UN TU [RY Ba JEPPESEN MAINTENANCE ‘Mastery Realized, JJEPPESEN.‘enn cons ar 8, 282 204 ‘Snares Din Ea Enger CORSE ISON DeBte7 9090WELGOME TO THE JEPPESEN tlh A A&P INTEGRATED TRAINING SYSTEM ue general, airframe, and powerplant mochanic course materials are fully integrated, providing « complete and systematic sining programm. Textbooks, workbooks, and test guides are written in @ simple to understond format, delivering all the zcessary information for you to obtain your aircraft maintenamico certificate and ratings. Course raatorials are osganized “Vito the same chapter and section formats to intograte study as you progrose through cach subject aren. FAA subject matter Knowledge code topics are fully covered and cross-referenced in test and study guide materials, a TEXTBOOKS - TEST GUIDES “WITH GRAL AND PRACTICAL STUDY GUIDES‘The exerts nsnformation orl fa «gts tshine engin fs Eo te Bayles ema lllTEST GUIDE WITH ORAL AND PRACTICAL STUDY GUIDE Excerpts from Chapter 3 Section B, Turbine Engines SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE CODES SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE CODES Ea generar arenaig aoTABLE OF CONTENTS JEPPESEN INTEGRATED A&P TRAINING SYSTEM CHAPTER 1 Mathematics Section A Arithmetic... Section B Algebra Section C Geometry and Trigonometry CHAPTER 2 Physics.. Matter and Eneroy Section B_ Work, Power, Force, and Motion, Section C Gas and Fiuid Mechani Section D_Aerodynami Section € High-Speed Aorodynamics .. Section F_ Helicopter Aerodynamics CHAPTER 3 Basic Electricity .. Section A Theory and Principles. Section 8 Direct Current Section G Batteries. Section 0 Altemating Current Section E Electron Control Devices .... Section F Electrical Measuring Instruments Section G Circuit Analysis, CHAPTER 4 Electrical Generators and Motors. Section A DC Generators. Section B Altemators Section C Motors. CHAPTERS Aircraft Drawings Section A Types of Drawings Section B_ Drawing Practices. Section C Charts and Graphs .. CHAPTER 6 Weight and Balance .. Section A Weighing Procedures. Section B Shifling the CG Section C Helicopter Weight and Balance..CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 INDEX Aircraft Hardware ... Section A Aircraft Rivets Section B Aircraft Fasteners .. Hand Tools and Measuring Devices Section A Hand Tools...... neane Section 8 Measuring and Layout Tools. Fluid Lines and Fittings. Section A Rigid Fluid Lines Section B Flexible Fluid Linas Nondestructive Testing. Secion A Visual Inspections Section B_ Electronic Inspections Cleaning and Corrosior Section C Corrosion Detection. Section D Treatment of Corrosion. Ground Handling and Servicing .. Section A Shop Sater Section B Flight Line Safety. Section © Servicing Aireral Maintenance Publications, Forms, and Records. Section A Maintenance Publications. Section 8 Forms and Records... Mechanic Privileges and Limitations Section A The Mechanic Cerificate vilMATHEMATICS INTRODUCTION ‘Mathematics is the basic language of science and tchnology, It is an exact language that has # vocabulary and meaning [or every term. Since math follows definite rules and behaves in the same way every time, scientists and their basic tool. Long boforo any metal ie cut for a new aircraft design, there are literally mil- the aid of ‘meny different tools. Like the wrench or screwdriver, mathematics is an essential tool in the repair and fabrica- tion of replacomont parts. With this in mind, you can see why you must be able to use this important tool.ARITHMETIC en just as studying a new language begins with learn ing basic words, the study of mathematics begins with arithmetic, ite most basic branch. Arithmetic ‘uses real, non-negaUve numbers, witich are also Kmown as counting numbers, and consists of only Tour operations, addition, subtraction, multiplica- tion, and division. While you have been using arith metic since childhood, a review of its terms and operetions wil make learning the mare difficult mathematical concepts much easier. NUMBER SYSTEMS ‘Numbers are n large part of everyone's life, and you are constantly bombarded with figures. Yet litle attention is paid to the basie structure of the uum bering system. In daily life, most people typically use a "base ton” or decimal systom, However, another numbering system that is used in computer calculations is the binary. or “base two” system. ‘THE DECIMAL SYSTEM ‘The decimal aystem is basod on ton whole numbers, offen called integers, from zero to mine. Above the ‘mumber nine the digits are reused in various combi- nations to repcesent larger aumbore. This is accom plished by arranging the numbers in columns based fon a multiple of ten, With the addition of a negative (1 sign, aumbors smaller than zero aro indicated. ‘To describe quantities thet fall botwoen whole num- bers, fractions are used. Common fractions are used when the space between two intagers is divided into cqual segments such as fourths. When the space between integers is divided Ito ten seg- ‘ments, decimal fractions are typically used. THE BINARY SYSTEM Because the only real option in an electrical cireuit is ON or OFF, a aumber system based on only two digits is used to create electronic calculations. The ‘base two, oF binaiy system, only utilizes the digits zero and one. For example, when a circuit is ON ‘one is represented. and when a circuit is OFF a zero, is indicated, By converting those ON or OFF mes sages to topresent numbers found in the decimal system, a computer can perform complex tasks. ‘To build a binary number system that corresponds to the decimal system, begin with ono switch. When this switch is in the OFF position, a zero is indir ‘cated. When it isin the ON position, a one is repre sented, Because these are the only possibilities for a single switch, additional switches must be added to represent larger quantities. For example, a second switch represents the quantity 2. Whon the first switch is OFF and the second switch is ON, the quantity 2 is indicated. When both the First and sec- ond switch are ON, the 1 and 2 are addod to indi- cate the quantity 3. This procedure of adding switches continues with each switch value dou- bling as you progress. For example, the firet 10 val- tues in the binary system are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 4128, 256, ond 542, (Figure 1-1] WHOLE NUMBERS: While intogers are useful in communicating a given quantity, you must be able to manipulate them to Giscover their full power, These are four fundamen- tal mathematical operations with which you must bo familiar, Thay are addition, subtraction, multi- plication, and division. ADDITION ‘Tho process of finding the total of two or mare mum bers is called audition. This operation is indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers are combined by ‘addition, the resulting total is called the sum. ‘Whon adding whole numbers whose tota) is more than nino, itis necessary to arrange the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each aumber is in the same column. The ones column contains the valuos 2oro though nine, the tens column contains _ multiples of ten, up to ninety, and the hundreds col- umn consists of multiples of one hundred. Example: hundreds tons ones 7 8 2 a3 +4 62 7 es LD. ok OR Oe RO LDMathematics 5 sina #5 RY NUMBERS. SUT Be NUMBER asa 16 8s 24 TPe 0 0 ee oe 414 z}o 0 0 0 © 0 + of w aloo oo © o + al nm sfoo 0 0 6 + 0 0} slo oo 0 © + 0 4] wm nooo o + a] sot 0 | to11100 1] so101 0 | 10101000 wlowo mio. 4 ee ich a abate ia Figure 1-1. This binary conversion chart ustrates how a ‘decimal number is convartad to a binary number. For axam= pla, the binary equivalent to 43 ie 110000. To check addition problems, add the figures again. in the same manner, or in reverse order irom bottom to top. It makes no difference in what sequence the numbers are combined, SUBTRACTION ‘The process of finding the differences between two numbers is known as subtraction and is indicated by the minus (/) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by taking the quantity of one number away from another number. The number which is subtracted is known as the subtrahend, ond the numbor from which tho quantity is taken is known as the minuend. To find the difference of two numbers, arrange them, in the same manner used for addition. With the miquend on lop und the subrahend on the bottom, align the vertical columns so the last digits are in the same column. Beginning at the right, subtract the eubtrahond from the minuend. Repeat this for each column, Exampl: 7 we “4 38 a 2 8 ‘To check s subtraction problem, you may add the difference lo the subtrahond to find the minuand, 13 MULTIPLICATION | Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addi- on, Wher a given number is added to itself a spac- ified number of times, the process is called multi- plication. The sum of 444+ 44444 = 20 i¢ expressed by multiplication as 4 x 5 = 20. The num- bers 4 and 5 are called factors and the answer, 20, represents the praduet. The number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand, and the multiplier rep- resents the number of times the multiplicand is added to itself. Multiplication is typically indicated by an (x), (), or in certain equations, by the lack of any other operation sign, One important fact to romember when multiplying is that the order in which numbers are multiplied does not change the product. Example: a 4 xg or XB 2 2 Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they be aligned vert cally, Regardless of the number of digits in the mul- tiplicand or the multiplier, che multiplicand should be written on top, and the multiplier beneath it. ‘When multiplying numbers greater than nine, mul- tiply each digit in the multiplicand by each digit in ‘the multiplier, Once all multipiicands are used a5 4 multiplier, the products of each multiplication ‘operation are added to arrive at a total product. Example: 532 Multiplicand X24 Multiplier 2128 First partis) product 1062 Second partial product 12,768 DIVISION Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, divi- sion is the reverse of multiplication. Division is a ‘moans of finding out how many times a aumbor is contained in another number, The,umber divided is called the dividend, the number you are dividing by is the divisor, and the rosult is the quotient, With some division problems, the