ECE 131

TOPIC: TRANSDUCERS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

DOA:

DOS: 15/11/2010

SUBMITTED TO : SUBMITTED BY:

R
OLL NO:

REG NO:

DEGREE ECE

DEPTT OF ECE
ACKNOWLDGEMENT

It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my Chemistry teacher MR

under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her who has
been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at
different stages to make this project.

SINCERE THANKS TO OUR UNIVERISTY LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERISTY

FOR ENCOURAGING US TO TAKE SUCH PROJECTS.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

TYPES

THERMOCOUPLE

SONAR TRANSDUCER

PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

APPLICATION

DISCUSSION OF SOME IMPORTANT TRANSDUCERS

TRANSDUCERS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. The conversion
can be to/from electrical, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic, photovoltaic,
or any other form of energy. While the term transducer commonly implies use as a
sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer.

Types

Transducers may be categorized by application: sensor, actuator, or combination.

A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of
energy (usually an electrical and/or digital signal). For example, a pressure sensor might
detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to electricity for display at
a remote gauge.

An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action). The energy supplied to an
actuator might be electrical or mechanical (pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.). An electric
motor and a loudspeaker are both transducers, converting electrical energy into motion
for different purposes.

Combination transducers have both functions; they both detect and create action. For
example, a typical ultrasonic transducer switches back and forth many times a second
between acting as an actuator to produce ultrasonic waves, and acting as a sensor to
detect ultrasonic waves.

Most transducers have an inverse that allows for the energy to be returned to its original
form. Audio cassettes, for example, are created by using a transducer to turn the
electrical signal from the microphone pick-up – which in turn went through a transducer
to convert the sound waves into electrical signal – into magnetic fluctuations on the tape
head. These magnetic fluctuations are then read and converted by another transducer –
in this case a stereo system – to be turned back into an electrical signal, which is then
fed by wire to speakers, which act as yet another transducer to turn the electrical signal
back into audio waves.

Other transducers turn one type of energy into another form, not for the purpose of
measuring something in the external environment or to communicate information, but
rather to make use of that energy in a more productive manner. A light bulb, for
example, one of the many transducers around us in our day-to-day lives, converts
electrical energy into visible light. Electric motors are another common form of
electromechanical transducer, converting electrical energy into kinetic energy to
perform a mechanical task. The inverse of an electric motor – a generator – is also a
transducer, turning kinetic energy into electrical energy that can then be used by other
devices.

• |

Types of Transducers

Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. Many transducers
convert electric waves into mechanical vibrations---or vice versa. Loudspeakers,
microphones and phonograph pickup cartridges are all transducers.

Thermocouple

1. The thermocouple is a transducer that has a pair of wires of different conductors

or semiconductors, welded or soldered at one end, used to measure temperature.
Thermocouples are convenient and have low heat capacity. In inaccurate work a
single junction can be used with a galvanometer in the circuit to measure the
current produced by the thermoelectric emf.

Pressure Transducers

2. Pressure measurement is often achieved by detecting the deflection of an elastic

diaphragm or tube (for example, a Bourdon tube). The requirements for the
pressure transducer in terms of material properties for such diaphragms or tubes
are similar to those of restoring springs in high-mechanical-impedance
displacement transducer. Semiconductor fabrication techniques have been
applied to pressure transducers.

Sonar Transducers

3.
Sonar transducers send and receive sound waves in water. Ultrasonic transducers
generate and detect vibrations above the frequency range of human hearing. They are
used to cut hard materials, to clean delicate instruments, to drill oil wells and to measure
the level of liquids in the fuel tanks of space vehicles. Thermocouple

APPLICATION OF TRANSDUCERS:

RAIL PROBE:

One example of our capabilities with “Specials” is the Rail Probe. The Rail Probe was
specifically designed to have two angle probes (2MHz, 70°) at either end and a
compression probe in the middle (2MHz). This probe is used in combination with a flaw
detector on a railcart to scan rails. The Rail Probe has proved to be a very successful
transducer which is manufactured today exclusively by Sonatest.

HIGH FREQUENCY WHEEL PROBE:

A new high frequency dry coupled wheel probe developed and patented by Sonatest.
This new dry coupled solid contact wheel probe, overcomes problems with couplant
contamination, application and removal, plus the impracticalities of immersion systems.
The “tyre” or delay material is constructed from specific hydrophilic polymers which
demonstrate acoustic properties that ideally lend themselves to the implementation of
Ultrasonic NDT. Frequencies of 2 to over 10 MHz are possible offering higher
sensitivity and resolution. Also capable of employing pulse echo mode this enables
depth measurements and examination options where access is limited. The HF Wheel
Probe can be used in situ, reducing inspection time and eliminating the need for
immersion tanks.

