Constructivist Teaching and Learning

By: Audrey Gray

SSTA Research Centre Report #97-07: 25 pages, $11.

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION Constructivist Teaching and Learning is a

summary of a Master's thesis by Audrey Gray,
What is Constructivism? University of Saskatchewan, entitled "'The
Why is Constructivism Important? Road to Knowledge is Always Under
Construction': A Life History Journey to
PART TWO: CONSTRUCTIVIST
Constructivist Teaching".
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Employing a qualitative research approach and
A Classroom Example of Constructivist
a narrative reporting style, Ms. Gray explores
Teaching
the journey of Pat Gray, a Saskatoon English
The Constructivist Classroom
language arts teacher, towards the development
A Constructivist Classroom is Student-
of a constructivist approach to teaching and
Centered
examines the ways he incorporates ideas and
Constructivism Uses a Process Approach
strategies into his teaching practices.
Constructivist Teaching Involves Negotiation
The Teacher in a Constructivist Classroom is a
The research provides insight into the process
Researcher
of teacher change and development and raises
Students and are Interactive in a Constructivist
questions about teacher professional
Classroom
development that have implications for the
Teacher Organization and Management in a
way constructivist and transactional curricula
Constructivist Classroom are Democratic
are implemented. Executive Summary
Power and Control in the Constructivist
Classroom are Shared
PART THREE: PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT OF A
CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER
PART FOUR: CONCLUSION

Implications and Recommendations

Concluding Remarks
References

Back to: Instruction

The SSTA Research Centre grants permission to reproduce up to three copies of each report for personal use. Each
copy must acknowledge the author and the SSTA Research Centre as the source. A complete and authorized copy of
each report is available from the SSTA Research Centre.
The opinions and recommendations expressed in this report are those of the author and may not be in agreement
with SSTA officers or trustees, but are offered as being worthy of consideration by those responsible for making
decisions.

Constructivist Teaching and Learning

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively
involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction rather than passively receiving
information. Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge. Constructivist teaching fosters
critical thinking and creates motivated and independent learners.

This report examines constructivist teaching and learning by looking at the distinctive features of
a constructivist programme, the qualities of a constructivist teacher, and the organization of a
constructivist classroom. A constructivist teacher and classroom differ from a traditional
classroom in a number of ways: the learners are interactive and student-centered; and the teacher
facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and
autonomous.

Part One of this report provides a definition of an a rationale for constructivist teaching. Part
Two examines the characteristic features of a constructivist classroom interweaving the research
literature on constructivist teaching with the narrated experiences of a practising constructivist
teacher. Part Three presents a discussion of the professional development of a constructivist
teacher. Part Four considers implications of and possibilities for this research on constructivist
teaching and suggests recommendations for schools, colleges and school boards.

Table of Contents

Constructivist Teaching and Learning

This report presents a summary of a Master's thesis by Audrey Gray, University of

Saskatchewan, entitled "'The Road to Knowledge is Always Under Construction': A Life History
Journey to Constructivist Teaching".

The research in "'The Road to Knowledge is Always Under Construction': A Life History
Journey to Constructivist Teaching" explores the journey of Pat Gray, a Saskatoon English
language arts teacher, towards the development of a constructivist approach to teaching. It looks
at the influences, incidents, and insights that prompted Pat to make changes in the direction of
constructivism, focuses on his growth and development of a constructivist approach, and
explores the ways he incorporates constructivist ideas and strategies into his teaching practices.

Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively
involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving
information. Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge. Construcivist teaching fosters
critical thinking, and creates motivated and independent learners.

This summary report examines constructivist teaching and learning by looking at the distinctive
features of a constructivist programme, the qualities of a constructivist teacher, and the
organization of a constructivist classroom. A constructivist teacher and a constructivist
classroom are distinguished from a traditional teacher and classroom by a number of identifiable
qualities: the learners are actively involved; the environment is

democratic; the activities are interactive and student-centered; and the teacher facilitates a
process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous.

Pat's developmental transition from traditional forms of instruction to a constructivist approach

to teaching provides insight into the process of teacher change and development. The research
shows that, for Pat, change to a constructivist approach to teaching was a developmental process
that occurred over time and involved a paradigm shift. The research raises questions about the
process of teacher change and development that have implications for the way constructivist and
transactional curricula are implemented.

Part One of this report provides a definition of and a rationale for constructivist teaching. Part
Two examines the characteristic features of a constructivist classroom interweaving the research
literature and the significant findings of constructivist teaching. Part Three presents a discussion
of the professional development of a constructivist teacher. Part Four considers implications and
possibilities resulting from this research on constructivst teaching and suggests recommendations
for schools, colleges and school boards.

Table of Contents

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION

What is Constructivism?