quotient may include @ Temainder, A remainder represents that portion of the dividend that eannot be divided by the divisor.tt Division is indicated by the use of the division sign (+) with the dividend to the left and the divi- sor to the right of the sign, or a J with the divi- dead inside the sign and the divisor to the left. Division also is indicated ia fractional form. For example, in the fraction #/, the 3 is the dividend and tho 4 is the divisor. When division is carried ‘out, the quotient is 75. ‘The process of dividing large quantities is per- formed by broaking the problem down into a series ‘of operations, each resulting in a single digit quo~ tiont. This is best illustrated by example. Example: 32 816 40 18 16 0 ‘To check a division problem for accuraey, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add tho romaindor (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the result equals the dividend. SIGNED NUMBERS If zoro ia used a a starting poiat, all numbers larger than zero have a positive valve, and those smaller than zezo have a negative value. This is illustrated by constructing a number line. (Figuro 1-2). ADDING SIGNED NUMBERS. When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the siga and find the sum of the valuss and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in s positive sum, whereas adding two or more negative numbors results in a negative sum. When adding a positive and negative aumber, find the difforonce between the two numbors and apply the sign (+ or -) of the larger number. in other words, adding a negative number is the same as subtracting «positive atunber. Tho rosult of adding or subtract: ing signed numbers is called the algebraic sum of those aurabers. Add 25 + (-15) 25 25 #18) or 215 10 10 ‘THE SUM OF POSITIVE NUMBERS IS POSITIVE. ‘THE SUM OF NEGATIVE NUMBERS IS NEGATIVE. Figure 1-2. When creating a number fine, negative values. are identified with a minus sign (+, and positive velues are idantified by the plus (ol sign or by the absance of a sign. SUBTRACTING SIGNED NUMBERS When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to plus and change the sign of the subtrahend, Once this is done, pro- ceed as you do in addition. For example, +3 - -4 is tho came as +3 + +4. It makes no differance if the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, since the operation is done es though the two quanti- ties azo added, Example: ‘Subtract 48 from -216. Stop 1: Sot up the subtraction problem. 216 - 48 Step 2: Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the sign of the subtrahend. New add. -216 + -48 = -264 MULTIPLYING SIGNED NUMBERS Multiplication of signed numbers 1s accomplished in the same mannet as multiplication of any other number. However, after multiplying, the product ‘must be given a sign. There are three rules to follow ‘when determining a product’ sign. 1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive. The product of two negative uumbers is always positive, 3. The product of a positive and a negative numbor is always nogative. Example: 22 ex"ae 12 (6)x(-2)=12 (6) x2) =-42Mathematics DIVIDING SIGNED NUMBERS Like multiplying signed numbers, division of signed aumbers is accomplished in the sarue man- not as dividing any olher number. The sign of the quotient is determined using roles identica! to those ‘used in multiplication. 1. ‘The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive. 2, The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive. 3. The quotient of a positive and a negative number is always negative. Example: COMMON FRACTIONS ‘A common fraction represonts a portion or part of ‘quantity. For example, if2 number is divided into three equal parts, each part is one-third (+/4) of the number. A fraction consists of two numbers, ono above and onc below a line, of fraction bar. The fraction bar indicates division of the top mum- ber, or aumerator, by tho bottom number, or denominator. For cxample, the fraction */, indi- cates that three is divided by fonr to find the deci- mel equivalent of .75. When a fraction’s numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called a proper frac- tion. A proper fraction is always less than 1. If the numerator is larger than the denominator. the frac+ tiou is called an improper fraction. In this situation the fraction is greater than 1. Lf the numerator and denominator are identical. the fraction is equal to 1. A mixed number is the combination of a whole number and a proper fraction. Mixed numbers are expressed as 1 5/, and 29 %yg and are typically usod in place of improper fractions, ‘The numerator and denominator of fraction can be changed without changing the fraction’s value. Oue way this is done is by multiplying the numerator and denominator by tho some number. Example: 15 A fraction’s value also remains the samo if both the numerator and denominator are divided by the samme aumber. This typo of operation allows you ta simplify. or reduce, large fractions to their ‘smallest terms. Example: 21675, 25 _ 875, 25 ‘0000 * 25 ~ 4000” 25 REDUCING FRACTIONS: It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms. The simplest reduc- tions occur when the denominator is divisible by the aumecato If the denominator is not evenly divided by the numerator, you must find a number by which the numerator and denominator are divided evenly. Here are # few tips to help in the selection of divisors: 1. Afboth numbers are even, divide by 2. 2. both numbers end in 0 or 5, divide by 5. 3. Ifboth numbers end in 0, divide by 10. Bxample: Reduce /45 to Its lowest terns. Step 1: Divide both the numerator and denominator by 5. WL8.2 a 58 Step 2: Reduce further by dividing both terms bya. 8 33 When neither the numerator or denominator can be divided evenly, the fraction is reduced to its lowest tomas. LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR ‘You cannot add or subtract common fractions without first converting all of the denominators into identical units, This procass is known as finding the least cor- ‘non denominator (LCD). For example, the quickest ‘way to find the least comamon denominator for 75 and /a is to multiply the two denominators (3 x 2 =6). To16. deterrnine the numerators, multiply the wamerator by the samo number used to obtain tho LCD. Exomple: hy = 3 6 cee | Fee 2" 35 ADDING COMMON FRACTIONS ‘As mentioned corlior, you cannot add common frac- tions without first determining te least common denominator. However. once this is done, you only ood to add the numerators to arrive at a cum. This answer is then reduced to Its lowest terms. Example: 4 Add p+ Step 1: Rewrite using the least commen denominator. Step 2: Add the numerators and reduce to lowest terms, if possible, ole 3 4 SUBTRACTING COMMON FRACTIONS Subtracting fractions also requires an LCD to be ‘determined. Once this is accomplished, subtract tho numerators, express the difference over the LCD, and reduce the answer to its lowest terms. Example: ‘Subtract */y from Vy Step 1: Rewrite using the least common denominator. 8 6 24 2a Step 2: Subtract the numerators and reduce to lowest terms. hed eed i ee ae 2a 28 24 * 2 72 Mathematics MIXED NUMBERS: Mixed numbers contain both whole numbers and proper fractious. Before adding or subtracting mixed numbers, you must convert them to improper fractions. ‘To convert a mixed number to ‘an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by the denominator and add the product to the numerator. The sum of thesa two numbers becomes the numerator. Example: Convert 3 °/, to an improper fraction. g3_ Xa 15 rr | ADDING MIXED NUMBERS When adding mixed numbers, either to other mixed numbers or to proper fractions, you must convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions. Once accomplished, determine the least common denominator end add in the same manner as with proper fractions. ‘When adding improper fractions, the sum is usu- ally another improper fraction, When faced with an improper fraction in an answer, you should con- vert it to # mixed number. To do this, divide the numerator by the denominator to determine the whole number. If there is a romaindor, leavo it in fractional form. Example: Add the following: ay |e 2besyess Step 1: Convert oach to an improper fraction. 2 _2Xa42_8 3 3 3 gi, Gxaer_ 7 4 4 51-Gxaer 2 2 2 Step 2: Find the LCD and add, 2,99, 08 _ sar tataMathematics Step 3: Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number. a7, 12 SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS To subtract a uulxed number from another mixed number or proper fraction, begin by converting the mixed number to an improper fraction. Once eon- verted, find the LCD and perform the subtraction. To complete the problem, convert the resulting impropor fraction into a mixed number. Example: Subtract 2 Yq fom 5 */. Stop 1: Convert to improper fractions. 5226x4217 3 3 3 gi_2%set ° ° Step 2: Find the LCD and subtract. 34413 san 6 Step 3: Convert to a mixed number. a_yh 6732 MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS Multiplication of fractions is performed by multi- plying the numerators of each fraction to form the product numerator, and multiplying the individ- val denominators to form the product denomina- tor. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its, lowest terms. Exemple: ‘Multiply the following: "fyz x#/y x “/is Step 4: Multiply the sumerators and the denominators. 17 Step 2: Reduce to lowest terms. 160 . 