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PROJECT REPORT ON

DOT MATRIX DISPLAY

BY

AUTI DINESH

YADAV ANIL

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF.SACHIN CHARBE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
RIZVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
RIZVI COMPLEX, OFF CARTER ROAD BANDRA(W),
MUMBAI-400050.
YEAR: 2010-2011
RIZVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
RIZVI COMPLEX, OFF CARTER ROAD BANDRA(W),
MUMBAI-400050.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the following students

Auti Dinesh (ETRX TE – 4)


Yadav Anil (ETRX TE -62)

have successfully completed the synopsis work of project Titled


“DOT MATRIX DISPLAY”

------------------------------- ------------------------------
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

------------------------------
Prof. Sachin Charbe
Internal Guide

---------------------------
Prof. Nargis Shaik
Head of department

----------------------------
Dr. Varsha Shah
Principal
ABSTRACT

The basic aim of our project is to present the led matrix in various form of its
working, all of which find immense applications.
The brain of the system lies well placed in the controller that co-ordinates the
total working of the project and controls the minute aspects.
It aptly demonstrates the multi faceted nature of the matrix, just by a mere click of the
input switch, and the outputs thus obtained are very different from each other.
A number of such applications can be in built into this device with no change in
its efficiency. Along with , it provides adequate clarity and a fine tuning between
brightness and contrast which proves pleasant for the eyes as well. Not to forget its
energy efficient working that serves as an icing over the cake.
Other possible enhancements would be using SMD led' s that are efficiently
packed having adjustable contrast and more energy efficient nature than normal led' s,
yet bright enough to capture your attention.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is With great pleasure that we are submitting this report on


“Dot Matrix Display”.

As in case project, we faced many problems while giving shape to


our ideas and making the project mould into reality.

We take this opportunity to express our sense of gratitude towards


our internal guide Prof. Sachin Charbe for his valuable suggestions and
guidance from time to time.

We are also thankful to the head of department, Prof. Nargis Shaik


and the remaining staff for making facilities available and giving their
support and guidance.

Although we have not mentioned each name, we would like to say


that we appreciate every individual who was associated with our project
and made experience satisfying and fulfilling one.

Auti Dinesh
Yadav Anil
Table of contents

Title...................................................................................................................1

Abstract …........................................................................................................3

Acknowledgement ….......................................................................................4

1. Introduction ….......................................................................................8

2. Schematic
2.1 Single Colour Matrix(Single Sided Board) …......................10
2.2 Dual Colour Matrix(Double Sided Board) ….......................11

3. Operation
3.1 Dev Board …........................................................................13
3.2 Matrix …................................................................................14
3.3 Final Board (©MATRIX V1.2) ….........................................16

4. Component List ….................................................................................20

5. Board Layout
5.1Single Colour Matrix(Single Sided Board) …..................................22
5.2Dual Colour Matrix(Double Sided Board – Top Layer) …..............22
5.3Dual Colour Matrix(Double Sided Board – Bottom Layer) ….......23
5.4Dual Colour Matrix(Double Sided Board – Top & Bottom Layer)..23

6. Programming
6.1 Program ….............................................................................25
6.2 Hex Code …............................................................................23

7. Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor


7.1 EAGLE Product Information …............................................37
7.2 Schematic Editor …...............................................................37
7.3 Auto-router …........................................................................38
7.4 CAM Processor ….................................................................38
7.5 EAGLE CAD Design Rules …..............................................39

8. Application and Future Scope …..............................................................43

9. Conclusion …...........................................................................................47

10. PCB Making Process


10.1 Artwork Generation …..........................................................49
10.2 Photoresist PCB Laminates …..............................................51
10.3 Exposure …...........................................................................51
10.4 Developing ….......................................................................53
10.5 Etching ….............................................................................54
10.6 Tin Plating …........................................................................55
10.7 Drilling ….............................................................................56
10.8 Cutting ….............................................................................58
10.9 Through – Plating …............................................................59
10.10 Through – Plating Using Rivets ….......................................61

11. References ….....................................................................................62


1.Introduction
1.Introduction

Electronics is not just a field of study, it is a foundation pillar of the modern day
technological advancements. After thinking a lot on above lines we finally decided to
work on a device which is not just versatile in its functioning but also is the next step
that the world is taking towards a highly energy efficient future.
This project gives a detailed information on the basic structural anatomy of
LED matrix and the wide interaction that is possible, owing to the ease with which it
can be interfaced with a controller and can be used as a output device in embedded
systems, in which power and space are areas of major concern especially when it
comes to implementing them in consumer products
Keeping a specific goal in mind, we travelled on the same lines , which is
efficiently presented in the pages to be follow. Finally, having accomplished our aim,
we concluded by throwing light on the modern day innovation of LED TV.
2. Schematic
2.1 Single Colour Matrix(Single Sided Board)

Matrix V1.1
2.2 Dual Colour Matrix(Double Sided Board)

Schematic: MATRIX V1.2


3. Operation
3.1 Dev Board

The Dev Board or Development Board is very essential for experimenting with
microcontrollers. Development is not easy if you use bread board or vero board. After
some time wires will become loose and establishing a large circuit on vero board is
too tedious.

To solve this problem we decided to make our own low cost Dev Board which
has following specifications

• Low cost.
• All basic connection for developing application with AVR MCU's.
• In circuit programmable with USB AVR Programmer.
• Supports 40 pin MCU's like Atmega16,ATmega32 and Atmega8535.
• Can be further extended for use with LCD,DOT MATRIX etc interfacing.
3.2 Matrix

An LED Matrix is an array of LED's with the anode or positive terminal of each row
connected together, and the cathode or negative terminal of each column connected
together. Or the anode can be connected to a column, and cathode connected to a row.

Internal Structure of 8x8 Matrix

They come in various sizes, colors and formats.


The most common sizes are 5x7, 5x8 and 8x8 displays. This means that, for example,
a 5x8 display would have 5 columns with 8 rows of LED's.

8x8 Matrix
5x7 Matrix
The most common colors are red, green and yellow. There are also two and three
colored versions, with the different colored LED's sharing a common pin in each row
or column and a seperate pin for the corresponding column or row. This allows each
color to be turned on or off individually. When there are two or more colors, the
LED's will share a common anode or cathode (positive or negative respectively).

Lets examine more closely the actual layout of a LED matrix


Here we see that each row connects to that rows cathode or negative leg of the
LED's. Correspondingly, each column connects the anode or positive leg together.
Please not that a LED matrix can also be the other way around.

To control a LED matrix, we have two options:

• Cycle through each row, turning on the LED's in that row as needed
• Cycle through each column, turning on the LED's in that column as needed
It is not possible to control the LED matrix all at once, as all the individual LED's
share both their inputs. The way around this is to use Persistance of Vision. By
cycling through each row or column quite fast (~50Hz and above) you should not see
any flicker, and instead see the whole LED matrix display as if it was all working at
once.

If we were to choose the first of the two options, we would first ground the first row
connection (connection ROW1) and leave the remaining ROWX connections floating
or high.
Then, we would pull each column connection high if we wanted that LED to turn on,
or leave it floating or low to keep it off. For example if we wanted to turn on LED3
and LED5, then with the ROW1 connection pulled low, we would leave COL1,
COL2 and COL4 floating or low, and pull COL3 and COL5 high.
Then after leaving ROW1's displayed LED's on for a set period of time, we would
pull ROW1 high or floating and pull ROW2 low. At the same time, we would pull the
corresponding column connections high to turn on the individual LED's in that row.

3.3 Final Board

LEDs in the same column have the anodes on a common line, running top to bottom.
Similarly for LEDs in a single row have cathodes on a common line, running left to
right. This means that if on the wires that make up the column an 8 bit pattern say
10111110 is set and then the common line for some row is grounded, then the LEDs
in that particular row will glow as dictated by this bit-pattern. With this bit-pattern,
for example, if you ground the common line for the topmost row then the LED1 and
LED7 will be OFF and rest in that row will be ON. You may ground the common line
on any row and the bit-pattern set on the column wires will appear as glowing LEDs
in that particular row.