Constructivism is a view of learning based on the belief that knowledge isn't a thing that can be
simply given by the teacher at the front of the room to students in their desks. Rather, knowledge
is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of development; learners are the
builders and creators of meaning and knowledge. Constructivism draws on the develomental
work of Piaget (1977) and Kelly (1991). Twomey Fosnot (1989) defines constructivism by
reference to four principles: learning, in an important way, depends on what we already know;
new ideas occur as we adapt and change our old ideas; learning involves inventing ideas rather
than mechanically accumulating facts; meaningful learning occurs through rethinking old ideas
and coming to new conclusions about new ideas which conflict with our old ideas. A productive,
constructivist classroom, then, consists of learner-centered, active instruction. In such a
classroom, the teacher provides students with experiences that allow them to hypothesize,
predict, manipulate objects, pose questions, research, investigate, imagine, and invent. The
teacher's role is to facilitate this process.

Piaget (1977) asserts that learning occurs by an active construction of meaning, rather than by
passive recipience. He explains that when we, as learners, encounter an experience or a situation
that conflicts with our current way of thinking, a state of disequilibrium or imbalance is created.
We must then alter our thinking to restore equilibrium or balance. To do this, we make sense of
the new information by associating it with what we already know, that is, by attempting to
assimilate it into our existing knowledge. When we are unable to do this, we accommodate the
new information to our old way of thinking by restructuring our present knowledge to a higher
level of thinking.

Similar to this is Kelly's theory of personal constructs (Kelly, 1991). Kelly proposes that we look
at the world through mental constructs or patterns which we create. We develop ways of
construing or understanding the world based on our experiences. When we encounter a new
experience, we attempt to fit these patterns over the new experience. For example, we know from
experience that when we see a red traffic light, we are supposed to stop. The point is that we
create our own ways of seeing the world in which we live; the world does not create them for us.

Constructivist beliefs have recently been applied to teaching and learning in the classroom.

Table of Contents

Why Is Constructivism Important?

Educational curricula and teaching methods are changing. One component of the current
redevelopment of all subject area curricula is the change in focus of instruction from the
transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. In a traditional curriculum, a teacher
transmits information to students who passively listen and acquire facts. In a transactional
curriculum, students are actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings.

Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners.
Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde (1993) tell us that learning in all subject areas involves inventing
and constructing new ideas. They suggest that constructivist theory be incorporated into the
curriculum, and advocate that teachers create environments in which children can construct their
own understandings . Twomey Fosnot (1989) recommends that a constructivist approach be used
to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate, and
reason. A constructivist approach frees teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich
students' development" in these areas. These are goals that are consistent with those stated by
Saskatchewan Education in the the 1984 government report, Directions, that launched the
restructuring of Saskatchewan's curricula. This demonstrates that constructivism is evident in
current educational change.

Table of Contents

PART TWO: CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING AND LEARNING

Pat Gray, a Saskatoon teacher, has intuitively acquired a constructivist theory of teaching
English language arts over the course of his career. While many people struggle with the concept
of transactional instruction, Pat, for many years, has been experimenting with a variety of
transactional instructional forms. Making students active agents in their learning appears to be
something that he does naturally.

A Classroom Example of Constructivist Teaching

As a researcher of constructivist teaching, I visited Pat Gray's classroom. His secondary language
arts programme exemplified the attributes of constructivist teaching: learner-centered instruction
in a democratic environment; active learners who build and create meaning and knowledge;
learners who hypothesize, question, investigate, imagine and invent; learners who reflect and
make associations with prior knowledge to reach new understandings.

Colourfully illustrated children's dictionaries, student-created serial postcards storying imaginary

holiday adventures, and visual responses to poetry decorated the hallway leading into Pat's
classroom. In the classroom itself, an abundance of student work was displayed throughout the
room. Posted on all available bulletin board space was an uncommon and diverse array of written
and visual student productions, sometimes several revised drafts of a written creation being
exhibited to demonstrate the process involved in the product. In one corner of the ceiling was a
compelling mobile, an imaginative and sensitive response to literature, as evidenced by the
representation of characters, Laura, Amanda, Tom, and Jim, the characters from Tennessee
Williams' The Glass Menagerie. There they hung, delicately suspended in their own separate
worlds, connected only by a thin filament of thread, the infrangible ties of family and past
history. And at the back and center of the room was an imposing five foot tall oak tree! With
some ordinary construction paper, marking pens, and an interesting and resourceful treatment of
various other types of art materials, an inventive group of students had depicted an intriguing and
fascinating response to To Kill A Mockingbird . The oak tree was, in fact, a museum to house
important artifacts from the story.
A number of years prior to this visit, I had been a guest in Pat's classroom, and the same kind of
richness of student work and activity had greeted me at that time, and a warm image of an
elementary classroom had been brought to mind. I remember the room was filled with red
geraniums in terra cotta pots and contained round tables instead of the usual student desks, and
although the first class of the day hadn't yet begun, the room already contained many
configurations of grade nine students with an obvious sense of ownership of the classroom as
they engaged themselves in an assortment of activities. One student busied herself watering the
geraniums while two students, contorted faces pressed close to the aquarium glass, tried to
engage the goldfish (Oscar and Syd Fishes, I was later informed) in a conversation. At a corner
table, a huddled couple intently examined a Life magazine while next to them, a lively group of
three or four students was occupied in transforming a rather large chunk of white bristol board
into a lively looking collage. Their teacher was surrounded by a small group of laughing students
involved in some discussion, and I remember I was impressed by the ease and comfort with
which they interacted with him, and the affection they seemed to have for him, it being only the
second week in September and Pat being new in the school. It was obvious to me that people
enjoyed living there!