92 4006 ~ 32 SIMPLIFY FRACTIONS FOR MULTIPLICATION It was mentioned earlier that the value of a fraction does not changs when you perform the same opera- tion (multiplication or division) on both the numer- ator and denominator. You can use this principle to simplify the multiplication of frections. For exam- ples Maa x ly X “hg is equivalent to Buses B2x8x16 Notice that there is an in the numeralor and denominator. Since these are equivalent values, they can be removed from the equation. Furthermore, the 16 in the denominator is divisible by the 4 in the numerator, Therefore, when both are divided by 4, the 4 in the numerator reduces to 1 and the 16 reduces to 4, Example: ‘Simplify by cancellation, then multiply: ME he) eee 32% 8 * 36 Step 1: Simplify z ay 4 Aydt 320 B16 + 1 Ay byt aa 208 ‘As you can see, the decimal point was moved six places; therefore, the resulting number must be smultiplied by a power of ton oqual to 2,000,000, which is 10° AE the number you are working with is smaller than, 1, and you want to move the decimal point to get a number between 1 and 10, count the number of pleces you want to move the decimal point and mullply the aumber by a power of ten. For exam ple, 0.000004 is equal to 4.0 x 10%. Since the deci- mal point was moved 6 placos to the right, you must multiply the number by 0.000001, which is 10°, 0.000004 = 4.0 « 10% MULTIPLYING BY SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Multiplication of vory large or very small numbers 4s often made easier wien using scientific notation. Ta begin, convert cach of the fnmbers being multi lied to scientific aotation. Once this is done, the product is found by multiplying the numbers end finding the algebraic sum of the exponents.112 Example: Multiply 0.275 x 30,000.0 using scientific notation. Step 2: Convert to sciontific notation. 0.275 =2.75 x 107 30,000 = 9.0 x 20 Step 2: Multiply the numbers and add the exponents. (2.75 x 104) x (3.0 x 104 = 8.25 x 10" DIVISION BY SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Division using scientific notation is performed in a manner similar to multiplication, Begin by convert- ing the aumbers to their scientific notation equiva- leuts, Pesform the division operation os you nor- Mathematics ‘maily would, and find the power of ten by subtract- ing the exponents, ‘Example: Divide 5,280 by 0.25 using scientific notation. Step 1: Convert to scientific notation. 5,280 = 5.28 x 10° 0.25 = 2.5 x 10% Stop 2; Divide the numbers and subtract the exponents, (6.28 x 105) = (2.5 x 10°) = 2.112 108 Remember, when multiplying or dividing using sci- entific notation, you must calculate the algebraic sum of the exponents, Pay attention to the signs of the exponents. and observe the rules for adding and. subtracting signed numbers.ALGEBRA Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses lotters or symbols to represent numbers in equations and for- smulas. For example, if an airplane cruises at 200 ‘knots. how long will it take to fly 600 nautical ‘miles? To colvo this problem, an equation is vet up with the unknown variable of time represented by the letter “T.” The equation is 200 kts. x T = 600 zum. Through algebra, you calculato the timo (T) required of 3 hours. While some forms of algebra are extremely complex. others are fairly simple and straightforward, This soction introducos you to the basic algebra you need to know to perform your duties as an aviation maintenance technician, EQUATIONS One way to express a math problem is to write it out in words, For example, “What is 24 divided by 22” This is written in an algebraic sentence in the form 24+ 3 = x. In this example, “x” represents the unknown quantity, ot variable, you are solving for. ‘The expression 24 = 3 = xis called an equation. The purpose of the equation is to identify two equal ‘quantities, Typically, once you get a math problem sot up in an equation, the problem is fairly easy to solve. For example. if asked to determine what quantity, when added to 23, results in 48, your First step should be to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this problem is 23 + x = 48, To find the value of “x," subtract 23 from both sides of the equa- tion, The equation now reads x = 48 - 23, Once sim= plified, the equation reads x = 25. ALGEBRAIC RULES ‘There are some basic rules you must use to simplify and solve algebraic equations. First, consider fra tions, As discussed earlier, when working with frac- tions, the numerator and denominator can be changed without changing the fraction’s value as long 8 you do the same operation to both. This is, often useful in reducing or combining fractions. For example, to reduce 18/,, to its lowest terms, divide both the numerator and denominator by 9. This same principle also is used to simplify frac- tions and cancel out units such as gallons, miles, ot foot-pounds. For example, in the given equation BO Miles 1 soe = Miles x 4 Hour = x Since “Hour” is in each element, it cancels, Furthermore. since the 60 in the numerator is, divisible by the 2 in the denominator, both fig- ‘ures reduce. Gnce complete, you are Jeft with the formula te =x which is equivalent to x= 30 miles. In another oxample, determine the number of revo- lutions a gear completes in 30 seconds whea the gear tunis at 100 revolutions per minute (rpm). Example: Step 1: Convert the word problem to an equation, 100 Revolutions Minute at > Minat Step 2: Cancel the like torms and reduce where appropriate, 50 -A0P Revolutions , 1 _ 50 Revolutions Minute 7 Therefore, x = 50 revolutions,it is important to keep oll labels in an equation. If this is not done, it may be difficult to determine the appropriate label for tho answer. ‘Another important rule you must follow when solv- ing algebraic equations is to never perfor an oper- ation to one side of an equation without pecforming the identical operation to the other side. In other words, you can add, subtract, multiply, or divide on one side of an equation as Tong as you do the same thing to tha other side. For example, when solving the equation x + 16 = 30, 16 is cubtracted from both sides of the equation, Brarnple: x+16=30 Subtract 36 from both sides to solve for x x4+16-16-=30-16 end SOLVING FOR A VARIABLE ‘Most of the algebra you do in everyday life requires you to solve for a variablo, For examplo, suppose ‘you want to determine your car’s gas mileage. You filled the gas tank and drove 270 miles, then added 9 gallons to the tak. How many miles por gallon id the car get? To bogin, build an equation and let miles per gallon, Miles driven _ 270 Miles ** Gallons used ~ ‘8 Gallons ~ °° ™ioo/sellon ‘Now, suppose you are planning « tip and want to know how far you can drive without stopping for gas. Your owner's manual says the car has a fuel capacity of 17.9 gellons. Using the same formula used to calculate miles per gallon, the problem zeads xmilos i _xmilos_ A 17.9 gallons les / gallon = ‘Multiply both sides by 17.9 gallons. x miles 17.9 gal. ‘The 17.0 gallone cancels out on the right side of the 40 mi.fgal. x 17.9 gal. = x 17.9 gal. Mathematics oguation and tho label gallons cancels out on the left, Do the multiplication to solve for x. 30 miles x 17.9 =x miles 597 = x miles The car's range is 537 miles. USE OF PARENTHESES In algebra, parentheses indicate an operation that ‘musi be carried out bofore any othor operation. For example, in the expression 10 x (8 + 7), the B and 7 aust be added first. When using parentheses, the sbsenco of an oporation sign between a number and 4 paronthetical statement indicates multiplication. For example. 8(3-2) is the same as 8 x (3 - 2). Furthermore, if a nogative sign (-) precedas the pareotheses, (tis the same as multiplying -1 by each of the quantities within the parentheses. Example: (6 +4-8)=2 or 6-448 ORDER OF OPERATIONS ‘When solving complex equations, the oaly way you. can arrive at the correct answer is if you follow the ‘correct ardet of operations, For example, when solv- ing the equation 4x3 +25. itis possible to arrive at several differcat answors by doing the math oper- ations in different orders. You could, for example, mmaltiply before you add, add before you multiply, tor work the equation from left to right. Howover, only one of these results in the correct answer. The proper order for performing mathematical opera- tions is as follows. 4. Pazenthesos: Operations contained in paren- ‘theses are always done first. 2. Exponents: Ones all operations within parenthe- ses are complete, exponent operations aro dane. 3, Multiplication and Division: The operations of multiplication and division are performed from left to right after exponents. 4. Addition and Subtraction: Once the opera tions of multiplication and division are done, you may add and subtract from left to right. A memory aid used to remember the proper order of operations is the mnemonic “Please Excuse My ear Aunt Sally.”Mathomotics ‘Apply the correct order of operations to solving this equation, _(2+6l +914) 7 | 16 Do the operations in parentheses contained in the ‘umerator x= 28) a} +9 (24) i 8 Now multiply ftom left to right, 72+ 126 16 ‘Add the terms in the numerator. 198. VIE Calculate the square root in the denominator. 198 4 Reduco the fraction to a docimel numbor. 198 P= 405 Notice that you now have a fraction, and that you did not do the division for the fraction after multi- plication, Whea an equation is presented in the form of a fraction, completo all oporations in the ‘numerator and denominator before you reduce the frection. The seme is true for operations within & square root sign. Do the operations within the square root sign in the proper order before extract- ing the root. 115 If you perform mathematical operations in the proper order, calculations typically go smoother and you obtain the right answer. The importance of proper order becomes cleanywhen you begin per- forming more complex equations. COMPLEX EQUATIONS * ‘The algebraic rules presented in this section are not, only uscful for answoring test questions, they also allow you to use the complex formulas frequently found in the study of electricity and woight and bal- ance computations. Work the following equation, x= VERE+ (75-1 Perfurm the calculations in parentheses first. x= Vie AE Exponent work is done next, x= V5.0495 + 2208 Add tho oloments within the aquare root sign. x= V5.2654 ‘Extract the root. x= Vea651 = 20468 While il may seem complex, @ problem of this type ie fairly simplo to solve when yon obsorve the basic rules of signed numbers and follow the proper order of operations,GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY ee eee Geometry is the measurement of dimensions, areas, and volumes of geometric shapes, and is quite use- fal in aviation maintenance, In fact, it is goomelzy that allows you to calculate the displacement of a cylinder. determine the volume of a fuel tank, and calculate the surface arsa of a wing. On the other hand, trigonometry allows you to determine ‘unknown lengths and angles of a triangle. in addi- tion to aiding you whon fabricating sheet metal, trigonomerry plays a large part in the theory of alte nating current, COMPUTING AREA ‘The area of s surface is two dimensional and is expressed in square units. An area