This design, however, is not the complete solution. The reason is that different rows
cannot display different bit patterns. They will all display the same pattern that has
been set on the column wires, once they are grounded. In order to overcome this
problem, we shall use a clever trick - persistence of vision. The idea is that if changes
are made in rapid succession, the human eye is unable to sense the small incrementals
and perceives the event as smooth continuous motion. In practice we display one row
at a time - we set the bit pattern on the column for the topmost row and ground that
row keeping all other rows un-grounded. Next, we set the bit pattern for the second
row on the column wires and then ground the second row, keeping all other rows un-
grounded and so on till we have displayed all the rows, one at a time, in succession
from top to bottom. We repeat the same process over and over again, just like scan-
lines in a TV. We make the switching between the rows so fast that it appears that you
are viewing the entire LED matrix in one go.

Now we can attach the 8x8 LED module shown above to two different ports - one to
set bit patterns for the column wires and other to ground different rows when desired.
In the following figure PORTC is used to set patterns on column wires and PORTA is
used to ground rows:

This type of connection has some drawbacks too. The thing is when a row is
grounded then current from all the LEDs that are ON in that row sinks collectively at
this pin and this may be dangerous for the microcontroller. That's where the driver IC
shown in the figure on the top comes into picture. We use ULN2803 to sink the
current safely from all 8 rows. The ULN2803 IC is shown below:

Pin 9 is connected to ground. Pins 1-8 are connected to the PORTA[0:7] which we
use to control the selective sinking of the rows. The row [1:8] wires are connected to
pins [18:11] so that when PORTA PIN0 is set ON, the row 1 is connected to the
ground. So keeping these factors in mind, the block diagram can be modified as:
4. Component List
4. Component List

Component name Quantity Price(Rs.)


Atmega16 1 130
ULN2803 1 15
AVR ISP Header 1 15
RF Cable 1 10
7805T 1 8
1N4007 1 2
DIP Switches 8 24
Led 1 2
Resistor - 330 ohm 1 2
1k ohm 1
Sliding Switch 1 3
Crystal 1 7
Capacitors- 22pF 2 6
100uF 2
0.1uF 2
Power Jack 1 5
Round Pin socket- 40pin 30
18pin 1
1
Double side copper clad 1 170
epoxy
Screw and nuts 4 15
Total 444
5. Board
5.1 Single Layer Board Layout

5.2 Dual Colour Matrix (Top Layer)


5.3 Dual Colour Matrix (Bottom Layer)

5.4 Dual Colour Matrix(Top & Bottom Layer)


6. Programming
6.1 Program

1. #include <avr/io.h>
2. #include<util/delay.h>
3. int y;
4. unsigned char d[8]={1,2,4,8,16,32,64,128};
5. unsigned char s2c[4]={0X3C,0X24,0X24,0X3C} ;
6. unsigned char s3c[6]={0X7E,0X42,0X42,0X42,0X42,0X7E};
7. unsigned char s4c[8]={0XFF,0X81,0X81,0X81,0X81,0X81,0X81,0XFF};
8. unsigned char s5c[8]={0XFF,0XC1,0XA1,0X91,0X89,0X85,0X83,0XFF};
9. unsigned char s6c[8]={0XFF,0X83,0X85,0X89,0X91,0XA1,0XC1,0XFF};
10.unsigned char s7c[8]={0XFF,0XC3,0XA5,0X99,0X99,0XA5,0XC3,0XFF};
11.unsigned char w[8]={0x81,0x81,0x81,0x81,0x81,0x99,0XA5,0XC3};
12.unsigned char lc[8]={0x80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0XFF};
13.int move(int m,int n,int o,int p,int q,int r,int s,int t,int loop)
14.{
15.int a=0;
16.int count;
17.if(loop==1)
18.{
19.count=4000;
20.}
21.else
22.{
23.count=10000;
24.}
25.label:
26.PORTC=m;
27.PORTD=1;
28.RESET();
29.PORTC=n;
30.PORTD=2;
31.RESET();
32.PORTC=o;
33.PORTD=4;
34.RESET();
35.PORTC=p;
36.PORTD=8;
37.RESET();
38.PORTC=q;
39.PORTD=16;
40.RESET();
41.PORTC=r;
42.PORTD=32;
43.RESET();
44.PORTC=s;
45.PORTD=64;
46.RESET();
47.PORTC=t;
48.PORTD=128;
49.RESET();
50.a++;
51.if(a>=count)
52.{
53.a=0;
54.if (loop==1)
55.{
56.if((m<=128)||(n<=128)||(o<=128)||(p<=128)||(q<=128)||(r<=128)||(s<=128)||
(t<=128))
57.{
58.m*=2;
59.n*=2;
60.o*=2;
61.p*=2;
62.q*=2;
63.r*=2;
64.s*=2;
65.t*=2;
66.}
67.else
68.{
69.goto label2;
70.}
71.}
72.else
73.{
74.goto label2;
75.}
76.}
77.goto label;
78.label2:return(0);
79.}
80.void RESET(void)
81.{
82.PORTD=0;
83.PORTC=0;
84.PORTA=128;
85.}
86.int wait(int a)
87.{
88.label: if (a==y)
89.{
90.a=PINA;
91.goto label;
92.}
93.}
94.int main (void)
95.{
96.DDRC=0XFF;
97.DDRD=0XFF;
98.DDRA=0X00;
99.PORTA=0XFF;
100. int j,i=0;
101. int k=0;
102. int u=0;
103. while(1)
104. {
105. PORTD=0XFF;
106. PORTC=0XFF;
107. y=PINA;
108. if(y==0XEF)
109. {
110. wait(y);
111. PORTC=0X01;
112. PORTD=0X01;
113.
114. while (1)
115. {
116.
117. y=PINA;
118. if(y==0XFE)
119. {
120. wait (y);
121. u++;
122. if(PORTD>=2)
123. {PORTD= PORTD/2;
124. _delay_ms(100);
125. }
126. else
127. {
128. PORTD=1;
129. _delay_ms(100);
130. }
131. }
132.
133.
134.
135. if(y==0XFD)
136. {
137. wait(y);
138. u++;
139. if(PORTC<=64)
140. {PORTC=PORTC*2;
141. _delay_ms(100);
142. }
143. else
144. {
145. PORTC=128;
146. _delay_ms(100);
147. }
148. }
149.
150.
151.
152. if(y==0XFB)
153. {
154. wait(y);
155. u++;
156. if(PORTC>=2)
157. {
158. PORTC=PORTC/2;
159. _delay_ms(100);
160. }
161. else
162. {
163. PORTC=1;
164. _delay_ms(100);
165. }
166.
167. }
168.
169.
170.
171. if(y==0XF7)
172. {
173. wait(y);
174. u++;
175. if(PORTD<=64)
176. {PORTD=PORTD*2;
177. _delay_ms(100);
178. }
179. else
180. {
181. PORTD=128;
182. _delay_ms(100);
183. }
184.
185. }
186. if ((PORTD==0X01)&&(PORTC==0X10))
187. {
188. if (u>15)
189. {
190. lose:
191. for(j=0,i=0;j<8,i<8;i++,j++)
192. {
193. PORTC=lc[i];
194. PORTD=d[j];
195. RESET();
196. }
197. goto lose;
198. }
199.
200.
201. else if(u<=15)
202. {
203. won:
204. for(j=0,i=0;j<8,i<8;i++,j++)
205. {
206. PORTC=w[i];
207. PORTD=d[j];
208. RESET();
209. }
210. goto won;
211. }
212. }
213.
214.
215. }
216. }
217.
218. if(y==0XDF)
219. {
220. wait(y);
221. while(1)
222. {
223. int temp;
224. temp=move(0X18,0X24,0X42,0X81,0XFF,0X81,0X81,0X81,0);
225. temp=move(0X81,0XC1,0XA1,0X91,0X89,0X85,0X83,0X81,0);
226. temp=move(0XFF,0X18,0X18,0X18,0X18,0X18,0X18,0XFF,0);
227. temp=move(0x80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0X80,0XFF,0);
228. }
229. }
230. if(y==0XBF)
231. {
232. wait(y);
233. while(1)
234. {
235. A:PORTC=0X18;
236. PORTD=0X18;
237. if(k>=4000)
238. {k=0;
239. goto N;
240. }
241. k++;
242. goto A;
243. N:for(j=2,i=0;j<6,i<3;i++,j++)
244. {
245. PORTC=s2c[i];
246. PORTD=d[j];
247. RESET();
248. }
249. if(k>=3000)
250. {k=0;
251. goto I;
252. }
253. k++;
254. goto N;
255. I:for(j=1,i=0;j<7,i<6;i++,j++)
256. {
257. PORTC=s3c[i];
258. PORTD=d[j];
259. RESET();
260. }
261. if(k>=3000)
262. {k=0;
263. goto L;
264. }
265. k++;
266. goto I;
267. L:for(j=0,i=0;j<8,i<8;i++,j++)
268. {
269. PORTC=s4c[i];
270. PORTD=d[j];
271. RESET();
272. }
273.
274. if(k>=3000)
275. {k=0;
276. goto Y;
277. }
278. k++;
279. goto L;
280. Y:for(j=0,i=0;j<8,i<8;i++,j++)
281. {
282. PORTC=s5c[i];
283. PORTD=d[j];
284. RESET();
285. }
286. if(k>=3000)
287. {k=0;
288. goto D;
289. }
290. k++;
291. goto Y;
292. D:for(j=0,i=0;j<8,i<8;i++,j++)
293. {
294. PORTC=s6c[i];
295. PORTD=d[j];
296. RESET();
297. }
298. if(k>=3000)
299. {k=0;
300. goto V;
301. }
302. k++;
303. goto D;
304. V:for(j=0,i=0;j<8,i<8;i++,j++)
305. {
306. PORTC=s7c[i];
307. PORTD=d[j];
308. RESET();
309. }
310. if(k>=3000)
311. {k=0;
312. goto A;
313. }
314. k++;
315. goto V;
316.
317. }
318. }
319. if(y==0X7F)
320. {
321. wait(y);
322. while(1)
323. {
324. int z;
325. z=move(0X04,0X0A,0X11,0X1F,0X11,0X11,0X11,0X11,1);
326. z=move(0X11,0X11,0X19,0X15,0X13,0X11,0X11,0X11,1);
327. z=move(0X1F,0X04,0X04,0X04,0X04,0X04,0X04,0X1F,1);
328. z=move(0X10,0X10,0X10,0X10,0X10,0X10,0X10,0X1F,1);
329. }
330. }
331. }
332. }
6.2 Hex code