And now, as a graduate student, my research took me back to Pat's classroom where the
experience, once again, was memorable.

A class of grade ten students arranged themselves in the groups in which they had been working
the previous day. They were involved in a group translation into contemporary English of Julius
Caesar, each of five groups translating a different act. In their attempts to modernize and present
Shakespeare's work, students were required to come to an understanding of characters and events
in the play, which would determine verbal and nonverbal representations. Later, the students
would enact, in full costume, one scene of their choice from their contemporary constructions,
with the remainder of the scenes to be presented in a readers' theatre. While the costumes for the
enactment would be contemporary, the students had to make decisions regarding the most
appropriate costumes for each character based on their own interpretations of and transactions
with Shakespeare's text. The exercise was, as Pat later told me, an experience from which they
would come to an understanding of linguistic evolution and character development. As I
wandered from group to group, I encountered interesting and often entertaining discussions as
students in the groups negotiated interpretations of Shakespearean discourse and debated how
particular characters might say their new constructions. In the meantime, Pat was visiting each
group, providing assistance where necessary, and probing to elicit personal responses and to
encourage depth in their discussions.

"Who's your favourite character in your act?"

"Cassius".

"Tell me about Cassius. Why do you like him?

And so the conversation and the class continued.

Table of Contents

The Constructivist Classroom

A constructivist teacher and a constructivist classroom exhibit a number of discernable qualities

markedly different from a traditional or direct instruction classroom. A constructivist teacher is
able to flexibly and creatively incorporate ongoing experiences in the classroom into the
negotiation and construction of lessons with small groups and individuals. The environment is
democratic, the activites are interactive and student centered, and the students are empowered by
a teacher who operates as a facilitator/consultant.

Constructivist classrooms are structured so that learners are immersed in experiences within
which they may engage in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction,
hypothesizing and personal reflection. Teachers need to recognize how people use their own
experiences, prior knowledge and perceptions, as well as their physical and interpersonal
environments to construct knowledge and meaning. The goal is to produce a democratic
classroom environment that provides meaningful learning experiences for autonomous learners.

This perspective of learning presents an alternative view of what is regarded as knowledge,

suggesting that there may be many ways of interpreting or understanding the world. No longer is
the teacher is seen as an expert, who knows the answers to the questions she or he has
constructed, while the students are asked to identify their teacher's constructions rather than to
construct their own meanings. In a constructivist classroom, students are encouraged to use prior
experiences to help them form and reform interpretations. This may be illustrated by reference to
a personal response approach to literature, a constructivist strategy first articulated by Rosenblatt
(1938). Rosenblatt (1978) argues for a personal and constructive response to literature whereby
students' own experiences and perceptions are brought to the reading task so that in transacting
with that text, the realities and interpretations which the students construct are their own. A
reader response approach to literature rejects the idea that all students should necessarily come to
the same interpretation of a selection of literature, that single interpretation being the teacher's or
someone else's. A reader response approach allows students to explore variant interpretations, the
teacher's own interpretation being only one possible interpretation in the classroom.

In a traditional classroom, an invisible and imposing, at times, impenetrable, barrier between

student and teacher exists through power and practice. In a constructivist classroom, by contrast,
the teacher and the student share responsibility and decision making and demonstrate mutual
respect. The democratic and interactive process of a constructivist classroom allows students to
be active and autonomous learners. Using constructivist strategies, teachers are more effective.
They are able to promote communication and create flexibility so that the needs of all students
can be met. The learning relationship in a constructivist classroom is mutually beneficial to both
students and teachers.
Table of Contents

A Construcivist Classroom is Student-Centered

A Construcivist Classroom is a Student-Centered Classroom. The student-centeredness of a

constructivist classroom is clearly apparent in a reader response approach to literature.
Recognizing the significance of the unique experiences that each reader brings to the reading of a
selection of literature, the teacher in a response-centered approach seeks to explore the
transaction between the student and the text to promote or extract a meaningful response
(Rosenblatt, 1978). This places the student in a central position in the classroom since exploring
this transaction seems unlikely to occur unless the teacher is willing to relinquish the traditional
position of sole authority, thereby legitimating the unique experiences that all members of the
class bring to the reading rather than just those experiences the teacher brings. The resulting
perception and effect in the classroom is evident in students' recognition that the discussion is a
legitimate one involving questions to which nobody knows the answer. It isn't a treasure hunting
game where they are trying to guess what is in their teacher's head, but a process that creates
meaning and knowledge.