that Is square and measures one inch on each side is called @ square inch, This same relationship holds trae for other units of measure such as square feet, square vyarde, square miles, and square meters. The area of 9 figure is equal to the aumber of square units the figure contains. THE RECTANGLE [As you know, a roctangle is a four-sided plane. It is distinguished by having opposite sides of equal length, and four angles each equal to 90 degrees. ‘The area (A) of a rectangle is found by multiplying, its length (L) by its width (W), or A = Lx W. However, before the mathematical operation can be casricd out, both measuroments must reflect the ‘same unit of measure, For exaraple, given a sheet of aluminum that is 48 inches wide by 12 feet long, you mast convert either the width to feet or the ength to inches. By converting the width of 43 ‘inches to feet, the area of the sheet of ahuminum is cal- lated to be 48 square foot (12 #. x4 &. = 48 sq. B). If you later find thet you need the area in square inches rather than square feet, multiply 48 square feet by 144 which is the number of squara inches in ‘a square foot. The result is 6,912 square inches, THE SQUARE ‘A squaro is @ symmetzical plane in which all four ‘sides are of equal length. The same formula used for fa rectangle is used to find the area of a square. However, since al) sides of a square are of equal length, the formula is sometimes expressed as the square of the sides of: Asst THE TRIANGLE ‘The triangle is a thres-sided figure consisting of threo angloc whose combined measurement equals, 180 degrees. ‘Three basic types of triangles you should be familiar with are: the scalene triangle, which consists of three unequal angles and sides, the equilatera) triangle, which bas equal sidos and qual angles, and the isosceles triangle, which bas two equal anglos. ‘Triangles are further classified by the measurement of ono angle, For example, = right triangle is one that hes one angle measuring 90 degress. ta on obtuse triangle, one angle is greater than 90 degtoos, whilo in an acute triangle all angles are Jess than 90 degrees. ‘Thoro ato coveral terms associated with triangl For instance, the base of a uiangle is the side the tr- ‘angle rests or stands on, Depending on a tiangle’s orioatation, any side may be the hase. ‘The vertex is a common endpoint, or the point where the sides of the tiangle meet. The altitude of a triangle is the height of the vartax above the base, t i peFigure 1-4, The shaded portion of each rectangle ia equal in area to the triangle that isnot shaded. The area of «triangle I ealeur lated with the formula & fabh. fa triangle is set in a rectangle and the tiangle’s hbase and height are equal to two of the rectangle's sides, the arca of the triangle is exacily oue-balf that of the rectangle, Therefore, the formula for calculat- ing the area of a triangle is one-half the basa timos the height, or '/y bh. [Figure 1-4] Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 inches and height is 15 inches. Step 1: Insert given values into the formula, a A=Z 6x18 Step 2: Perform multiplication. A. 45 square inches THE PARALLELOGRAM ‘The parallelogram. like the rectangle, has opposite cides that are parallel and equa! in leagth. However, the corner angles of a parallelogram are some mea- surement other than 90 degrees. The araa of a paral- Ielogram is calculated by multiplying the length by the height (A = 1x h). The height is measured pes- pendicularto the length, similar to the way the alte tude of a triangle is determined, AIIM1-18 THE TRAPEZOID ‘A uapezoid ie a fouesided figure that has onc sof fof parallel sides. {f you ley two trapezoids side by side so the top and bottom sides form straight 1s, » parallelogram is formed with a base that is ‘equal to the combined length of the tropezoid’'s (parallel sides. As discussed eatlior, the area of a parallelogram ie found by multiplying the fength, which in this case equals the sum of the parallel sides, by the height. However, because the area of a single trapozoid is one-half that of the parellelo- gram, tha tapezoid’s aree is equal to one-half the product of the base times the height. This is expressed with the formula: AREA = Va (by + bg)h fn a {alee THE CIRCLE ‘A cirele is « closed figure bounded by a single ‘utved line. Evary point on the Tine forming a circle is an equal distance from the centes. The distance QnCUMFEREN, OUMETER Mathematics rom the center to tho line forming the circle is called the radius, and the distance around the circle js known as the circumference. The diameter of & ciscle ia Teproconted by a line that touches two points op the ouiside of the circle and passes through the circle's center. The circumference has a definite relationship with the diameter. This rela- tionship is represented by the Crook letter pi (7), and is equal to 3.1416. The ratio of the cireumfer- face to the diamoter of a circle is always pi. Regardless of the size of the citcle, pi is a constant. -The Grownforonce of a circle is found by multiply- {ng pi times the diameter, and the area is calculated bby multiplying pi times the square of the radius. For example, if « circle har a diameter of 10 inches, determine the circumference and area. Exarvple: Circumference = 7D C=3.1416 x10 C= 31.416 inches ‘Acoa = a2 A 23.1416 x5? A= 3.1416 x25 A= 78.54 square inches COMPUTING VOLUME Solids are objects with three dimensions: length, ‘width, and height. Having the ability to calculate Yolume enables you to determine the capacity of 3 fuel tank or reservois, figure the capacity of a cargo ‘area, or calculate the displacement of a cylinder. ‘Volumes are calculated in cubic units, auch as cubic inches, cubic feet, and cubie centimeters, However, volumes are easily canverted to useful terms such as gallons. For example, to convert cubic inches to gal- ions, divide the total numberof cubic inches by 251. If converting cubic feat to gallons, remember thet 1 cubic foot holds 7.5 gallons. Do ee ROR ORCMathomatics VOLUME OF A RECTANGLE ‘The volume of a rectangular solid Is found by mul tiplying the dimensions of length, width. and height. When calculating volume, it is important that all measurements be in like terms. The formula for determining the volume of rectangular solid is: V=LxWxH L = 2aINcHES W = 18 INCHES He 1zINCHES. VOLUME = LxWxH v Vv = 5184 CUBIC INCHES Bantex VOLUME OF A CUBE Avcube is a solid with equal sides. Since all dimon- sions of a cube are identical, ita area ig calculated by multiplying one dimension by itself three Umes. V = 216 CUBIC INCHES VOLUME OF A CYLINDER A cylinder is a solid with circular ands and parallol sides. ls volume is found by coultiplying the area of one end by the cylinder’s height, The formula is expressed as: Volume = 7° D=8 inches H=8 inches VOLUME = x cH Vesta xatxs. Ve a2. t288120 ‘As a technician, you can use Uhis formula to csleu- inte piston displacement. Piston displacement is defined as the volume of ait displaced by a piston us it moves from bettom center to top center. For exam ple, one oylinder of a fourcylinder aircraft engine hhas a bore, or diameter, of four inches and the pis- ton has ¢ stroke of six inches. Stroke is defined as the distance the head of piston travels from bottom center to top center. What is the total cylinder dis- placement? Where: Bore = 4 inches Stroke = 6 inches Volume = = ?H Volume = 3.1416 x 22 x6 Volume = 75.4 cubic inches nce you know the volume of one cylinder. you can calculate the engine’s total displacement, The total piston displacement is defined as the total volume displaced by all the pistons during one crankshaft revolution, To calculate the displacement of an entire engine. multiply the volume of ono cylinder by the number of cylindors on tho ongine. VOLUME OF A SPHERE A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal distance from the center of the sphere. A sphere has the greatest vol- ‘ume for its surface area, and is used in aireralt sys- tems for hydraulic accumulators and liquid oxygon converters. D = 6iNcHes. VOLUME = 176 xD? V = 3057314181216 V = 499:1 cupic mCHES Mathomatics ‘The volume of a sphere is determined by multiply- ing the cube of the diameter by a factor which is %/, pi, of 0.5236. {F you want to find the volume of a sphere that is 6 incbes in diameter, you must first cube the diameter and multiply the resulting value by 0.5236. For example, calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 6 inches. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ‘Trigonometry basically deals with the relationships that oxict within a right triangle and is commonly ‘used in the shop for shoct metal layout. Bocause ‘trigonometry is a based on the ratio of the sides of 8 right triangle to one another, you must be familiar with how these ratios aro derived. Figure 15 illue- frates a right triangle with the sides end angles Iabolod for identification. Angie C is the right angle (90°). For this explanation, angle A is the anglo for which you are setting up the relationships. Side c is, the hypotenuse, which, by definition, is the side ‘opposite the right angle. Side a is the side opposite angle A. and side b is the side adjacent, or next to, ‘angle A. Using these labels, examine the three rela~ tionships that exist within this triangle. a = Ic © = AIGHTANGLE HYPOTENUSE ANGLE BEING CONSIDERED SIDE OPPOSITE b= SIDEADIACENT SIDE OPPOSITE SINE ASIN A) = : nf HYPOTENUSE SIDEADJACENT _ Db HYPOTENUSE e SDEOBOOSIE 2 # ° COSINE A(COS A) = [TANGENT A (TAN A) = ‘SIDE ADJACENT Figure 1-5, THaonometric relations ofa right triangle,Mathematics Because trigonometric rolatiouships are coustent for « given angle, they are often times presented in a ‘Table of Trigonometric Functions, Trigonomic tables usually only list tho angles to 45 degrees, iFigure 2-6} By refemting back to figure 1-5, you see that the Sine {Sin} of angle A is tho ratio of th longth of tho side ‘opposite the angle to the length of che hypotenuse. For any degree of angle A, this ratio is constant, the sine of 90°, which is written Sin 30”, is 0.500. ‘This means that the side opposite a 0° angle is 50%, or one-half the length of the hypotenuse, Fos 2 49° angle, the ratio is 0.7071, indicating the side opposite the 45° angle is 0.7071 times the length of the hypotonuse, ‘The Cosine (Cos) of an angle is the ratio of the length of the