1. :1000000014C02EC02DC02CC02BC02AC029C028C0AF
2. :1000100027C026C025C024C023C022C021C020C0C4
3. :100020001FC01EC01DC01CC01BC011241FBECFE5B9
4. :10003000D2E0DEBFCDBF10E0A0E6B0E0E0E4F6E045
5. :1000400002C005900D92A23AB107D9F710E0A2EADA
6. :10005000B0E001C01D92A43AB107E1F7B3D0EEC2FF
7. :10006000CFCF2F923F924F925F926F927F928F925B
8. :100070009F92AF92BF92CF92DF92EF92FF920F9337
9. :100080001F93DF93CF93CDB7DEB73401B1E08B166A
10.:10009000910429F0F0E18F2EF7E29F2E04C0E0EAF0
11.:1000A0008E2EEFE09E2EA0E8B4E02B2EF8E03F2E3F
12.:1000B000E0E14E2EB0E25B2EE0E0F0E085BBB1E087
13.:1000C000B2BB12BA15BAABBB65BBB2E0B2BB12BAD7
14.:1000D00015BAABBB45BB22BA12BA15BAABBB25BB2E
15.:1000E00032BA12BA15BAABBB05BB42BA12BA15BACC
16.:1000F000ABBBE5BA52BA12BA15BAABBBC5BAB0E4DB
17.:10010000B2BB12BA15BAABBBA5BAA2BB12BA15BA2A
18.:10011000ABBB3196E815F9058CF2E1E06E1671047F
19.:1001200061F581389105C4F061387105ACF0413852
20.:10013000510594F0213831057CF00138110564F047
21.:10014000B1E8EB16F10444F0E1E8CE16D10424F056
22.:10015000B1E8AB16B1048CF4880F991F660F771FB6
23.:10016000440F551F220F331F000F111FEE0CFF1CF1
24.:10017000CC0CDD1CAA0CBB1C9FCF80E090E0CF9183
25.:10018000DF911F910F91FF90EF90DF90CF90BF9084
26.:10019000AF909F908F907F906F905F904F903F9027
27.:1001A0002F90089512BA15BA80E88BBB089520915C
28.:1001B000A2003091A3008217930719F489B390E04D
29.:1001C000FACF08958F929F92AF92BF92CF92DF9213
30.:1001D000EF92FF920F931F938FEF84BB81BB1ABAEC
31.:1001E0008BBB2FEF22BB25BB89B390E08F3E9105DF
32.:1001F00009F0B0C09093A3008093A20089B38F3E12
33.:10020000E9F381E085BB82BB20E030E0F1E048EA21
34.:1002100051E6E0E889B3682F70E06E3F710599F40C
35.:1002200089B38E3FE9F32F5F3F4F82B3823038F0BE
36.:1002300082B3869582BBCA010197F1F729C0F2BB50
37.:10024000CA010197F1F76D3F710589F489B38D3FBC
38.:10025000E9F32F5F3F4F85B3813428F485B390E0F5
39.:10026000880F991F11C0E5BBCA010197F1F76B3FD9
40.:10027000710571F489B38B3FE9F32F5F3F4F85B36D
41.:10028000823020F085B3869585BB14C0F5BB12C0C3
42.:10029000673F710591F489B3873FE9F32F5F3F4FC3
43.:1002A00082B3813430F482B390E0880F991F82BB0F
44.:1002B00001C0E2BBCA010197F1F782B3813009F0B6
45.:1002C000A9CF85B3803109F0A5CF7093A3006093C7
46.:1002D000A2002031310534F440E050E020E030E06D
47.:1002E00090E821C040E050E020E030E090E802C01B
48.:1002F0004F5F5F4FF901E656FF4F808185BBFA01E2
49.:10030000E05AFF4F808182BB12BA15BA9BBB2F5FA8
50.:100310003F4F2830310564F340E050E020E030E00A
51.:10032000E9CF4F5F5F4FF901EE56FF4F808185BBEC
52.:10033000FA01E05AFF4F808182BB12BA15BA9BBB0B
53.:100340002F5F3F4F2830310564F340E050E020E05C
54.:1003500030E0E9CF8F3D910509F054C09093A300A0
55.:100360008093A20089B38F3DE9F388E190E064E2D5
56.:1003700070E042E450E021E830E00FEF10E0E1E807
57.:10038000EE2EF12CB1E8CB2ED12CA1E8AA2EB12C67
58.:100390008824992466DE81E890E061EC70E041EA0F
59.:1003A00050E021E930E009E810E0F5E8EF2EF12C0B
60.:1003B000E3E8CE2ED12C55DE8FEF90E068E170E0BF
61.:1003C00048E150E028E130E008E110E0B8E1EB2E30
62.:1003D000F12CA8E1CA2ED12CFFEFAF2EB12C41DEBB
63.:1003E00080E890E060E870E040E850E020E830E02D
64.:1003F00000E810E0E0E8EE2EF12CB0E8CB2ED12C96
65.:1004000030DEB3CF8F3B910509F0C5C09093A300B8
66.:100410008093A20089B38F3BE9F380E090E078E11C
67.:1004200060E802C080E090E075BB72BB2FE0803ACC
68.:10043000920714F40196F8CF40E050E022E030E05B
69.:10044000F901EA59FF4F808185BBF901E05AFF4F5E
70.:10045000808182BB12BA15BA6BBB2F5F3F4F25302C
71.:10046000310571F78BE0483B580719F04F5F5F4F3C
72.:10047000E5CF40E050E021E030E0F901E559FF4FE1
73.:10048000808185BBF901E05AFF4F808182BB12BA9F
74.:1004900015BA6BBB2F5F3F4F2730310571F72BE04B
75.:1004A000483B520719F04F5F5F4FE5CF40E050E007
76.:1004B00020E030E0F901EE58FF4F808185BBF90163
77.:1004C000E05AFF4F808182BB12BA15BA6BBB2F5F17
78.:1004D0003F4F2830310571F78BE0483B580719F042
79.:1004E0004F5F5F4FE5CF40E050E020E030E0F901A2
80.:1004F000E658FF4F808185BBF901E05AFF4F8081AC
81.:1005000082BB12BA15BA6BBB2F5F3F4F2830310543
82.:1005100071F72BE0483B520719F04F5F5F4FE5CF73
83.:1005200040E050E020E030E0F901EE57FF4F8081DD
84.:1005300085BBF901E05AFF4F808182BB12BA15BA20
85.:100540006BBB2F5F3F4F2830310571F78BE0483B85
86.:10055000580719F04F5F5F4FE5CF40E050E020E0D3
87.:1005600030E0F901E657FF4F808185BBF901E05A81
88.:10057000FF4F808182BB12BA15BA6BBB2F5F3F4F12
89.:100580002830310571F72BE0483B520709F44ACF78
90.:100590004F5F5F4FE4CF8F37910509F023CE9093E3
91.:1005A000A3008093A20089B38F37E9F384E090E041
92.:1005B0006AE070E041E150E02FE130E001E110E05D
93.:1005C000A1E1EA2EF12CF1E1CF2ED12CE1E1AE2E0A
94.:1005D000B12CB1E08B2E912C44DD81E190E061E102
95.:1005E00070E049E150E025E130E003E110E039DD61
96.:1005F0008FE190E064E070E044E050E024E030E01F
97.:1006000004E010E0A4E0EA2EF12CF4E0CF2ED12C8F
98.:10061000EFE1AE2EB12C25DD80E190E060E170E0ED
99.:1006200040E150E020E130E000E110E0B0E1EB2EED
100. :10063000F12CA0E1CA2ED12C14DDB8CFF894FFCF55
101. :1006400001020408102040803C24243C7E424242A7
102. :10065000427EFF818181818181FFFFC1A1918985D6
103. :1006600083FFFF83858991A1C1FFFFC3A59999A548
104. :10067000C3FF818181818199A5C380808080808032
105. :0206800080FFF9
106. :00000001FF
7. Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor
7.1 EAGLE Product Information