From a constructivist perspective, where the student is perceived as meaning-maker, teacher-

centered, text-centered and skills-oriented approaches to literature instruction are replaced by
more student-centered approaches where processes of understanding are emphasized. In a
discussion of language arts instruction based on constructivist theories of language use and
language development, Applebee (1993) suggests that

[r]ather than treating the subject of English as subject matter to be memorized, a constructivist
approach treats it as a body of knowledge, skills, and strategies that must be constructed by the
learner out of experiences and interactions within the social context of the classroom. In such a
tradition, understanding a work of literature does not mean memorizing someone else's
interpretations, but constructing and elaborating upon one's own within the constraints of the text
and the conventions of the classroom discourse community. (p. 200)

A constructivist student-centered approach places more focus on students learning than on

teachers teaching. A traditional perspective focuses more on teaching. From a constructivist
view, knowing occurs by a process of construction by the knower. Lindfors (1984) advises that
how we teach should originate from how students learn.

Table of Contents

Constructivism Uses a Process Approach

What is essentially involved in constructivist strategies and activities is a process approach to
learning. Applebee (1993) remarks that "rather than emphasizing characteristics of the final
products, process-oriented instruction focuses on the language and problem-solving strategies
that students need to learn in order to generate those products" (p. 5). And as students interact
with their teacher and with each other as part of either whole class activities, small group
activities, or individual activities, they practise using language in a variety of contexts
developing and honing many different skills as they do so.

In a process approach, Langer and Applebee (1987) explain, a context is created within which
students are able to explore new ideas and experiences. Within this context, a teacher's role in
providing information decreases and is replaced by a "strengthened role in eliciting and
supporting students' own thinking" (p. 77) and meaning-making abilities. In a process approach
to learning,

ideas are allowed to develop in the learner's own mind through a series of related, supportive
activities; where taking risks and generating hypotheses are encouraged by postponing
evaluation; and where new skills are learned in supportive instructional contexts. (Langer and
Applebee, 1987, p. 69)

Applebee and Langer argue that in such contexts "students have the best chance to focus on the
ideas they are writing about and to develop more complex thinking and reasoning skills as they
defend their ideas for themselves" (p. 69).

Constructivist activities in any subject area can range from very simple to sophisticated and
complex depending on the teacher's learning objectives. If a teacher were to devise a
construcivist activity, the first thing that she or he would have to do is establish an educational
objective. The teacher would then need to think of a meaningful activity which would, at the
same time, help students to reach the objective and to explore and construct knowledge based on
what they're reading and what they already bring to the activity. The teacher would also need to
reexamine the mechanics of how to run a class and would have to entrust a lot to the

students. This is demonstrated in the following activity involving The Prologue to the Canterbury
Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, which Pat developed to achieve a variety of language arts objectives.

My class and I began by examining the linguistic evolution of the English language including
Middle English in which Geoffrey Chaucer writes. I then provided each student with Chaucer's
text in Middle English. Next, I gave each a pronunciation guide. Finally, to the whole class, I
read the Introduction to the Prologue in Middle English, and as a class, we translated it. I then
provided a brief character sketch of each character in the Prologue after which each student
elected to join a character group of his or her choice, for example, the squire, the group's task
being to become an expert on the particular character which they had selected. Each group was
then provided with a chart on which they were to record the various aspects of their character's
'condicioun'. The group's next undertaking was to rehearse a dramatic oral reading of their
character's portion of the Prologue. In so doing, each group began, with assistance when
required, to come to an understanding of their character. Then each group was expected to
thoroughly research their character in order to come to a better understanding of the historical
persona on whom Chaucer based his literary rendering and to place that character into a social,
historical, and cultural context. The preexisting character groups were then split up, and students
were instructed to form new groups of three or four none of which could contain more than one
of the same character. Then their task was to complete an activity called Table Talk at the Tabard
in which each group was asked to create and script a playlet among the three or four characters,
the purpose of which was to bring to life each of the characters. By the time the students had
seen everybody else's presentation, they had at least a passing knowledge of, and an appreciation
of, all of Chaucer's characters along with the language of Chaucer's time.

The possibilities for constructivist activities are limitless. It is important, however, regardless of
subject area, to provide enough activities for student choice and to encourage student-generated
activities.

Constructivist teaching is an exceptionally interesting and exciting way to teach because students
are involved in learning activites they appear to enjoy, and much more student-teacher contact is
possible. It extends one's impact as a teacher.