side adjacenl to the angle. ta the length of the hypotonuse. Cosine is found on the same ‘able used to find the sine of the angle. The cosine ‘of 30° is 0.8660 and tells you that the length of the side adjacent to the 30° angle is 0.6060 times the Iength of the hypotenuse. ‘The third ratio appearing on the Ttigonometic Function Table is Tangent (Tan). This isthe ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the side adjacent the angle. THE METRIC SYSTEM ‘The metric system is the dominant language af mea surement in use today. However, in the United States, the customary units of measurement include the English units of inches, fect, ounces, and pounds. While these units have proved functional for many years, they are cumbersome to convert. ‘The meter as a standard was developed in Franca and adopted by the National Assembly of France in the late 18th century. The United States government legalized the use of the metric system in 1866, but it ‘was not until the Metsic Hill of 1975 thet its use became common. We are still in a time of slaw con-" version to the metrie system and in many cases both, Motric and English unite appear tagether an pack- aging, speedometers, and thermometers, ‘The metric system is built on decimal unils. Each basic unit is divided or multiplied by ton as many ‘timos as necossary to got a convonieal size. Each of 121 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS sin] cos | TaN a {4.000 0175 | 9999 enn} i a ai alt 1.038 1900 cos | siIN ‘TAN [ RSBCTSSSSRSEBRESBBVBRYERIS SSS g 5 g SSSSESSIRALASISSSIRGLHSIRBSISAXRAVSTSLSHLRRSRsE Figure 14 In this table, the numbars in the left-hand cohumn go from 0° to 45° wihersos the number i the ight hend eokumn ‘agin at 45" and continuo to 90. The names of the cokamine at ‘the bottom are opposite the memes atthe top of the same col ‘um. When reeding values for angles less than 48", use the ‘volumes lbeted on the top. When the angles geaaner than 45°, Us the eotumn headings atthe bottom cf the chart.122 the muluples bas a definite profix, aymbol, and name, As a technician, you must be familiar with each of them. [Figure 1-7] Timber Ereiit Syeipet~ Scenic Refation| 1000,900,000,000 tera t sx10 1,000,000,000 gigs § ‘toe 4,000,000 moge aa 1000 kok a0 100 nesta ie 10 deka ok sao or aad a0 0.01 centl c. wie oon mitt om ani 0.000.001 micro w sto 0.000,000,001 nano aie 0,000,000,000,001 pico xt"? Figure 1-7. Listed are the common prefixes, symbols, and rmuttiplas for bale metric quantities. ‘There aro six base units in the saetric system. The ‘unit of length is culled the meter, and is approxi- mately 39 inches. The motrie unit of mass, oF ‘weight, is the gram. The unit of time is the second. ‘tho unit of slectrical current is the ampere. ‘The ‘unit of temperature is the dogree Colsius, formerly called degrae Centigrade. The unit of Juminous intensity is the candela. Al! other units of moasure- ment in the International System uf Units, which now called Sf, are derived from those six. Conversion fom English to Metric systems is accomplished in a variety of ways. Many hand-held Mathematics lectronic calculators now have specific function koys for making these conversions. There are also sevora} charts that supply conversion factors. (Figure 1-8) MATHEMATICAL HARDWARE While there is no substitute for @ basic understanc ing of mathematical principles and proficiency performing mathematical operations, certain mathe- ‘matical hardware offers increases in bola caleulat- ing speed and accuracy. This hardware offen takes the form of detailed function tables. or the elec: tronic caloulator. Either one is easily obtainable, portable, and easy to use. MATHEMATICAL TABLES: ‘The Decimal Equivalent chart (Figure 1-9) and the Function of Numbers chart (Figure 1-10) are pre- sented for the convenience af making common cal- culations. As you become familiar with the infor- mation presented op these charts you will begin to s0e the advantages of “ready-made” computations. ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS “The advent of the inexpensive hand-held electronic calculator has chenged fotever the way mathemati- cal oporations aro peeiormed. While you still need @ basic understanding of mathematical operations ‘and logic, the calculator typically holps Increase speed and reducn errors. ‘There is no “right” calculator for the avietion inain- tonance technician. However, there arc calculators ‘with functiva keys for mony of the operations dis- cussed in the chapter. The selection of a calculator ‘should be hased on its anticipated use. bee ee ep yo ee aeMathomatics 23 To To Convert Convert To From From faores aq Tee (Rao 7 fatmospheres—|-cm Rg arOe | 7600 frbisee i inHg atO'C | 29.92 kilowatts ‘Fo/aq in 14.696 (rue a2. ie bare. 09 i, Imperial Ibars Ibsq in 14.5, joa a [ow ttl 778.26 ot Kilowattnr | 2.901 x 108 ers ea a laal, US. cry "| US. oak quid) 1.164 ats 7055 fgel, U.S. quid | ou In. aT timeters | in 0.3937 jgrams oz avdp ‘SSaT x10 lem/escond | FUsee 3a Te tb avap 2.208 102 reulor mila | =q In 7.054% 107 [aremarem ——[ te E721 x0" fea canemersrs cur STZ TOF inersepower —| felbimin ——|3000 US. gal 2.642 10+ 350 lean cum Bas 10 a Us. gl 7.484 7487 x 10+ 29.32 7.068 x 10+ leu ft HO. ib 62.428 — few in. cu cm 16.39 nn Lannie tore: 1.690 x 107 ie US. gal 4.329 x 102 in. : zeae lermewrs [Us ear 3B in. water at 4"C 7.385 2108 [feet meters 3.048 x 107 kilograms: 2.205 [Rimin, mph 1.136 x 102 35.27 enh 41929 10" iiometers | 3281 NI Ieee mph Sei8 ilies 621410 cemisee 3048 nautical miles | 5,400 x10: knots wat ph a kmh tusec ‘9.113 x 10" autical tail note, 5.296 x 10° mpn 1151 mph. 6.214 x10" — nen 138 fatwa ‘Bwaee 9400-10" cuin. 1.02 hp 361 Us. ge! ee 0 launese- aid —[ ew in. “La0e, inerers Th. 3337 eu tn. qramslcu em | 27.8 fe 3.281 [ibeq in. in.Wg at 0°C | 2.036 Imeter-Klogram | fib 7299 radinnsisce | deg/see 37.30 metros | Wses. aaa revimin 9549 Imlerons in, 3.99710 (revotutiona | radians 6255 EA] niles (stat) Aa a [revimin Tadiansisor Ta 10" = en re] stag e s217h : = Isqem qin, S50 knots, 8.690 x10" jt sem, 929.0 [mlibare Tn. Hq at O°C [2.953 «107 lsqin. sqem a5 Inautical miles | ‘6076.1 i [sq meters. Sait 10.76 aumniion) | miles fotat] | 8.159 [sa miles 3 km 2580 m 1352 fron Btilser Bag RIOT Figure 1-8. Metrle conversion fectors.124 Mathematics Tes Tacha Tihs Taher Fractions Decimsle MM} Fractions Decimals MM| Fractions Decimals MM| fractions Decimals MM| fractions Decimols MM] 7 ad [srs er Eas eee ee 7 08 8 828 zeus Theveleve 4128 = i ot cs a qxa98 100, ! yee ts 06 Jeanie 3076 t06:309 : a 187 36 leva 4250 107 980 ‘nes se Jess sar toss - Ise sates ‘e033 i ‘ee ‘sr lesa Isic 0089 ‘ss levine 7 os ma, lene i - er 067 5 oon ns Jeane : 7 7 88 lesa laise aa Jenin E ies 760 lesa 7 jose jerane hie mm lar ics zor bsvee__7a0 lasise esse fre 3a [isis 825 + . «|. 263 basrs i Inve 366 |ssree see 4 45 fee oe pave [ewe faite 47eo [ssc ass le 7 5 |. ‘ass - sie 13/68 suse fia a5 fevvs2 - : 55 [sve ‘s806 . bisa sass | - ‘sos bane Jee {rsvee__zas__5.963 3062 7 6 alee oe jaa lex va axe [isn ‘sors pave T 7 a |. ‘sus ‘ Jes 7168 20 eves 96a 7. [avez 960 larse re ae - 7 73, [eee ao b-vee jssice aren | 1000 ls atz rane | ——te30 - ais a eve tonne - fave sn —aaze fr-vie [eae ruse a gat [rae jsvzise 7 fsa | - - lesies ass aan (ta an6 7 mm 95 | - ae [sre 375 ges |rsyae sr see 3a ae - ho : feu ow. fran 0 in frase 406 so.gte [reise isavse, rr a ~ i ——11.000 273.007 f levis arate frre inns = yea 20) : lan on fe : wats 290. - bins ae sant2 hoarse 8170 300. lave asx taste | - jz 12.000 304.807 frsraa as tv 9ne [arte ts 13.000 390201 L lr ~ aa7795 350, = laties ten tagen ferarae se 14.000 255.601 fees fae 000 2et.00t lu 012700 | = 167480 100, i suas [rane 76.000 406.407 i lssie 5156 tsomr | - jk? 7.900 aot. frre sat tase fier sean [azvse zee a7ace [o78 tnries 450, Issie sa? sao | x |. zor oo | ss s0.000 427-201 ~ Sz frase ares [aris Zeus ss2ss [arse ss 19.000 aazor | le sesame} - 2818350 S00. - - snus faa loo zn.900 cow. lsviee 57a t46ne faerie ‘soe 5 || free 598 tenet frais 1562 -Mathomatize 1.28 No. [Square Root [ Cube Root [Creunierence| Area 7 000 7.0000 E1416 ‘785s 2 1atae 1.2589 0.2832 3.1416 3 17321 1.a4za 94248 7.0686 4 2.0000 15874 12.5668 12.5064 5 2.2061 4.7100 18.7080 19.695 8 24495 1i71 1.880 mz 7 26488 19129 21.991 38.485 8 2920 2.0000 25.133 50.266 a 3.0000 2.0801 20274 6217 10 31623 2184 31416 e540 1" 33166 22240 34558 95.033 2 aeat 22898 37.609 113.10 or 3.5055 2asi3 40.841 132.73 4 ‘3.7417 2.4101 43.982, 153.94 1s 3.8730 2562 473424 ver 18 4.0000 25190 50.265 201.06 Ww 4.1231 28713 ‘53.407 226.98 1” 4.2426 2e207 56.549 254.47 9 4.3589 208e4 59.690 209.59 20 4ar2 mas 2832 314.16 2 35826 2.7589 65973 346,38 2 4.56008 2.8020 69.115 300.19 2 47958 2.8839 72257 24 (4.8890 2.8845 73.398 25 5.0000 29240 e540 i 25 976 17578 5.0880 2.9628 1.581 530.99 7 729 19,683 5.1962, 3.0000 84.823 872.56 28 74 21,982 52015 3.0968 37.695 615.75 2 os 24,308 5.3852 30723 91:00 60.52 30 00 27,000 Sarr sa072 94.208 106.88 a 961 (29,791 5.5678 3.1414 97.389 TSATT 32 1,026 32,768 5.8560 aa748 40083 804.25 33 1,089 35,997 5.7486 32078 10367 855.30 34 1,156 39,304 5.8310 (3.2396 106.81 907.92 35 1,228 42576 s.oi6t 3277 100.96 962.11 38 4290 46,830 6.0000 30019 119.40 4,017.08 7 1,369 50,653, 6.0628 3.3322 116.24 1,075.21 By dasa 54872 6.1604 33620 11938 113411 29 ase 50,919 8.2450 33012 12262 18450 “0 1,800 64,000 6.3266 3.4200 125.66 1,256.64 a 1,681 68.921 6.4031 3.4482 128.81 1,320.25 42 1764 74088 6.4807 3.4760 1931.95 1/385.44 “8 or) 79507 6.3574 3.5096 135.09 1,482.20 a 1,936 85,184 6.6332 3.5303 13823 1,520.53 45 2.028 91125 6.7082 3.5569 14137 1,590.43 40 2916 97,306 7823 3.8890 14481 11g61.90 47 2208 103823 6.8557 3.0088 14785 a73494 4a 2,304 110,592 6.9282 3.6342, 150.80 1,809.56 9 2401 117,649 7.0000 3.6503 153.08 4886.74 50 2500 125,000 ort 3.640 157.08 1,989.50 Figure 1-10, Function of Numbers ChortMothemsties No. are be Root [Circumference] Area oT Ze07 7084 e022 Eae8 52 2,708 3.7325 163.36 2,123.72 53 2,809 3.7563 166.50 2.206. 4 zer6 3.7708 160.66 2,290.22 ul 55 3,025 3.8030 47278 2,375.88 36 3.136 3.8259 175.93 2469.01 7 3,249 3.8485 17307 2551.76 58 3,364 3.9709 162.21 2,642.08 - 59 3481 3.8990 185.35 2,733.97 : 60 3,600 3.9149 108.50 2,827.43 et 3721 3.9985 191.64 2922.47 Li 2 3,846 3.3873 194.78 3,018.07 83 3.969 3781 197.92 3,117.25 4 4,096 4.0000 201.06 3126.98 5 4225 4.0207 204.20 3381.31 - 66 4356 4.osi2 207.34 3421.13 87 4489 4.0615 210.49. 