The EAGLE Layout Editor is an easy to use, yet powerful tool for designing
printed circuit boards (PCBs). The name EAGLE is an acronym, which stands for
Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor
The program consists of three main modules
• Layout Editor
• Schematic Editor
• Autorouter
which are embedded in a single user interface. Therefore there is no need for
converting netlists between schematics and layouts.
Program Features (Professional Edition)

General
• online Forward- and Back-Annotation
• context sensitive help function
• no hardware copy protection!
• multiple windows for board, schematic and library
• powerful User Language
• integrated text editor
• available for Windows, Linux and Mac

Layout Editor
• maximum drawing area 1.6 x 1.6m (64 x 64 inch)
• resolution 1/10,000mm (0.1 micron)
• up to 16 signal layers
• conventional and SMT parts
• comes with a full set of part libraries
• easily create your own parts with the fully integrated library editor
• undo/redo function for ANY editing command, to any depth
• script files for batch command execution
• copper pouring
• cut and paste function for copying entire sections of a drawing
• design rule check
• interactive Follow-me Router (requires the Autorouter module)

7.2 Schematic Editor


• up to 999 sheets in one schematic
• electrical rule check
• gate and pinswap
• create a board from a schematic with a single command

7.3 Autorouter
• ripup&retry router
• up to 16 signal layers
• routing strategy driven by user definable cost factors

7.4 CAM Processor


• Postscript
• pen plotters
• Gerber plotters
• Excellon and Sieb&Meyer drill files
• configurable through ASCII file for easy definition of your own output devices
System Requirements

Windows
• Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista or Windows 7

Linux
• Intel PC based Linux
• Kernel version 2.6
• X11 in at least 8bpp mode

Mac
• Mac OS X 10.4 on PPC or Intel
7.5 Eagle CAD Design Rule

1. description[de] = <b>EAGLE Design Rules</b>\n<p>\nDie Standard-Design-


Rules sind so gewählt, dass sie für \ndie meisten Anwendungen passen. Sollte
ihre Platine \nbesondere Anforderungen haben, treffen Sie die
erforderlichen\nEinstellungen hier und speichern die Design Rules unter
\neinem neuen Namen ab.
2. description[en] = <b>EAGLE Design Rules</b>\n<p>\nThe default Design
Rules have been set to cover\na wide range of applications. Your particular
design\nmay have different requirements, so please make the\nnecessary
adjustments and save your customized\ndesign rules under a new name.
3. layerSetup = (1*16)
4. mtCopper = 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm
0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm
0.035mm 0.035mm 0.035mm
5. mtIsolate = 1.5mm 0.15mm 0.2mm 0.15mm 0.2mm 0.15mm 0.2mm 0.15mm
0.2mm 0.15mm 0.2mm 0.15mm 0.2mm 0.15mm 0.2mm
6. mdWireWire = 8mil
7. mdWirePad = 8mil
8. mdWireVia = 8mil
9. mdPadPad = 8mil
10.mdPadVia = 8mil
11.mdViaVia = 8mil
12.mdSmdPad = 8mil
13.mdSmdVia = 8mil
14.mdSmdSmd = 8mil
15.mdViaViaSameLayer = 8mil
16.mnLayersViaInSmd = 2
17.mdCopperDimension = 40mil
18.mdDrill = 8mil
19.mdSmdStop = 0mil
20.msWidth = 10mil
21.msDrill = 24mil
22.msMicroVia = 9.99mm
23.msBlindViaRatio = 0.500000
24.rvPadTop = 0.250000
25.rvPadInner = 0.250000
26.rvPadBottom = 0.250000
27.rvViaOuter = 0.250000
28.rvViaInner = 0.250000
29.rvMicroViaOuter = 0.250000
30.rvMicroViaInner = 0.250000
31.rlMinPadTop = 10mil
32.rlMaxPadTop = 20mil
33.rlMinPadInner = 10mil
34.rlMaxPadInner = 20mil
35.rlMinPadBottom = 10mil
36.rlMaxPadBottom = 20mil
37.rlMinViaOuter = 8mil
38.rlMaxViaOuter = 20mil
39.rlMinViaInner = 8mil
40.rlMaxViaInner = 20mil
41.rlMinMicroViaOuter = 4mil
42.rlMaxMicroViaOuter = 20mil
43.rlMinMicroViaInner = 4mil
44.rlMaxMicroViaInner = 20mil
45.psTop = -1
46.psBottom = -1
47.psFirst = -1
48.psElongationLong = 100
49.psElongationOffset = 100
50.mvStopFrame = 1.000000
51.mvCreamFrame = 0.000000
52.mlMinStopFrame = 4mil
53.mlMaxStopFrame = 4mil
54.mlMinCreamFrame = 0mil
55.mlMaxCreamFrame = 0mil
56.mlViaStopLimit = 0mil
57.srRoundness = 0.000000
58.srMinRoundness = 0mil
59.srMaxRoundness = 0mil
60.slThermalGap = 0.500000
61.slMinThermalGap = 20mil
62.slMaxThermalGap = 100mil
63.slAnnulusIsolate = 20mil
64.slThermalIsolate = 10mil
65.slAnnulusRestring = 0
66.slThermalRestring = 1
67.slThermalsForVias = 0
68.checkGrid = 0
69.checkAngle = 0
70.checkFont = 1
71.checkRestrict = 1
72.useDiameter = 13
73.maxErrors = 00
8. Application and Future Scope
8. Application and Future Scope

LEDs are the light source in solar powered products. In order to understand what
advantages the LED offers over incandescent lights, we must first understand how the
LED works. A light emitting diode is composed of a semiconductor diode. A
semiconductor is a material that can conduct electricity. A semiconductor diode is
composed of a semiconductive crystal that has added impurities in order to create a
positive and negative side; since current flows in one direction through the diode. A
region is then created in between the positive and negative zones, called a PN
junction, which is where the action takes place within the diode; in our case it emits
light.
Incandescent lights, on the other hand, operate on a different principle. Current is sent
through a filament. The filament resists the flow of electrons through it, which causes
the filament to generate heat. The radiated heat produces a visible light.
So what then are the advantages?
- Efficiency: An incandescent light requires much more energy to properly heat the
filament in order to generate light. The light produced by an LED is a cool light.
More light is produced per watt in an LED than an incandescent. Even more energy
can be saved if the light is solar powered.
-Color: LEDs do not require filters, like colored bulbs, in order to create a specific
colored light. Color is produced based on the material of the semiconductor.
-Size: LEDs come in many different sizes since they are not constrained to creating a
vacuum in which to house the filament. LEDs can be smaller than 2 mm.
-On/Off Time: An LED takes only microseconds to achieve its full brightness. This is
ideal in a solar powered light that is running off of a battery that has determinate
energy life.
-Cycling: In applications that are cycled between on and off frequently, like an
outdoor solar light, LEDs are ideal since they won't burn out quickly.
-Lifetime: The lifetime of the LED greatly exceeds its incandescent, and even its
fluorescent counterparts. An average lifetime of an incandescent light is 1,000-2,000
hours and a fluorescent bulb is 10,000-15,000 hours. The LED, on the other hand, has
a typical lifetime of 35,000-50,000 hours.
-Light Dispersement: An LED is designed to focus its light, so where an incandescent
or fluorescent may seem brighter since the light radiates in all directions, the LED
light can be directed to a specific location without the use of an external reflector.
-Ecologically Friendly: LEDs are more efficient than others, as stated above; so they
conserve electricity, especially if they are solar powered. LEDs do not contain toxic
chemicals like fluorescent bulbs do. Several incandescent and fluorescent bulbs will
be used during the lifetime of a single LED. If your desire is to light a space and save
the environment, then the clear choice is the LED. Solar powered LEDs are an
additional benefit in that they require no additional energy costs
LED TV

