume The volume of air remained in the lungs after the 1.5 1.5
(餘氣量) most forceful exhalation.
Total lung capacity The maximum volume of air contained in the lungs 4.5 – 5.5 4 – 4.5
(肺總容量)

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  Examination tips :
1. During exercise, the tidal volume increases.
2. After a long period of physical training, the vital capacity can be increased.
3. Trained athletes usually have larger vital capacities.

Effect of exercise on the rate and depth of breathing

1. The breathing rate of an adult is about 12 – 18 minutes at rest. The depth of breathing ( = tidal volume ) is about
0.5 litre.

2. During exercise, both the rate and depth of breathing increase. This is important because

(a) the body can take in more oxygen for faster respiration in the skeletal muscles to provide more
energy to support the vigorous muscle contraction.

(b) the body can remove more CO2 which is produced from respiration.

3. Mechanism :

During exercise, rate of respiration in tissues increases  more CO2is produced 

The increase in CO2 concentration in the blood stimulates the breathing center in the brain 
Which sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles 
To speed up the rate and increase the force of contraction of these muscles 
The rate and depth of breathing increase.

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 Gaseous exchange in the alveoli

1. By inspiration, atmsopheric air is drawn into the lungs via the respiratory tract.

2. Since the oxygen concentration in the inhaled air is higher than that in the blood, oxygen always diffuse from
the alveoli to the blood.

3. The route of oxygen diffusion :

oxygen in alveoli  dissolved in water film lining the alveoli  diffuses through alveolar wall 
capillary wall  red blood cells.

4. As the blood entering the lungs has a higher CO2 concentration than the inhaled air, CO2 always diffuse from
the blood to the alveoli.

5. As a result of gaseous exchange in the lungs, the exhaled air contains less oxygen but more CO2 than the
inhaled air.

6. Blood flow across the alveoli :

Deoxygenated blood (缺氧血) in pulmonary artery (肺動脈) 

gaseous exchange in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli 
oxygenated blood (含氧血) carried away by the pulmonary veins (肺靜脈).
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 Transport of gases in blood

1. Once inside red blood cells, oxygen combines with haemoglobin (血紅蛋白) to form oxyhaemoglobin
(氧合血紅蛋白) which is bright red in colour. Oxygen is mainly transported as oxyhaemoglobin to all body
tissues.

2. Carbon dioxide produced from respiration in the tissues is transported in blood back to the lungs mainly in form
of hydrogencarbonate ions (碳酸氫離子). The ions turn back into carbon dioxide before diffusing into the
alveoli.

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