3,525.85 i ‘68 4624 4.0817 213.63 3,631.68 i 68 4761 41016 216.77 3,798.28 i 70 4,900 41213 21981 3,948.45 n 508 41408 233.05 3,959.18 Ey 5104 4.1602 228.19 4071.50 7 3 5,329 4793 229.34 4,185.38 7 5476 4.1983 232.48 430088 | 5 5,625 42172 235.62 aar7as | 78 5776 4.2358 238.76 453646 i 7 5,929 42543 241.90 4,656.63 78 5.084 A277 248.05 478.36 | 73 214 4.2008 248.19 4,301.67 7 80 5,400 4.3088 251.33 5026.55 Bt 8.561 43267 254.47 5,453.00 82 8724 43045 25761 5281.02 83 6,809 4.3621 260.75 510.61 i a 7,056 43795 283.89 S587 85 7.205 4.3968 287.04 5574.50 86 7.396 4at40 270.18 5,908.80 - er 7,569 4.4310 273.32 5,944.08 88 7748 4.4480 27636 6,082.12 89 7924 4.4687 27960 6221.14 0 8,100 44514 202.74 6361.73 in a 8.281 4.4979 285.88 6,503.88 2 2488 4546 209.03 6847.81 83 8,649 204,357 9.6437 4.5307 29217 6,702.01 u 90 8,896 830,504 s.6856 45408 298.31 6,998.81 95 9,025 857,375 9.7488 4.3629 298.45 7,088.22 6 ozs 884.736 19.7986 45789 301.59 7,288.23 7 9,409 912.673 9.9489 4.5047 304.73 7,386.81 - 98 9,604 ‘941,192 9.8835 4.5104 307.88 7582.96 29 9801 970.299 9.2499 4.6261 31102 7.897.68 100 10,000 4,000,000 +10.0000 eas 31446 7,853.98 - Figure 1-10. Function of Numbers Chart.PHYSICS INTRODUCTION ‘As an aviation maintenance technician, you must have a basic knowledge of physics, and the laws that govern tthe behavior of the matoriala with which you work. Physies is the scionce that deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Physics operates with absolutes whose properties and values behave in the same way every time, Not only do these absolutes make flight possible, but they also allow engineers and technicians to design, ‘build, and maintain aircraft.MATTER AND ENERGY By definition. matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. ‘Theroforo, tho oir, water, and food you need to live, as well as the alrcraft you maintain, are all forms of matter, The Law of Conservation states that mattor cannot bo created or destroyed. You can, however, change the character- istics of matter. When matter changes state, energy. which is the ability of matter to de work, can be extracted. For example, as coal is heated it changes From a solid to a combustible gas which produces hhoat energy. CHEMICAL NATURE OF MATTER: In order to better understand the characteristics of matter it is typically broken down to smaller units. ‘The smallest unit that can exist is the atom, The three subatomie particles that: form atoms are protons. neutrons, and electrons. The positively charged pro- tons and neutrally charged neutrons coexist in an atom’s nucleus. However, the negatively charged Figure 2-1, The hydrogen atom has one proton. no neu- trons, and one electron. The oxygen atom, on the ather ight nrotone, aight neutrons, and eight elec- ‘electrons orbit eround the mucleus in orderly rings, or shells. ‘The hydrogen atom is the simplest ator. It hhas one proton in the aucleas, no neutrons, and oae clectron. A aoze complex atom is the oxygen atom. ‘An oxygen atom contains eight protons and eight neutrons In the nucleus, and has cight electrons orbiting around the nucleus. [Figure 2-1] ‘There are currently 109 knowa elements or atoms. Each bave ap Identifiable aumber of protons, neu- ‘ons and electrons. In addition, every atom has its own atoraic aumbor, as woll as ite own atomic amass, [Figure 2-2] Generally, when atoms bond logether they form a molecule, However, there are a fow molecules thal exist as single atoms. Two examples that you will most likely use in aircraft maintenance are helium and argon, All other molecules are made up of two ormoro atoms. For example, water (H,0) s made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. ‘When atoms bond togethor to form molecule they share electrons. In the example of #0, the oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer, or valence shell However, thero is room for eight electrons, ‘Therefore, one oxygen atom can combine with two luydrogen atoms by sharing the single electron from ‘each hydrogen atom. [Figure 2-3 PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER Matter is composed of several molecules. The mol- coule is the smallest unit of a substance that exhibits the physical and chemical properties of the substance, Furthermore, all molecules of a par- ticular substance are exactly alike and unique to that substance, ‘Matter may exist in one of three physical states, solid, liquid, and gaseous, All matter exists in one of these states. A physical state refers to thePhysics ; 4 Hts raps |e ui [ee 3 [s|se Na [aig . K |Ca Se Ltt 2 wm | s¢ a = os [Ba te Ele &e [es [se [em [sm [es [a [2 [8y [ee LE: [te [8 [ee ‘eae ET ——+Th | Pa] U |Np | Pu |Am|Cm/ Bk | Cf | Es [Fm | Md} No | Lr (im [es [Tse [ee Tae Der [ek [ct [es [ee [me |e [er ‘Figure 2.2. This chart contains each of the known elements and thelr corresponding atomic numbers and atomic masces. physical conditiou ofa compound and has no affect on @ compound's chemical structure. In other ‘words, ice, water, and steam are all H,O and the same type of matter appears in all of these states. Allaloms and molecules in matter are constantly in motion, This motion is caused by the heat energy in the material. The degree of motion determines the physical state of matter. SOLID A solid has a definite volume and shape, and is independent of its container. Yor example, a rock OQ—®. Oo © oP) O—O Figure 2-3, A molecule of water (H,0} Is formed when two ‘storms of hydrogen join one atom of oxygen. that ie pul into a jar doos not rochape itself to form, to the jar. In a soltd there is very lite heat energy and, therefore, the molecules or atoms cannot move vory far from their relative position. For this reason a solid Is incompressible, uiauID When heat enorgy is added to solid matter, the molecular movement increases. This causes the molecules to overcome their rigid shape. When a material changes from « solid to a liquid, the material’s volume does not significantly change. However. the material conforms to the shape of the container its hold in. An oxample of this is a melting ice cube, Liquide are uleo considered incompressible. Although tbe molecules of a liquid are farther apart than those of a solid, they are still not far enough apart to make comproseing possible. Tn 9 liquid, the molecules still partially bond ogethes. This bonding force is known as surface tension and prevents liquids from expanding and spreoding out in all directions, Surface tension is24 Figure 2-4, A quid conforms ta the shape of the container {is held in, However, tne conesive force of the molecules forms a surface tension that allows the liquid to extond ‘lightly above the container. evident when a container is slightly ovar filled. (Figuce 2-4) GAS ‘As heat onergy is continually added to 2 material, the molecular movement increases further until the liquid reaches a point where surface tension can no longer hold the molecules down, At this point the molecules escape as gas or vapor. The amount of ‘heat required to change a Liquid to a gas varies with different liquids and the amount of pressure a liquid is under, For example, at a pressure that is lower than atmospheric, water boils et a temperature less than 212°, Therefore, the boiling point of a liquid is said to vary divectly with pressure, Gases differ from solids and liquids in the fact that they have neither ¢ definite shape nor volume. Chemically, the molecules in a gas are exactly the same as they were in their solid or liquid state However, because the molecules in 2 gas are spread out, gasses are compressible. WEIGHT AND MASS Contrary to popular belief, the weight and mass of a ‘materiol are not the same, Weight is the force with which gravity attracts a mass. However, it’s more important to nate that the force of gravity varies with the distance between a body and the center of tho earth. Jn other words, the farther away an abject in From the canter of the earth, the less it weighs Physics ‘The mass of an object is described as the amount of ‘matter in an abject and is constant segardloss of ite location. Kor example, ait astronaut fas the same ‘mass on earth as whan in space. However, an astro- nant’s woight ia much loss when in space than it ix on earth, Another definition sometimes used for mass is the measurement of an object's resistance to chongo its wtato of rost or motion. This is seen hy comparing the force required to move a jet as com- pared to a single engine airplane. Because the jet has a greater rosistance to change, it hos a greater mass, The mass of an object may be found by dividing the weight of the object by the accelera- tion of gravity, which is 32.2 feot por cocond every second an object falls. ‘Mass = ———Weight_ Weight ‘Acceleration due to gravity Doth mass and woight ero measured in pounds in the English system and in grams or kilograms in the metric system. However, another common unit of measure for mass is tho slug, A slug is a unit of mass ‘that is equivalent to approximately 32.175 pounds under standard atmospheric conditions. DENSITY ‘The density of » substance is its weight per unit vol- ume. The density of solids and liquids varies with temperature. However, the density of a gas varies with temperature and pressure. To find the doncity ofa substance, divide the weight of the substance by ite volume. This results in a weight per unil volume, Jnsity = Weight Density = Volume For exanaple, the liquid which fils 3 certain con- tainer weighs 1.497.6 pounds. The container is 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 2 fet deep. Therefor, its volume is 24 cubic fet (4 ff. x2 f). Based on this, the liquid’s density is 624 Ibs /R 497. 24 ‘Because the density of solids and liquids vary with temperature, a standard temperature of 4°C: is used yehen measuring the density of each. Although tem- perature changes do not change the weight of a sub- stance, they do change the volume of a substance through thermal expansion or contraction, This changes a substance’s waight per unit volume. 