Buying a TV has become as complicated as selecting the right mobile phone plan.
Before large flat panel displays invaded our lives, the only real question when
purchasing a CRT (cathode ray tube) TV was how big did you want it and how much
space did you have in your room to house it? Sure, there were some quality issues but
mostly it was dictated by how many diagonal inches you could get for your buck.
While some of that justification still rings true with today’s TVs, now there’s the
issue of plasma versus LCD to contend with, and just when you had that sorted out,
LED TVs have entered the arena as an option. However, there still seems to be a fair
bit of confusion surrounding what exactly an LED TV is. Well, basically, it’s another
form of LCD TV that uses LEDs to provide its light source.
All LCD TVs are backlit because LCDs are a transmissive type of display
technology, which means they don’t produce their own light. So for an LCD
television to produce an image on the flat panel display, its pixels have to be backlit
by a separate lighting source. Currently, most LCD TVs used CCFL technology (cold
cathode fluorescent lamps) as their backlight source. They deliver good colors and
brightness, and decent contrast, but not great blacks – the domain of the plasma TV.
But TVs utilizing brighter LED backlighting can achieve much better blacks, as well
as brighter colors and even greater contrast ratios (Toshiba Regza 55X1 is boasting
5,000,000:1). NB: Contrast is measured from the darkest lit area of the screen to the
brightest area to give a ratio.
But just in case you thought your selection choice was now made easy, there are a
couple of LED options – full matrix LED and edge lit LED TVs. Let’s go through the
differences and look at what some of the manufacturers are using as their preferred
backlighting choice.

Clarification: is it really an LED TV?


A true LED TV is one of those giant screens you usually see at outdoor stadiums, at
grand prix events and rock venues. They are large screens made up of thousands of
extremely bright LED lights. But because the size of LEDs are mostly too big and
chunky to use in TVs, but they are an ideally suited as a light source for backlighting
LCD crystals.
How LED technology is used in LCD TVs
Edge lighting
Edge lighting is pretty much as described. In this method, a series of LED backlights
are positioned along the outside edges of the screen. From there, the light is dispersed
across the screen, which means the LED/LCD TV can be made very thin. And while
the results may be better than CCFL screens, the black levels in edge lighting are not
as deep and, if you look closely, the edge area of the screen tends to be brighter than
the middle viewing area.
Full-array backlighting
To take full advantage of LED lighting, some manufacturers use full-array LED
backlighting, where many rows of LEDs are placed behind the entire surface of the
screen. Although this makes for a thicker TV panel, the LEDs provide more even,
brighter colors and greater contrast. A measurable benefit of full-array lighting can be
seen when "local dimming" is utilized, meaning that each LED (or more common, a
selected “zone” of LEDs) can be turned on and off independently within the screen,
thus providing greater control of the brightness and darkness for each of those areas.
Greater contrast levels are achieved by diminishing the effects of light from brightly
lit neighboring areas seeping into blackened areas of the screen, which is one of the
downsides of LCD screens.
In other words, the greater level of dimming control, the better the picture quality.
A number of manufacturers are preferring this technology with impressive results.
They include: Samsung, Toshiba, LG and Metz.
Speaking of quality, currently, most LED backlighting is provided by white LEDs
that are plentiful and cost less than their red, green, blue (RGB) cousins. But as
popularity and demand increase, and research continues to improve, expect to see
RGB LEDs, that provide a much greater color gamut and therefore much richer,
denser and varied colors, being incorporated into TVs. Already a couple of
manufacturers including Sony and Sharp have models with RGB LEDs.
Features of LED backlit LCD TVs
• An LED TV achieves deeper blacks as well as emitting brighter images, thereby
producing better contrast ratios;
• They are slimmer (especially edge-LED lighting systems);
• They deliver better viewing angles than other LCD TVs;
• LEDs are long-lasting;
• LEDs are more energy efficient than their CCFL counterparts, and better than
plasma Tvs and much better than CRTs;
• LEDs don’t use mercury like some other backlighting methods.

Then there’s Mitsubishi's Laser TV and Sony, Phillips and others will have 3-D TVs
on the market from next year. Give it some more time and we'll also have holographic
TV added to the mix. It’s like I said, choosing a TV will be as easy as choosing a
mobile phone plan – and don’t expect it to get any easier in the near future.

Some of the other prominent applications

A digital LED clock seems to be the most widely used LED application and the
most cheapest, most durable, and long lasting (battery life). It mainly consists of a
controller a matrix of LED's which acts as a screen ( which displays the time ) and a
power source ( battery ). Since the power consumption of LED is very low compared
to other display devices the clock works for longer time more efficiently and hence
the durability of the product is improved.

Scrolling displays are seen almost everywhere, the best example would be in
public transport. This is a fine application since in public transport using LCD's
would not prove fruitful and would cause many problems. But LED displays mounted
in a bus or a train serve as a dual purpose as in they consume very low power so
battery life has improved and LED's are brighter than LCD's so that it can be clearly
viewed from long distances.

It will be interesting to see what developments are coming for more residential
applications of LED lights. LED lighting technology has been researched and
developed for the past two decades and we are beginning to see practical applications
from this work. There is already wide spread use of LED traffic signs and LED
headlights where a premium is placed on a reliable light source that is cheaper and
less labor intensive to maintain. We in the industry are certain that tomorrows LED
lights will last longer and consume even less power than todays energy efficient led
light bulbs. LED lighting will be used to replace virtually every type of light, bulb,
and lamp that is currently in use.

So the future with LED's seems to be more promising and energy efficient.
9.Conclusion
9.Conclusion

The project on LED matrix that we have worked on has attempted to explore
the various facilities that this device offers. We have made a practical study of the
various programs , which once fed to the controller that forms the heart of the system,
that give profound results on execution.
While doing so, we went through several developmental stages, which we
have thoroughly demonstrated and explained in this project. First we performed all
the experiments on the single coloured matrix, to the point of our satisfaction and
then ultimately, we upgraded the system to the use of multi coloured matrix, to the
fullest of its capacity and did further work on it.
The result of all the work on this device, is the extravagant ©MATRIX V1.2
that is presented by us, which is not only functioning exceedingly well, but is also
packaged in such a way that it can be viewed as a final product that is now ready for
sale!!
10. PCB Making Process
10.1 Artwork Generation