Table of Contents

Constructivist Teaching Involves Negotiation

Negotiation is an important aspect of a constructivist classroom. It unites teachers and students in

a common purpose. Smith (1993) confirms that negotiating curriculum means "custom-building
classes every day to fit the individuals who attend" (p. 1). Boomer (1992) explains that it is
important when negotiating for teachers to talk openly about how new information may be
learned and about constraints such as obligatory curriculum. He comments on the meaning of
negotiating the curriculum:

Negotiating the curriculum means deliberately planning to invite students to contribute, and to
modify, the educational program, so that they will have a real investment both in the learning
journey and the outcomes. Negotiation also means making explicit, and then confronting, the
constraints of the learning context and the non-negotiable requirements that apply. (p. 14)

Cook (1992) explains why negotiating the curriculum with students is important:

Learners will work harder and better, and what they learn will mean more to them if they are
discovering their own ideas, asking their own questions, and fighting hard to answer them for
themselves. They must be educational decision makers. Out of negotiation comes a sense of
ownership in learners for the work they are to do, and therefore a commitment to it. (p.16)

A constructivist teacher offers his or her students options and choices in their work. Rejecting the
common practice of telling students what to do, he or she engages their trust and
invites them to participate in a constructivist process that allows them to be involved in decisions
about their learning. Students actively involved in their own learning is a vital reality in a
constructivist classroom. Students may participate in the construction of the curriculum by
negotiating the themes that will be the focus of their work along with the selection of literature
from a predetermined range of literature. Students may also participate in the design of their
assignments, although the parameters for these may be established by their teacher. Finally,
students may have some involvement in the way their assignments are evaluated.

Table of Contents

The Teacher in a Constructivist Classroom is a Researcher

A crucially important aspect of a teacher's job is watching, listening, and asking questions of
students in order to learn about them and about how they learn so that teachers may be more
helpful to students. Calkins (1986) notes that there is a thin line between research and teaching.
At the same time that we teach children, they also teach us because they show us how they learn;
we just have to carefully watch them and listen to them . This kind of watching and listening
may contribute to a teacher's ability to use what the classroom experience provides to help him or
her create contextualized and meaningful lessons for small groups and individuals. The ability to
observe and listen to one's students and their experiences in the classroom contributes to his or
her ability to use a constructivist approach. Paradoxically, a constructivist approach contributes
to one's ability to observe and listen in the classroom. Thus, the process is circular.

Table of Contents

Students and Teachers are Interactive in a Constructivist Classroom

Another quality of a constructivist class is its interactive nature. Authenthic student-student and
student-teacher dialogue is very important in a constructivist classroom. Belenky, Clinchy,
Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) inform us that constructivists distinguish didactic talk, when
participants report experiences but no new understanding occurs, from real

talk where careful listening creates an environment within which emerging ideas can grow.
Perhaps this defines the difference between teacher talk in a direct instruction classroom, and
purposeful talk by students in a student-centered constructivist classroom where meaningful
discussion occurs and meanings emerge. Belenky et al (1986) explain that in "real talk",
domination is absent, while reciprocity, cooperation, and collaborative involvement are
prominent. Consequently, constructivist activities in the classroom that focus on speaking and
listening promote not only constructivist thought but also important connections between teacher
and students.

Table of Contents

Organization and Management of a Constructivist Classroom are Democratic

The organization and management of a class contribute appreciably to the creation of a

classroom environment that promotes constructivist learning. A democratic classroom
environment emphasizes shared responsibility and decision-making. It is generally accepted that
practices which typify democratic classrooms include acknowledgement of the importance of
human experience in learning; accommodation of small groups, individuals, and, occasionally,
the whole class in instruction; creation of an environment that supports the active involvement of
students in collaborative and empowering activities such as the exchange of ideas and opinions,
and responsibility for making decisions about learning and for generating flexible rules; and
teacher focus on students' learning rather than on teacher performance (Lester and Onore, 1990;
McNeil, 1986; Dewey, 1916; Dewey and Bentley,1949) . Lester and Onore (1990) suggest that
the attitudes, values, and beliefs of a teacher, specifically those related to the belief of student as
constructor of knowledge, make it possible to create a democratic environment. A democratic
classroom is self-regulating. Rather than overtly controlling the

students, a constructivist teacher structures the classroom so that students and teacher can share
in the control of their environment. Students are directly involved in all matters that occur in the
classroom that affect their being there as learners and as people. However, as Lester and Onore
(1990) discovered, "changing any one aspect of a classroom, in particular, how language is used,
isn't possible without simultaneously changing who has power and control over knowledge" (p.
5). Indeed, since student empowerment and autonomy are major goals in constructivist teaching,
changing the power structure in the classroom is a desired course of action.

Table of Contents

Power and Control in the Constructivist Classroom are Shared

Student empowerment is, in fact, at the center of of a constructivist teacher's philosophy. Like
parents who, from the moment their child is born, do everything possible to ensure that their
child has the skills and abilities to live independently of them, so a constructivist teacher, from
the moment a new set of students enters his or her classroom, does everything he or she can to
provide those students with the skills and abilities to be confident and autonomous learners and
citizens. And like parents who take pride in their children's accomplishments but not credit, a
constructivist teacher doesn't take the glory for the accomplishments of his or her students, but
rather empowers them with a feeling of competence and success.