62.4 pounds per cubic foot As mentioned earlier, when measuring the density of a gas, temperature and pressure must be consid- ered. Standard conditions for the measurement afPhysics gas donsity is established at O°C and a pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury which is the average pres- sure of the atmosphere at sea level. SPECIFIC GRAVITY It ie often necossary to compare the density of one substance with that of another. For this reason, a standard is needed from which all othar materials can bo compared. Tho standard whon comparing the densities of all liquids and solids is water at 4°C. The standard for gases is air. in physics the word “specific” refers to a ratio. ‘Therefore, spacific gravity is calculated by compar- ing the weight of 2 definite volume of substance with the weight of an equal volume of water. The following formulas are used to find specific gravity (sp. gr) of Liquids and solids: Weight ofa substance SPB" = Weight of equal volume of water Density of a substance Donsity of wator ‘The same formulas are used to find the densi gases by substituting air for water. Spociic grav ot expressed in units, but as @ pure number. For example, if cortsi hydraulic liquid has a specific gravily of 0.8, 1 cubic foot of the liquid weighs 0.6 sper wQU SOLD Gasoline 072 kee ost7 vettuel JP-s 0.788 Aluminum = 27 detfuel JP-5 871 Titanium = 48 Alcohol (ethyl) 0.788 Zine 7 Kerosene 92 kon 9 Lubricatingoll © 0.89 Brass as ‘Synthetic oll «0.928 Copper as water 1.900 Lead na Sulfurlo cd = 1.84 Gold 193 Mareury 136 Platinum 215 gases Hydrogen 0.0895 Hetlum axe Acerylene 0.898, Nitrogen 0.967 ir 4,000 Oxygen 108. Carbon dloxide 1.528 Figure 25, This tle includes the specific gravity of com- mon substances, The standaed for qi water whereas the standard for gases is ai Both have «| specie gravity of 1. 25 times as much as 1 cubic foot of water, Specific aravity is independent of the size of the sample under consideration and varies only with the sub- stance the sample is made of, [Figure 2-5] A device called a hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. This device hes a tubular shaped glass float contained in a larger glass tube. ‘The float is weighted and has a vertically graduated scale. The scale is read at the surface ofthe liqui ‘which the float is immersed. A reading of 1000 is, shown when the float is immersed in pura water When Sled with a liquid having a density-greater than pure weter, the float rises and indicates greater specific gravity. For liquids of lesser density, the float sinks below 1000. [Figure 2-6] a Figure 2.6. The specific gravity ofa liquid ia measured with a hydeomater.26 ‘An example of specific gravity that holds interest for ap aviation maintenance technician, is the elec- trolyte of a lead-acid battery. When a battery is dis- charged, the calibrated float immersed in the elec- trolyte indicates approximately 1150. The indica- tion of a charged battery is between 1275 and 1300. Since specific gravity is based on the density of the electrolyte. temperature is & consideration, Therefore, battery electrolyte is measured at 80 degrees Fehrenhelt, if alectrolyte is at a different ‘temperature, a correction must be applied. ENERGY Energy, in ite practical form, is tho capocity of an object to perform work, It is classified into two rather broad types, potential and kinetic. POTENTIAL ENERGY Potontial onorgy is energy stored in 2 material. Even ‘though an object is not doing work, it is capable of doing work. Potential energy is divided into thrae groups: (1) that duo to position, (2) that duo to tortion of an elastic body, and (3) that which pro- duces work through chemical action. ‘The energy a body possesses by virtue of its position or configuration is potential cnergy. This energy is stored in the body which setains it, until it is poten- tially able to release it. (Figure 2-71 TI¢ Figure 2-7. When the book Is at res, It possesses potential ‘energy because ofits position; hut as it fll, it has kinetic ‘enargy because of its motion. Physics ‘The amount of potential enorgy possessed by an clevated weight is computed using the following formule: Potential Energy = Weight x Height When a spring is compressed or stretched Bom its normal condition, it possesses potential energy which may be released when the spring is allowed to retum to its st-rest condition, (Chemical enargy is stored in an aircraft battery and ig there to produce mechanical work when the starter switch is pressed. Blecuical energy can also be stored in a capacitor to produce light when a strobe light tube is fired. KINETIC ENERGY When potential energy is released and causes ‘motion, it is changed to kinetic energy. Kinotic, energy is known as “energy af motion.” When you raise a hemmer above your head, the hammer gains potential onergy because of its posi tion, oF height. As you bring the hammer down, the potential energy stored in the hammer, plus the kinotic onorgy your muscles pat into the hammer, gives it @ great deal of kinetic energy. When the hammer strikes 2 nail, work is done forcing the nail into a piece of wood. However, not ail the Kinetic energy does work. Some of the energy is dissipated as heat caused by the friction between the nail and wood. UNITS OF ENERGY In order to better understand energy, you-must rec- ogniza the units with which it is expressed. The most common unit of measure of mechanical energy is tho horsepower and is equivalent to 33,000 foot pounds of work done in one minute. In the metric system the measure of mechanical energy is the Joule. For electrical energy the typical unit of moa sure fs the watt, Tuese units are used extensively in the study of machinos and electricity.WORK, POWER, FORCE, AND MOTION Work, power, force, and motion are important con- cepts of physics. As an airoraft maintenance techni- cian, you must understand these concepts and be able to use the associated formulas to fully compre- hhend simple machines like the lever, pulley, or goar. WORK If @ force is applied to an object and the object ‘moves, work is done. The amounl of work done is directly proportional to the force applied and the distance the object moves. In mathematical terms, work is defined as the product of force times dis- tance. For example, if an engine weighing 400 pounds is lifted 10 feet, 4,000 foot-pounds of work is done. This is expressad by the equation: Work = Force (F) x Distance (D) Work = 400 tbs. x 10 it, Work = 4,000 foot/pounds Ifa force is applied to an object and the object does. not move, no work is done. By the same token, 0 work is done if an object moves with no force applied to it. In the English system, work is typically measured in foot-pounds. Onc foot-paund is equal to one pound. of force applied to an object through the distance of one foot. To convert foot-pounds to inch-pounds, multiply the number of foot-pounds by the numbor of inches in a foot, or 12 inches. One foot-pound is, equivalent to 12 inchepounds. In the metric system, the unit of work is the joule. One joule is the work done by a force of onc newton * acting through a distance of one moter. Ono pound is equal to 4.448 nawtons. When using metric units of measure, the formula for computing work romains the came algebraically, and only the units of measure change. W (ovles) = F (Newtons) « D (meters) POWER ‘When determining the ainount of work done, the time required to do the work is not considered. Power, on the other hand, doas take time into consideration. For example, alow powered motor can be geared to Hit a large weight if time is not a factor. However, if itis, ‘important to Lift the weight quickly, more power is required, Power is calculated with the formula: Force x Di Time Pow Power is defined as tho time-rate of doing work. In the English system, power is expressed in foot pounds per second, whereas the unit of power in the motric system is joules por second, Another unit of measure for power is the horsepower. ‘Horsepower was first used by Jamos Watt to-compare ‘the pecformance of his steam engine. with: typical English dray horse, One horsepower is the amount of power required to do 33,000 foot;pounds of work in ono minute or 390 feot-pounds of work in one second. ‘Therefore, the formula sed to calculate horsepower is: Force x Distante Horsepowor = Force > Distance Wn 33,000 fe lbs x Time Example: Find the horsepower required to raise a 12,000 pound airplane six feet in one-half minute. Given: Aircraft Weight = 12.000 Pounds Height - 6 Feet ‘Time = 1/2 Minute orepouer «1200018 7 (33,000 1/2, 0 hi ower = 75.500 ssrsopower = 222 Horsepower = 4.3628 ‘The electrical usitof measure for borsapowar is the watt, One’ horsepower is equal to 749 watts. ‘Therefore, in the example above, 3,252.58 watts of lectsical power ia roquired to operate the 4.36 horsepower motor, ‘As fnentioned varller, the metric system utilizes, joules per second to measure power. To convert joules por socond to watts use the relationship: + watt = —Lioule_ ‘2 second Based on this relationship, a motor with a power output of 5,000 watts is capable of doing 5,000 joules of work per second. Since one kilowatt (kor) is equal to 1,000 watts, the above motor bas a power output of 5 kw. Using a5 kw motor, how much time does it take to hoist a 12,000 pound aircraft 30 meters? To dotor- mine this, you must rewrite the formula for caleu- lating power as: _~ Fofee x Distance Power Now substitute the given values. Force = 59,376 newtons (12,000 lbs. x 4.448 N} Distance = 30 motors Power = 5 kw 33.378 X20 3,000 ‘Time = 320.256 saconds FORCE ‘You now know that work is the product of » force applied to an object, times the distance the object moves. However, many practical machines use a mechanical advantege to change the amount of force required to move ap object. Some of the sim- lost mechanical advantage devices used are: the lever, the inclined plane, the pulley, end goars. Physics Mechanical advantage is calculated by dividing the ‘weight, or resistance (R) of an object by the effort (5) ‘used to move the object. This is seen in the formula: Mechanica] Advantago (MA) = & ‘A mochaniea! advantage of 4 indicates that for every 1 pound of farce epplied, you aro able to move 4 pounds of resistance, LEVERS A lover is a device used to gain a mechanical advan- tage. In its most basic fom, the lever is a seesaw that hhas a weight at each end. The weight on ons ond of the seesaw tends to rotate the board countorclock- ‘wise while the woight on the olher end tends to rotate the board clockwise. Each weight produces ‘moment or tuening force. The moment of an object is