You need to generate a positive (i.e. black = coppper) UV translucent artwork


film You'll never get a good board without good artwork, so it is important to get the
best possible quality at this stage.The most important thing is to get a clear sharp
image with a very solid opaque black.
Nowadays, artwork will almost always be drawn using either a dedicated PCB
CAD program, or a suitable drawing / graphics package. The merits of various
software packages will not be discussed here, other than to say that it is absolutely
essential that your PCB software prints holes in the middle of pads, to act as centre-
marks when drilling. It is virtually impossible to accurately hand-drill boards without
these holes. If you're looking to buy PCB software at any cost level, and want to be
able to do hand-prototyping of boards before production, check that this facility is
available. If you're using a general purpose CAD or graphic package, define pads as
either a grouped object containing a black filled circle with a smaller concentric white
filled circle on top of it, or as an unfilled circle with a thick black line style (i.e. a
black ring).
When defining pad and line shapes, the following minimum sizes are
recommended for reliable results:
The artwork must be printed such that the printed side will be in contact with
the PCB surface when UV exposing, to avoid blurred edges. In practice this means
that if you design the board as seen from the component side, the bottom (solder side)
layer should be printed the 'correct' way round, and the top side of a double-sided
board must be printed mirrored.
Artwork quality is very dependant on both the output device and the media
used, both of which will now be discussed.
Media
Contrary to what you may think, it is NOT necessary to use a transparent
artwork medium - as long as it is reasonably translucent to UV, it's fine - less
translucent materials may need a slightly longer exposure time. Line definition, black
opaqueness and toner/ink retention are much more important. Possible print media
include the following:
Clear acetate OHP transparencies - these may seem like the most obvious candidate,
but are expensive, tend to crinkle or distort from laser printer heating, and toner/ink
can crack off or get scratched very easily.NOT recommended.
Polyester drafting film is good but expensive, the rough surface holds ink or toner
well, and it has good dimensional stability. If used in a laser printer, use the thickest
stuff you can get, as the thinner film tends to crinkle too much due to the fusing heat.
Even thick film can distort slightly with some laser printers.Not especially
recommended, but adequate.
...and the winner is....
Tracing paper Get the thickest you can find - at least 90gsm (thinner stuff can
crinkle), 120gsm is even better but harder to find. It's cheap, easily available from
office or art suppliers (usually in pads the same size as normal paper sizes), has good
enough UV translucency and is nearly as good as drafting film for toner retention,
and stays flatter under laser-printer heat than polyester or acetate film. The stuff I use
is a "Gateway Tracing", 90GSM A4 pad made by Royal Sovereign, code
RS442715. Viking Direct order code Q29-RG1059
Output devices
Ink-jet printers - Not tried them myself, but I hear very mixed reports from "perfect"
to "useless"! The main problem will be getting an opaque enough black. They are so
cheap that it's certainly worth a try, and with as many different media types as you
can find, but don't expect the same quality you can get from lasers. It may also be
worth trying an inkjet print onto paper, which can then be photocopied onto tracing
paper with a good quality photocopier. I have had good reports from several people
using tracing paper with HP Deskjets, but my Epson Stylus Photo750 inkjet is useless
on tracing paper.

If you plot largish ground planes directly from inkjet, both 90gsm and 112gsm tracing
papers crinkle slightly in these areas (the 90 more than the 112). I find that the best
procedure is to allow the inkjet plot to dry thoroughly (on an HP Deskjet 670C or
895CXi set to normal - best print quality is not necessary) and then flatten out the
plot under a clean sheet of paper placed under a big heavy book - I use A4 tracing
paper that I get in pad form from my local artist materials shop. I find that thoroughly
dried and flattened plots are perfectly re-usable.With either HP Deskjet (670C or
895CXi), I can consistently obtain 0.005 inch exposed and developed resolution.
Typesetters - for the best quality artwork, generate a Postscript or PDF file and take it
to a DTP or typesetting service, and ask them to produce a positive film of it. This
will usually have a resolution of at least 2400DPI, absolutely opaque black and
perfect sharpness. The cost is usually 'per page' regardless of area used (UK£5 for A4
last time I did one), so if you can fit multiple copies of the PCB, or both sides onto
one sheet, you'll save money. This is also a good way to do the occasional large PCB
that won't fit your laser printer - sizes up to A3+ are widely available, and larger ones
can also be done by more specialised services. Also a useful alternative for the
highest-resolution boards that won't quite make it with other methods.
Typeset artworks are good enough for production PCBs, but most PCB houses
nowadays only accept gerber data, as it's easier for them to post-process for step &
repeat etc.
Laser printers - easily the best all-round solution. Very affordable, fast and good
quality. The printer used must have at least 600dpi resolution for all but the simplest
PCBs, as you will usually be working in multiples of 0.025" (40 tracks per inch).
300DPI does not divide into 40, 600DPI does, so you get consistent spacing and
linewidth.
It is very important that the printer produces a good solid black with no toner
pinholes (pinholes in larger fill areas are acceptable). If you're planning to buy a
printer for PCB use, do some test prints on tracing paper to check the quality first. If
the printer has a density control, set it to 'blackest'. Even the best laser printers don't
generally cover large areas (e.g. ground planes) well, but this isn't usually a problem
as long as fine tracks are solid. Note that the blackness of the printing on paper
doesn't always mean a good opaque result on tracing paper so always check with
tracing paper if you're buying a printer for PCB work.

10.2 Photoresist PCB Laminate

Always use good quality pre-coated positive photoresist fibreglass (FR4) board.
Check carefully for scratches in the protective covering, and on the surface after
peeling off the covering. You don't need darkroom or subdued lighting when handling
boards, as long as you avoid direct sunlight, minimuse unnecessary light exposure,
and develop immediately after UV exposure.

10.3 Exposure

The photoresist board needs to be exposed to ultra-violet light through the artwork,
using a UV exposure box.
UV exposure units can easily be made using standard fluorescent lamp ballasts and
UV tubes. For small PCBs, two or four 8 watt 12" tubes will be adequate, for larger
(A3) units, four 15" 15 watt tubes are ideal. To determine the tube to glass spacing,
place a sheet of tracing paper on the glass and adjust the distance to get the most even
light level over the surface of the paper. Even illumination is a lot easier to obtain
with 4-tube units. The UV tubes you need are those sold either as replacements for
UV exposure units or insect killers. I've heard reports that 'black light' tubes for disco
lighting etc. don't work very well (these have a black or dark purple appearance when
off).
The tubes you want look white when off (just like normal white lamps), and light up
with a light purple, which makes flourescent paper etc. glow brightly. DO NOT use
short-wave UV lamps like EPROM eraser tubes or germicidal lamps, which have
clear glass - these emit short-wave UV which can cause eye and skin damage, and are
not suitable for PCB exposure. Mega in the UK do cheap UV bulbs as replacements
for their UV boxes. RS also stock a wide range of UV tubes, including U shaped ones
- search for 'insect killer' on their site. Electrical suppliers like TLC also sell UV
insect-killer tubes.
A timer which switches off the UV lamps automatically is essential, and should allow
exposure times from 2 to 10 minutes in 30 second increments. It is very useful if the
timer has an audible indication (e.g. goes 'ping') when the timing period has
completed. A mechanical or electronic timer from a scrap microwave oven would be
ideal.
Dead scanners make ideal cases for homemade UV boxes, but make sure the case is
deep enough - a nice old clunky one, not a modern slimline thing ( unless you don't
mind using a lot of tubes to get even illumination). Although it is probably possible to
make a UV box with UV LEDs, you'd need so many to get a decent exposure area
that it is almost certainly not worth even thinking about unless you happen to have a
few hundred of them and nothing more interesting to use them for.
Short-term eye exposure to the correct type of UV lamp is not harmful, but can cause
discomfort, especially with bigger units. Use glass sheet rather than plastic for the top
of the UV unit, as it will flex less and be less prone to scratches. Normal window
glass works fine.
You will need to experiment to find the required exposure time for a particular UV
unit and laminate type - expose a test piece in 30 second increments from 2 to 8
minutes, develop and use the time which gave the best image. Generally speaking,
overexposure is better than underexposure. (it's easier to add the odd wire-bridge than
hack off a load of unwanted copper with a Dremel or deal with lots of hairline shorts
on fine-pitch tracking)
For a single-sided PCB, place the artwork, toner side up, on the UV box glass, peel
off the protective film from the laminate, and place it sensitive side down on top of
the artwork. The laminate must be pressed firmly down to ensure good contact all
over the artwork, and this can be done either by placing weights on the back of the
laminate (I use a few dead gel-cell lead-acid batteries for this), or by fitting the UV
box with a hinged lid lined with foam rubber, which can be used to clamp the PCB
and artwork. If you are using an old Scanner as a case, the lid will of course already
be there.
After exposure, you can usually see a feint image of the pattern in the photosensitive
layer.
10.4 Developing

The main thing to say here is DO NOT USE SODIUM HYDROXIDE for developing
photoresist laminates. Use of Sodium hydroxide is the primary reason people
complain about poor results when trying to photo-etch PCBs.
It is completely and utterly dreadful stuff for developing PCBs - apart from it's
causticity, it's very sensitive to both temperature and concentration, and made-up
solution doesn't last long. Too weak and it doesn't develop at all, too strong and it
strips all the resist off. It's almost impossible to get reliable and consistent results,
especially so if making PCBs in an environment with large temperature variations
(garage, shed etc), as is often the case for such messy activities as PCB making.