Student empowerment and autonomy may be aided by encouraging students to ask questions and
by making them active learners. Calkins (1986) laments that in most classrooms, we neither
teach students to ask questions in schools nor allow students to ask questions, but simply require
them to answer our questions, although asking questions is a challenging and important part of
thinking and learning, especially if students are continually encouraged to ask more probing,
more appropriate, and more effective questions. By asking their own questions, students acquire
more consciousness of and control over their thinking.

Students having "control over their thinking" is an important matter in a constructivist classroom.
The lack of opportunity for students to ask their own questions is a very real concern in many
classrooms, and so exploring ways of getting students to ask questions, rather than the teacher
asking all the questions, may make a significant contribution to making students independent as
language learners. The person who has the questions not only has the answers but also the power.
Power is a key element in a constructivist classroom. Power is not wielded by a constructivist
teacher, and control is not imposed on students. Instead, a constructivist teacher uses an indirect
form of control and empowers students by involving them, by giving them responsibility, and by
encouraging them to be self-controlling and autonomous. While the teacher relinquishes power
and control to empower the students, neither the teacher nor the classroom is out of control. A
constructivist classroom is, in fact, highly organized. Students are given a lot of choices within
the classroom, but those choices may be contained within parameters. Students are able to
negotiate themes, but must abide by the range of literature that their curriculum prescribes.
Students may design their own assignments, but the assignments must accommodate curriculum
variables.

The apparant paradox in this 'constrained freedom' is highlighted by Daniel Sheridan (1993),
who comments on the use of structure in a constructivist classroom:

Structure is one of the conditions of freedom. Yet we cannot leave it at that, for paradoxically
there can be no freedom without some element of constraint. Thus within the structure of a
learning situation there are always some constraints--yes, even in the most apparently "free"
classroom, . . . . [S]tudents are constantly making language choices. Still, they are not "free" in
any radical or idealized sense . . . there is a lot of structure . . . (p.116).

What Sheridan is saying here is exemplified in a constructivist class. Unless kids are provided
with behavioural parameters, nothing gets accomplished because they don't know what it is
they're really supposed to do. But once these behavioural parameters are established, there can be
a lot of choices within.

The paradox about student centered instruction is the more control you turn over to the students
the less you need to worry about control, and, in fact, the students are quite able to look after
themselves and, even more, look after each other. In a constructivist classroom, control comes
from students' involvement in responsibility rather than external imposition, freeing the teacher
to focus on students learning, a profitable situation for both students and teachers.

Actively and interactively involved students, negotiated curriculum, and redistribution of power,
control, and responsibility all contribute to a relationship between students and teacher that
promotes a situation where learning thrives. With the development of a constructivist
philosophy, a teacher of any discipline is able to create a classroom environment within which
students are able to become autonomous learners.

Table of Contents

PART THREE: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CONSTRUCTIVIST

TEACHER

Constructivist classes reveal a shift in thinking in which the underlying assumptions about what
knowledge is, about how people learn, and about what is important are different. One can grow
from a traditional view of teaching in which one seeks to control one's subject area and students
to becoming comfortable with a subject area that is less predictable and more ambiguous. This
enables one to make the shift in thinking that may be necessary to be a constructivist teacher.
The idea that our beliefs about teaching and learning affect our classroom practice, as well as our
ability to change our practice, is explained by Lester and Onore (1990). Support for this idea
comes from Kelly's (1991) personal construct theory.

Lester and Onore (1990) indicate that teachers' personal beliefs about teaching (their construct
systems) account for the kinds and extents of change that teachers are able to make. We view our
situation through the lens of our personal construct system. Our beliefs about teaching and
learning account for how we think and act as teachers. Specifically, teachers' definitions of what
knowledge is, how people acquire it, and how we determine whether knowledge has been
acquired account for the degree and kind of change teachers will experience.

Personal construct theory was devised by Kelly in 1955. The theory proposes that, like scientists,
we continually hypothesize about experience, formulating expectations based on a template of
reality we have created through experience and reflection. We come to believe something
through accumulated experience about it and then interpret experience according to those beliefs.
These hypotheses, or personal constructs, may be modified with new experiences, but some are
continually reinforced and confirmed, until, over time, they may actually shape experiences
whereas when they were developing, experience molded them. It is for this reason, Lester and
Onore (1990) believe, that beliefs and practices about schooling are so difficult to change. They
suggest that we need to examine the constructs or beliefs that influence our decisions about
teaching and learning in order for change to occur. They believe that by changing our beliefs
about teaching and learning, we are able to change our practice.
Lester and Onore (1990) suggest that the main construct affecting a teacher's ability to teach in a
transactional, constructivist way is the belief that knowledge is constructed by human beings.
And so teachers would need to make a shift in thinking and change what they believe about
knowledge in order to really change their teaching.