calculated by multiplying the object's weight by the distance tho object is from the halance point or fulcrum. ‘A lever Is balanced when the algebraic sum of tho ‘moments is zoro. In other words, 2 10-pound weight located six feet to the left ofa fulcram has a moment of negative 60 foot-pounds while 9 10-pound weight located six feet to the right of 2 fulcrum has moment of positive 60 foot-pounds, Since the sum of the mowents is zero, the lever is balanced. {Figure 2-8) l Hi HO I FULCRUM (Axa =H) xb oae> Figura 2-8, In a balanced lever, the sum of the moments, ie aero. lPhysios FIRST-CLASS LEVER Figure 2-9 illustrates = practical application of a first-class lever. The end of a foursfoot bar is placed under a 100-pound weight, so the fulcrum is one- half foot from the weight’s center of gravity. This leaves three and one half feet between the weight and the point at which the force, or effort is applied. ‘When effort (E) is applied, it acts in the direction opposite the weigbt’s movement. To calculate the amount of effort required to lift the weight, you must calculate the smoments on each side of the fule crusn. This is done using the formula: ave 17E Whore: length of effort arm jongth of resistance arin R= resistance effort force 3.5 _ 100 SE 35xE=50 B= 14.28 Although less offort is roquirod to lif the 100-pound ‘weight, a lever docs not reduce the amount of work done, Remember, work is the product of forge and distance; therefore, whon you oxamine the ratio of the distances moved on either side of the fulcrum, 29 xyoe notice that the offort arm must move 21 incher to move the resistance arm 3 inches. The work done on each side is the same, 3 tn. x 100 Ibs, = 21 In, x 14.26 Ibs. 300 in.-ths. = 300 in.-lbs. ‘SECOND-CLASS LEVER Unlike the first-class lever, the second-class lever ‘has the fulcrum at one end of the lever and effort is, applied to the opposite ead. The resistance, or weight, is typically, placed near the fulcrom between the two ends, The most common second- clase lever is the wheelbarrow. When using a whool- barrow, the lever, or handle, is used to gain mechan- ical advantage to reduce the effort required to cary a load. For examplo, if a wheelbarrow ‘has 200 pounds of weight concentrated 12 inches from the ‘wheel axle and effozt is applied 48 inches from the axle, only 80 pounds of offort is nocdod to lift the weight. You calculate this by using the same cela- Uionship derived for a first-class lever. [Figure 2-10] Figure 2. The effort required to lift a wight using a first- lass lover ie detarmined by balancing the moments on each fond of the folerum. Figure 2-10. Using the socond.lass levar illustrated. 50 pounds of altort fe required to Ift 200 pounds of resistance.210 ‘The mechanical adventage gained using a second- clase lever is the same as that gained when using a first-class lever, The only difference is that the resis~ tance and effort on the second-class lever move in the camo direction. [Figure 2-11] ‘THIRD-CLASS LEVER, In aviation, the third-class lever is primarily used to ‘move a resistance a greater distance than the effort applied, Thie is accomplished by applying the effort between the fulcrum and the resistance. However, Physics Determine the amount of effort required to roll a 500 pound barrel up a 12 foot inclined plane to a plat- form that is 4 feet high. when doing this, a greater affort is required to pro- Example: duce movement. An oxample of a third-class lover is a landing gear retracting mechanism. The effort Given: required fo retract the landing gear is applied near the fulorum while tho resistance is at the opposite L= 12 feat end of the lover. [Figure 2-121 1 =4 foot ‘R= 500 pounds INCLINED PLANES Another way to gain mechanical advantage is Solve for effort throuigh the inclined plane. An inclined plane WN achieves an advantage by allowing @ large resistance 12 50 to be moved by a smail effort over a long distance. i ‘The amouat of offort roquired is calculated through the formula: 12% = 2000 ER VE = 166.7 Ibs. rinsto.assicven — [¢——! _———_——> E FULCRUM r 7 1] ‘SECOND GLASS LEVER 7 I Flgure 2-11, The direction of effort applied to 2 second-class lever is opposite that applied to a first-class lover. pepePhysics Figure 2-12, To raise a 200-pound whee, 1,600 pounds ot ‘effort are requiced, However, the ratio ‘of movement ‘between the point where effort is applied and the resistance is 18, This means the effort moves six inches to raise the ‘wheel four feet. Figure 2-13. The inclined plane follows the same relation- ship used with levers. The mechanical advantage gained is the ratio of the length of the ramp to the height of the plat- {errs afin thie example 21. Thecalore, only 168-7 pound of ‘effort are required t0 raise the barrl 4 feet. on By using an inclined plane, 600 pounds of rosis- tance is moved by an effort of 166.7 pounds. [Figure 2-13] ‘The wedge is a special application of the inclined plane, and is actually two inclined planes set hhack-to-back. By driving a wedgo,full-longth into a material, the material is forced apart a distance equal to the width of the broad ond of the wedge. ‘Tho groatost mechanical advantage exists in long, slim wedges. PULLEYS: Palleys are another type of simple machine that allow you to gain mechanical advantage. A single fixed pulley is Identical to a first-class lever. The fulcrum is the center of the pulley and the arms that extend outward from the fulcrum are identical in length. Therefore, the mechanical advantage of a single Fixed pulley is 1. When using a pulley in this fashion, the effort required to raise an object is oqual to the object’s weight. [Figure 2-14] A Fiqure 2-14, With the center of the pulley acting as the ful- ‘rum, the two arms, RF and FE, extending outward are the ‘Some length. Thoreforg, the effort required ta It the object ‘aquale the resietance,212 Figure 2-15, In a single movable pulley, the effort acts, upward on arm "EF," which is the diameter of the pulley. ‘The resistance acts downward on arm “FR,” which is the radius ofthe pulley. Since the effort arm is twice the length ‘of the resistance arm. the mechanical advantage ie 2. Physics Ifa single pulley is not fixed, it takes on the charac tevin of aed eet lever other words, both the offort and woight act in tho samo diroction. When a pulley is used this way, a mechanical advantage of 2 is gained. [Figure 2-15] A.common mothod used to determine the mechani- cal advantage of a pulley system is to count the number of ropes that move or support a movable pulley. (Figure 2-16] ‘Another thing to keep in mind whea using pulleys is that as mechanical advantage is gained. the dis- tance the effort is appliod increages, in othor words, with a mechanical advantoge of 2, for every 1 foot the resistance moves, effort must be applied to 2 feet of rope. This celationship holds true wherever using a pulley system to gain mechanical advantage. GEARS ‘There is n0 application of the basic machine that is used more than the gear. The gear is used in clocks and waiches, in automobiles and aircraft, and in just about every type of mechanical device. Gears are used to gain mechanical advantage. or to change the direction of movement. ‘To gain a mechanical advantage when using gears, the number of testh on either the drive gear or dri- von gear is varied. For example, if both the drive ‘ear and driven gear have the identical umber of teeth, no mechanical advantage is gained. However, A ‘ONE SUPPORTING ROPE ‘MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE =1 TWO SUPPORTING ROPES MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE =2 Figure 2-18. The mechanical advantage of a pulley system is equal to the number of rapes that mova or support a movable nally.Physics ‘fa drive gear has 50 tooth and a driven gear has 100 teeth a mechanical advantage of 2 is gained. In other words, the amount of power required to tum the drive gear is reduced by half. ‘Another thing to keep in mind is that the revolution ratio between two gears is opposite the ratio of their tooth. Using the oarlier example of a drive gear with 50 tooth, and a driven gear with 100 teeth, the gear ratio is 1:2, However. for every one turn of the drive gear the driven gear makes one-half turn. This ‘results in @ revolution ratio of 2:1. ‘There are many types of gears in use. Spur gears hhave their teeth cut straight across their circumfer- Figure 2-17. External spur gears provide a mechanical advantoge and reverse the rotational direction of the drive shatts. Howover, a spur gear system with internal teeth pro- ‘vides 2 machanical advantage without raversing the rote- ‘onal direction. 243 enoo énd oro used to connect two parallel shafis. ‘When both gears have external teeth, the shafts turn in opposite directions, I it is necessary for both shafts to tun in the seme direction, one gear must hava intemal teeth. [Figure 2-17] Ife drive shift and driven shaft are not parallel to each other, beveled gears are used. However, because the teeth on heveled gears are external, the rotational diiection of each sheft is opposite. Tail rotor gear boxes on helicopters typically use beveled gears. [Figure 2-18] Figure 2-18, With beveled geers, the angle between the drive shaftand driven shaft i typically 90 degrees. However, ‘he angle can be any value less than 180 degroes. When an extreme amount of mechanical advantage is needed, a worm gear is used. A worm gear us0s 3 spiral ridge around a shaft for the drive goar with the shafts usually at right angles to each other. One complete rotation of the drive shaft moves the dri- vven gear one tooth, [Figure 2-19] Figure 2-19. A worm goar evstem provides # very high ‘mechanical advantage.24 Planetary gear systems are typically used to reduce the propeller shaft speed on more powerful aircraft engines, This allows the angine to turn at a higher apm and develop more power. In a planetary gear system, the propeller mounts on a spider-ike cage that holds the planetary gears. Theso planetary gears rotate around a Bxed central sun gear. (Figure 2-20] PLANETARY GEARS RING GEAR Figure 2.20. ina plaetary gear system, the propeller mounts ‘to 9 cage that holds the planetary gears. As the ring gear ‘tums, the planetary ears rotate around a fixed sun gear. In some planetary gear systems, the sun gear is the

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