A much much better developer is a silicate based product, which comes as a liquid
concentrate. I'm told this is sodium metasilicate pentahydrate Na2SiO3*5H2O (RS-
Components data sheet item 690-849 and Safety data sheet). See sources below for
method for making this developer.
This stuff has huge advantages over sodium hydroxide, most importantly is is very
hard to over-develop. You can leave the board in for several times the normal
developing time without noticeable degredation. This also means it's not temperature
critical - no risk of stripping at warmer temperatures. Made-up solution also has a
very long shelf-life, and lasts basically until it's worn out (and even then you can just
top up with more concentrate) - the concentrate lasts essentially forever.
The lack of over-developing problems allows you to make the solution up really
strong for very fast developing The recommended mix is 1 part developer to 9 parts
water, but I usally make it stronger to develop MicroTrak laminate in about 5-10
seconds (yes, seconds - dip, rinse and it's done!) without the risk of over-development
damage.
You can check for correct development by dipping the board in the ferric chloride
very briefly (or dribbling a few drops onto the surface) - the exposed copper should
turn dull pink almost instantly, leaving the track pattern sharply defined. If any shiny
copper coloured areas remain, or the gaps between tracks are 'blurry', rinse and
develop for a few more seconds. If the board was under-exposed, you tend to get a
thin layer of resist which isn't removed by the developer. You can often remove this
by gently wiping with dry paper towel (Kitchen roll, preferably non
coloured/patterned!) - the dry paper towel is just abrasive enough to remove the film
without damaging the resist.
You can either use a photographic developing tray or a vertical tank for developing -
a tray makes it easier to see the progress of the development. You don't need a heated
tray or tank unless the solution is really cold (<15°C). A defrost tray from a small
scrap refrigerator is a possible alternatibe ( I have been known to use the tray from
my fridge to develop & etch a particularly large PCB....).
10.5 Etching

I've always used ferric chloride etchant - it's messy stuff, but easier to get and
cheaper than most alternatives I've seen. It attacks ANY metal including stainless
steel, so when setting up a PCB etching area, use a plastic or ceramic sink, with
plastic fittings & screws wherever possible, and seal any metal screw heads etc. with
silicone-rubber sealant. If copper water pipes may get splashed or dripped-on, sleeve
or cover them in plastic (heat-shrink sleeving is great if you're installing new pipes).
Fume extraction is not normally required, although a cover over the tank or tray when
not in use is a good idea. If there is an easy way to vent fumes outside ( e.g. a cover
over the tanks) this can make the fumes less objectionable but it's really not worth the
hassle of setting up a powered extractor unless you have a particularly sensitive
nose/throat. Power extraction is also rather problematic to do due to corrosion issues.
You should always use the hexahydrate type of ferric chloride, which is light
yellow, and comes as powder or big globular granules, which should be dissolved in
warm water until no more will dissolve, giving a typically muddy brown solution.
Adding a teaspoon of table salt helps to make the etchant clearer (looks like very very
strong tea) for easier inspection.
Anhydrous ferric chloride is sometimes encountered, which is a dark green-brown
crystalline powder. Avoid this stuff if at all possible Use extreme caution, as it creates
a lot of heat when dissolved - always add the powder very slowly to water, do not add
water to the powder, and use gloves and safety glasses You may well find that
solution made from anhydrous FeCl doesn't etch at all, if so, you need to add a small
amount of hydrochloric acid and leave it for a day or two. Don't add too much acid
though as it will produce very corrosive and choking fumes when warmed for
etching. Sorry, I don't know what constitutes ' too much' as it's many years since I
used anhydrous ferric chloride.
Always take extreme care to avoid splashing when dissolving either type of
FeCl - it tends to clump together in the container due to absorbing moisture, and you
often get big chunks coming out of the container & splashing into the solution. It will
damage eyes and permanently stain clothing and pretty much anything else - use
gloves and safety glasses and wash off any skin splashes immediately.
If you're making PCBs in a professional environment, where time is money,
you really should get a heated bubble-etch tank. With fresh hot ferric chloride, a PCB
will etch in well under 5 minutes, compared to up to an hour without heat or
agitation. Fast etching also produces better edge quality and consistent line widths.
10.6 Tin Plating

Although you can get special stripping solutions and hand applicators,
most resists can be dissolved off more easily and cleanly using methanol (methylated
spirit). Hold the (rinsed and dried) PCB horizontal, and dribble few drops of
methanol on the surface, tilting the PCB to allow it to run over the whole surface.
Wait about 10 seconds, and wipe off with a paper towel dipped in methanol. Repeat if
any resist remains.
I've left the old section on plating below, but I don't really think it's worth
it except maybe in situations where you need a finish that lasts longer than the life of
a typical prototype, e.g. for edge connectors or test-point pads, or for better cosmetic
appearance.
Tin-plating a PCB makes it a lot easier to solder, and is pretty much essential
for surface mount boards. Unless you have access to a roller-tinning machine,
chemical tinning is the only option. Unfortunately, tin-plating chemicals are
expensive, but the results are usually worth it.
If you don't tin-plate the board, either leave the photoresist coating on (most
resists are intended to act as soldering fluxes), or spray the board with rework flux to
prevent the copper oxidising. A 'flux pen' (available from Chemtronics & Multicore)
be used to coat smaller PCBs.

Made-up tinning solution deteriorates over time, especially in contact with


air, so unless you regularly make a lot of PCBs, make up small quantities at a time
(just enough to cover a PCB in the tinning tray) keep the solution in a sealed bottle
(ideally one of those concertina-type bottles used for some photographic solutions to
exclude air), and return it to the bottle immediately after use - a few days in an open
tray and it can deteriorate badly. Also take care to avoid contamination, which can
very easily render the solution useless. Thoroughly rinse and dry the PCB before
tinning, keep a special tray and pair of tongs specifically for tinning (to avoid
contamination), and rinse them after use. Do not top-up used solution if it stops
tinning - discard it, clean & rinse the tray, and make up a fresh solution.
Ensure the temperature of the tinning solution is at least 25ºC, but not more
than 40ºC - if required, either put the bottle in a hot water bath, or put the tinning
tray in a bigger tray filled with hot water to warm it up. Putting a PCB in cold tinning
solution will usually prevent tinning, even if the temperature is subsequently raised.
Preparation is important for a good tinned finish - strip the photoresist
thoroughly - although you can get special stripping solutions and hand applicators,
most resists can be dissolved off more easily and cleanly using methanol (methylated
spirit). Hold the (rinsed and dried) PCB horizontal, and dribble few drops of
methanol on the surface, tilting the PCB to allow it to run over the whole surface.
Wait about 10 seconds, and wipe off with a paper towel dipped in methanol. Repeat if
any resist remains.
Rub the copper surface all over with wire wool (which gives a much better
finish than abrasive paper or those rubber 'eraser blocks') until it is bright and shiny
all over, wipe with a paper towel to remove the wire wool fragments, and
immediately immerse the board in the tinning solution. Take care not to touch the
copper surface after cleaning, as fingermarks will impair plating.
The copper should turn a silver colour within about 30 seconds, and you
should leave the board for about 5 minutes, agitating occasionally (do not use bubble
agitation). For double-sided PCBs, prop the PCB at an angle to ensure the solution
can get to both sides.
Rinse the board thoroughly, and rub dry with paper towel to remove any
tinning crystal deposits, which can spoil the finish. If the board isn't going to be
soldered for a day or two, coat it with flux, either with a rework flux spray or a flux
pen.

10.7 Drilling

If you're using fibreglass (FR4) board, which you almost certainly will be, you
MUST use tungsten carbide drill bits - fibreglass eats normal high-speed steel (HSS)
bits very rapidly, although HSS drills are OK for odd larger sizes (>2mm) that you
only use occasionally where the expense of a carbide isn't justified. Carbide drill bits
are expensive, and the thin ones snap very easily. When using carbide drill bits below
1mm, you MUST use a good vertical drill stand - you WILL break drill bits very
quickly without one, and at UK£2-3 a pop, a drill stand will quickly pay for itself.
Carbide drill bits are available as straight-shank (i.e. the whole bit is the
diameter of the hole), or thick shank (also called 'turbo' or 'reduced' shank) , where a
standard size (typically about 3.5mm or 1/8") shank tapers down to the hole size. I
much prefer the straight-shank type for sizes below about 1mm because they break
less easily, the longer thin section providing more flexibility. Straight-shank drills are
also usually cheaper, but sometimes less easy to obtain.
When drilling with carbide bits, it's important to hold the pcb down firmly, as
the drill bit can snatch the board upwards as it breaks through, and this will usually
break the drill bit if the board isn't held down.
Small drills for PCB use usually come with either a set of collets of various
sizes or a 3-jaw chuck - sometimes the 3-jaw chuck is an optional extra, and is worth
getting for the time it saves changing collets. For accuracy, however, 3-jaw chucks
aren't brilliant, and small drill sizes below 1mm quickly form grooves in the jaws,
preventing good grip. Below 1mm you should use collets, and buy a few extra of the
smallest ones, keeping one collet per drill size, as using a larger drill in a collet will
open it out so it no longer grips smaller drills well. Some cheap drills come with
plastic collets - throw them away and get metal ones.