Lester and Onore (1990) propose that genuine learning or change comes not from disregarding
all prior learning in order to relearn, but "from questioning or reassessing our existing beliefs
about the world" (p. 41):

Change can occur through having experiences that present and represent alternative systems of
beliefs and trying to find a place for new experiences to fit into already held beliefs (p. 41).

Reflecting on one's teaching practice contributes to one's ability to cross the bridge in terms of
the way one thinks and believes about teaching. This enables him or her to move, for example,
from a transmissional instructional practice to a constructivist and transactional one.

Reflection, Mezirow (1990) explains, involves a critique of the assumptions on which our beliefs
have been built, and through reflection, our perspectives are transformed.

Giroux (1986) notes that teachers are often trained to use various models of teaching and
evaluation, yet are not taught to be critical of the assumptions that underlie these models. He
advises that teachers must be more than technicians but transformative intellectuals engaging in a
critical dialogue among themselves.

The underlying assumptions about teaching and learning of a constructivist and a

nonconstructivist teacher are quite different. Changing the gimmicks we use to teach in the
classroom without changing the way we think about teaching and learning is, according to Lester
and Onore (1993), insufficient to change our practice. A complete rethinking of what teaching
and learning are is necessary if we are to really change what happens in the classroom.

In a constructivist classroom, teachers create situations in which the students will question their
own and each other's assumptions. In a similar way, a constructivist teacher creates situations in
which he or she is able to challenge the assumptions upon which traditional teaching and
learning are based. Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) report that at the
constructivist level of knowing and thinking, we continually reevaluate our assumptions about
knowledge; our attitude towards "the expert" is transformed; we are not troubled by ambiguity
but are enticed by complexity; and we take on a never-ending quest for truth and learning where
truth is seen as a process of construction in which the knower participates. A constructivist
teacher's perception of expertise in the classroom is based on the experience of his or her
students in interaction with each other and with their teacher, and his or her ability to tolerate
ambiguity is high as evidenced in the tendency to create complexity.

Holding a constructivist view of knowledge, Lester and Onore (1990) point out, enables a
teacher to explore and form new ideas about teaching and learning. But the job of translating this
belief into daily classroom practice is still present. This job is often made difficult with all that
impinges on it, for example, the existing school system and its policies, and the school culture.
Teachers are individuals who are often drawn into teaching by a love of kids. Constructivist
teachers develop skills and abilities to empower students and to make them feel competent and
significant. Perhaps some of what a constructivist teacher does is intuitive. Constructivist
teaching also requires intelligence, creativity, patience, responsiveness, and the ability to live
with ambiguity permitting one to spontaneously abandon a plan in order to accommodate
specific individual or classroom situations. And while the job of being a constructivist teacher is
demanding, its value is evident in the impact on students' learning and personal development.

Table of Contents

PART FOUR: CONCLUSION

Implications and Recommendations

Research suggests that constructivist teaching is an effective way to teach. It encourages active
and meaningful learning and promotes responsibility and autonomy. Because constructivist
teaching is beneficial in achieving desirable educational goals for students, it is important for
teachers to grow professionally towards a constructivist practice.

My research and analysis of Pat Gray's life and career in "'The Road to Knowledge is Always
Under Construction': A Life History Journey to Constructivist Teaching" reveal that for Pat,
change to a constructivist approach to teaching English language arts has been a developmental
process that occurred over time and involved a complete paradigm shift. The development of
Pat's constructivist practice was a very active process during which much of the time practice
preceded theory. His story of teacher change, growth, and development underscores an aspect of
teacher development that is often ignored: curriculum development occurs, not through
imposition of new ideas on teachers, but through personal development.

These findings have implications for the way constructivist and transactional curricula are
implemented. They confirm that the responsibility for the professional development of teachers
falls largely on the teachers themselves. This concept is generally recognized by teachers;
however, the incentive to pursue personal professional development over the course of one's
career is frequently lacking in teachers. For example, the importance of collegial sharing and
support is widely accepted yet infrequently practised except informally. Similarly, teachers who
are familiar with reflective practice resist it even though they recognize its importance in
encouraging an awareness of how our students learn and, therefore, in how we need to teach. To
encourage incentive, this research suggests that teachers need to be provided with opportunities,
resources, support, encouragement and recognition in their professional development pursuits.
They need to know that their efforts are being supported by their colleagues, administrators and
school boards.
Considering the constructivist nature of many new curricula, it is important that the theory and
concepts of transactional and constructivist teaching be communicated to administrators as well
as teachers and student teachers of all grades and disciplines through on going, supportive
professional development activities. The importance of administrative support for teachers
attempting transactional and constructivist strategies needs to be communicated to school
administrators through professional literature and professional inservice.

University instructors in colleges of education need to model constructivist practices and provide
supportive assistance to preservice and inservice teachers as they grapple with these practices in
their practicums and internships.

Transactional and constructivist practices may be modelled, and constructivist activities and
strategies may be presented to teachers in teacher inservices and workshops. A discussion of the
implications of such practices for teachers and students needs to be included in these inservices.
Issues and concerns of teachers as they begin to make their transition to constructivist teaching
need to be acknowledged and addressed through discussion, explanations of what to expect,
practical suggestions, reassurance, and supportive understanding of teachers' concerns.

Resource information about constructivist philosophy and practices written in a nonthreatening

style that respects teachers' current personal and practical knowledge would perhaps make
personal and professional development toward a constructivist practice appealing. Information
presented in a friendly and creative style may encourage teachers to embark on their own
professional development journeys and may encourage teachers to be less reticent about risking
innovative practices, thus beginning a developmental process of change. Indeed, an outcome of
my study is that change is a developmental process in which practice often precedes theory, and
teachers, encouraged to attempt constructivist practices and to be self reflective, and inspired by
the success of those practices, may, in time, acquire the philosopy that underpins that practice.

Table of Contents

Concluding Remarks

This research raises some possibilities for improving educational practice in Saskatchewan and
some questions about the way professional development has traditionally been delivered and new
curricula implemented. New curricula emphasize an holistic and constructivist rationale, and the
implementation of these new curricula necessitates that teachers make significant changes in the
way they teach. In addition to understanding the constructivist philosophy upon which these new
curricula are based, teachers, administrators and others involved in implementing these new
curricula need to understand the kinds of changes teachers need to undertake as they make the
transition from more traditionalist forms of instruction to constructivist strategies as well as how
they can make these changes. Generally speaking, professional and curriculum development is
an evolving, personal developmental process that in itself is constructivist. This process can be
greatly assisted by a supportive collegial and administrative medium that allows teachers to
change their own personal constructs about teaching.

Table of Contents

References

Applebee, A.N. (1993). Literature in the secondary school: Studies of curriculum and instruction
in the United States. Urbana, Il: National Council of Teachers of English.

Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R., & Tarule, J.M. (1986). Women's ways of
knowing: The development of self, voice, and mind. New York: Basic Books.

Bentley, A.F. & Dewey, J. (1949). Knowing and the known. Boston: Beacon Press.

Boomer, G. (1992). Negotiating the curriculum. In G. Boomer, N. Lester, C. Onore, & J. Cook
(Eds.), (1992). Negotiating the curriculum: Educating for the 21st century (pp. 4-14). London:
The Falmer Press.

Calkins, L. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmith, NH: Heinemann.

Chaucer, G. The prologue to the Canterbury Tales. In C.T. Fyfe (Ed.), (1959). A book of good
poems. Vancouver: The Copp Clark Publishing company.

Cook, J. (1992). Negotiating the curriculum: Programming for learning. In G. Boomer, N.

Lester, C. Onore, & J. Cook. (Eds.), (1992), Negotiating the curriculum: Educating for the 21st
century (pp. 15-31). London: The Falmer Press.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: The MacMillan Company.

Giroux, H. (1986). The politics of schooling and culture. Orbit, 17 (4), 10-11.

Kelly, G.A. (1991). The psychology of personal constructs: Volume one - A theory of
personality. London: Routledge.

Langer, J. (1992). (Ed.). Literature Instruction: A focus on student response. Urbana, Il: National
Council of Teachers of English.

Langer, J. & Applebee, A. N. (1987). How writing shapes thinking: A study of teaching and
learning. National Council of Teachers of English.

Lee, H. (1962). To kill a mockingbird. New York: Fawcett Popular Library.

Lester, N.B. & Onore, C.S. (1990). Learning Change: One school district meets language across
the curriculum. Portsmith, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Lindfors, J. (1984). How children learn or how teachers teach? A profound confusion. Language
Arts, 61 (6), 600-606.

McNeil, L. (1986). Contradictions of control: school structure and school knowledge. New York:
Routledge.

Mezirow, J. and Associates. (1990). How critical reflection triggers transformative learning. In J.
Mezirow and Associates (1990), Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to
transformative and emancipatory learning (1-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures. (A. Rosin,
Trans). New York: The Viking Press.

Rosenblatt, L. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary
work. Carbondale, Il: Southern Illinois University Press.

Rosenblatt, L. (1938). Literature as exploration . New York; London: D. Appleton- Century.

Saskatchewan Education. (1984). Directions. The Author.

Shakespeare, W. Julius Caesar. In R. Gill (Ed.), (1979), Oxford School Shakespeare. London:
Oxford University Press.

Sheridan, D. (1993). Teaching secondary English: Readings and applications. New York:
Longman.

Smith, K. (1993). Becoming the "guide" on the side. Educational Leadership, 51(2), 35- 37.

Twomey Fosnot, C. (1989). Enquiring teachers, enquiring learners: A constructivist approach for
teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.

Williams, T. (1945). The glass menagerie. New York: New Directions Books.

Zemelman, S., Daniels, H., & Hyde, A. (1993). Best practice: New standards for teaching and
learning in America's schools. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.