You need a good strong light on the board when drilling to ensure accuracy. I
use a 12V dichroic halogen lamp (under-run at 9V to reduce brightness) mounted on
a microphone gooseneck for easy positioning (shown right). It can be useful to raise
the working surface about 6" above normal desk height for more comfortable
viewing. Dust extraction is nice, but not essential - an occasional blow does the trick!
Note that fibreglass dust & drill swarf is very abrasive and also irritating to the skin.
A foot-pedal control to switch the drill off and on is a very useful addiiton,
especially when frequently changing bits.
Typical hole sizes : ICs, resistors etc. 0.8mm. Larger diodes (1N4001 etc.),
square-pin headers, D connectors, IDC connectors, TO-220 leads etc. : 1.0mm,
terminal blocks, trimmers etc. 1.2 to 1.5mm. Avoid hole sizes less than 0.8mm unless
you really need them. Always keep at least two spare 0.8mm drill bits, as they always
break just when you need a PCB really urgently. 1.0mm and larger are more resilient,
but one spare is always a good idea.
When making two identical boards, it is possible to drill them both together to
save time. To do this, carefully drill an 0.8mm hole in the pad nearest each corner of
each of the two boards, taking care to get the centre as accurate as possible. For larger
boards, drill a hole near the centre of each side as well. Lay the boards on top of each
other, and insert an 0.8mm track pin (pictured below, under 'Through Plating') in 2
opposite corners, using the pins as pegs to line the PCBs up. Squeeze (with pliers or a
vice ) or hammer the pins into the boards, and then insert and squeeze pins into the
remaining holes. The two PCBs will now have been 'nailed' together accurately, and
can be drilled together. Standard track pins are just the right length to fix standard
1.6mm PCBs together without potruding below the bottom board.
On PCBs with several hole sizes, I'd suggest drilling the larger sizes first, as
this reduces the chance of accidentally under-drilling a hole - something you typically
only notice when the PCB is half-assembled, making it awkward to re-drill.

10.8 Cutting

If you do any serious amount of PCB work, a small guillotine (cost about £150)
is very useful, as it's by far the easiest way to cut fibreglass laminate Mega
Electronics (see sources) do a very nice one. Ordinary saws (bandsaws, jigsaws,
hacksaws) will be blunted quickly unless they are carbide tipped, and the dust can
cause skin irritation. Although tempting if avaliable, I would particularly advise
against using a bandsaw as it will not only wreck the expensive blade quickly, the
inevitable fibreglass dust is likely to do long-term damage to bearings etc.
If using a hacksaw, use a long-frame type i.e. not junior) with adjsutable
tension, and a medium or fine metal-cutting blade, with plenty of tension ( as tight as
you can without snapping the blade). Clamp the PCB firmly, using a strip of wood to
clamp the entire length of the board, close to the cut, with thin cardboard on each side
of the board to avoid scratching the photoresist. Keep the saw blade angle as shallow
as possible - this keeps the cut nice and straight.
A carbide tile-saw blade in a jigsaw might be worth a try, but bear in mind it's
easy to accidentally scratch through the protective film when sawing, causing
photoresist scratches and broken tracks on the finished board - if using a jigsaw I'd
suggest adding a layer of parcel tape to increase protection .
If you have access to a sheet-metal guillotine, this is also excellent for cutting
boards, providing the blade is fairly sharp.

To make cut-outs, drill a series of small holes, punch out the blank and file to
size. Alternatively use a fretsaw or small hacksaw, but be prepared to replace blades
often. With practice it's possible to do corner cutouts with a guillotine but you have to
be very careful not to over-cut!
A cheap nibbling tool like This one (pictured right) is very useful for making cutouts
and shaping the board edge.
If you use a saw to cut the board, take care to ensure the edges are square, as
burrs on the board will raise it enough from the artwork for the UV light to get
between the artwork and the board Check for burrs again once you have removed the
backing sheet just before exposure.

10.9 Through – Plating

When laying out double-sided boards, give some thought to how top
connections will be made. Some components (e.g. resistors, unsocketed ICs) are
much easier to top-solder than others (e.g. radial capacitors), so where there is a
choice, make the top connection to the 'easier' component. For s ocketed ICs, use
turned-pin sockets, preferably the type with a thick pin section under the socket body.
Lift the socket slightly off the board, and solder a couple of pins on the solder side to
tack it in place, and adjust so the socket is straight.. Solder all the solder side pins,
then solder the required top-side pins by reheating the joint on the solder side, while
applying solder to the pin and track on the component side, waiting until the solder
has flowed all round the pin before removing the heat (pictured right). On dense
boards, think carefully about the best order in which to insert sockets to make access
to top-side pins easier. When you have finished assembling the PCB, double-check
that you have top-soldered all the required top pads, as unsoldered top-side pins can
cause intermittent contact and be very hard to track down.
Then when you can't get the board working, check again for top-side pins you forgot
to solder - there's always at least one..!
For vias (holes which link the two sides, without component pins in them), use
0.8mm snap-off linking pins (shown right), available from manyelectronics suppliers.
(See Sources) These are much quicker than using pieces of wire. Just insert the
bottom of the stick into the hole, bend over to snap off the bottom pin, repeat for
other holes, then solder both sides. If you need 'proper' through-plated holes, for
example to connect to inaccessible top-side pins, or for underneath surface mount
devices (linking pins stick out too much for use here), Multicore's "Copperset"
system works well, but the kit is very expensive (£190). It uses 'bail bars' (pictured
right), which consist of a rod of solder, with a copper/tin sleeve plated on the outside.
The sleeve is scored at 1.6mm intervals, corresponding to the PCB thickness. The bar
is inserted into the hole using a special applicator, and bent over to snap off the single
bail in the hole. It is then punched with a modified automatic centre-punch, which
causes the solder to splay over the ends of the plated sleeve, and also pushes the
sleeve against the side of the hole. The pads are soldered each side to join the sleeve
to the pads, and then the solder is removed with braid or a solder sucker to leave a
clear plated hole. Fortunately, it is possible to use this system for plating standard
0.8mm holes without buying the full kit. You can buy the bail bars seperately as
refills (£24 for 500). For the applicator, use a 0.9mm automatic pencil, (the type
which has a tip like the one pictured right, e.g. Berol PCL2000), which actually
works much better than the original applicator, as you get one bail for every press of
the button, and it has a metal nose instead of the original plastic one. Get a small
automatic centre-punch, and grind the tip off so it's completely flat - this works fine
for punching the bails. For an anvil, use a thick flat piece of metal - the back of a
large heatsink is perfect for this - plate all the holes before fitting any components so
the bottom surface is completely flat. Holes must be drilled with a sharp 0.85mm
carbide drill to get the hole size right for the plating process..

10.10 Through – Plating Using Rivets

This riveting system is another way to do through-plating on dense PCBs. The


rivets can be used quite easily on their own without the punch tool, just a pair of fine
tweezers (and a steady hand...).
The 0.4mm rivets (pictured) fit a 0.6mm hole and so can be used on quite dense
groups of 0.05" pad dia vias.
11. References
11. References

a. “Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer” -By Steven F. Barrett & Daniel J. Pack

b. “Microcontroller Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists” – By S Barrett


&D Pack

c. Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontroller with 16K Bytes In – System Programmable


Flash, Atmega16, data sheet : 2466L – AVR – 06/05, Atmel, San Jose, CA.

d. J Hennessy and D Patterson, “Computer Architecture : A Quantitative


Approach” 3rd ed, Morgan Kaufman, San Francisco, CA, 2003

Websites

http://www.avrfreaks.net/

http://extremeelectronics.co.in/

http://www.wikipedia.org/

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