BOILER TUBE PROBES

Small low profile twin angle beam transducers with integral cables for the inspection of
welds in steam boilers in power stations. Axially radiused to suit 50mm boiler tubes.
5MHz, with an increased toe in angle to produce a short focal length to suit these welds
and available as 70° and 60° with BNC or LEMO 1 connectors to fit flaw detectors.

Asia Single Angle Range

A high specification transducer with high signal to noise ratio and a very small dead
zone. Employs a lead zirconate 10 x10 crystal, with the standard Japanese reference
number engraved on the side of the brass/nickel plated casing—5C10x10A70L. Also
has an engraved scale. The index point is 10 mm from the front edge with an angle
tolerance of >69º <70º. Connectors are Mini Lemo 00 or G-Plug. Part No: ASA5-70ZT
or GT. Also at available 45º and 60º.
DISCUSION OF IMPORTANT TRANSDUCERS:

• Pressure Transducers

What is a pressure transducer? A pressure transducer or pressure transmitter

converts an applied pressure into an electrical analog output signal that is both
linear and proportional to the applied pressure to the transducer. Pressure
sensors, pressure transducers, and pressure transmitters are commonly referred
to as just pressure transducers. The output electrical signal from a pressure
transducer is sent to computers, PLC's, chart recorders, digital panel meters or
other devices that interpret this signal and use it to display, record, and/or
change the pressure in the system being monitored. Most transducers use a
strain gauge as the primary sensing element. Pressure transducers with strain
gage sensors feature small size, fast response and high reliability.

• -20mA Output Pressure Transducers

Current output transducers are also referred to as pressure transmitters. The 4-

20mA 2-wire loop powered signal is widely used in the industrial and process
industries. Advantages of current output pressure transducers include; high
immunity from electrical noise, low installation cost – only two wires needed,
wiring distances up to thousands of feet may be possible, and built-in diagnostic
capabilities.

• Output Pressure Transducers

Pressure transducers with 3-wire voltage outputs are available with 0-10 volt, 0-
5 volt and 1-5 volt signals. Transducers with voltage output signals are used
with many types of meters, programmable controllers and chart recorders.
 Types of Pressure Transducers

Industrial Grade Pressure Transducers

Industrial pressure transducers are precision engineered to fit the majority of industrial
pressure measurement applications. These transducers feature enhanced accuracy of
0.25% of span, zero and span adjustment for recalibration and circuit boards with
surface mount technology potted in silicone gel for protection against vibration, shock,
and humidity.

General Purpose Pressure Transducers

General purpose transducers provide excellent performance, reliability and value for a
wide variety of electronic pressure measurement applications. The accuracy is less
than or equal to 0.5% of span. These transducers are available in pressure ranges 0-15
PSIG up to 0-5000 PSIG and 4-20mA or 0-10VDC outputs.

Industrial NEMA 4X Pressure Transducers

Industrial NEMA 4X transducers are designed for extremely harsh, wash-down, and
corrosion resistant industrial pressure measurement applications. State of the art surface
mount technology ensures that the unit is protected against vibration, shock and
humidity. The compact design features all stainless steel construction and accuracy of
0.25% of span.

Industrial OEM Pressure Transducers

Industrial OEM pressure transducers provide cost effective performance in rugged
applications. The accuracy is less than or equal to 0.5% of span. These compact
transducers offer state of the art surface mount technology for protection against
vibration, shock and humidity.
Submersible Liquid Level Pressure Transmitters

Submersible liquid level transmitters and transducers are engineered for a wide variety
of industrial and municipal liquid level measurement applications. Typical applications
include: water and wastewater treatment, well depth measurement, and offshore water
depth measurement. These transmitters feature a high strength watertight, vented
polyurethane cable and meet NEMA 6P and IP68 requirements for total submersion.

Universal Pressure Transmitters

Universal pressure transmitters feature a user adjustable span turndown of up to 1:20

and a large easy to read digital display with bar/trend graph. Digital signal processing
provides excellent accuracy specifications to 0.15% of span. Durable construction
includes all stainless steel wetted parts for compatibility with a wide variety of media.

Absolute Pressure Transducers

Industrial absolute pressure transducers are used in applications where barometric

pressure changes affect the operation of the system being measured. These transducers
feature enhanced accuracy of 0.25% of span, zero and span adjustment for
recalibration and circuit boards with surface mount technology potted in silicone gel
for protection against vibration, shock, and humidity.

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature, pressure,

displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured
directly. Hence such quantities are required to be sensed and changed into some other
form for easy measurement. Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance,
inductance and capacitance etc. can be conveniently measured, transferred and stored,
and, therefore, for measurement of the non-electrical quantities these are to be converted
into electrical quantities first and ten measured. The function of converting non-
electrical quantity into electrical one is accomplished by a device called the electrical
transducer.

Basically an electrical transducer is a sensing device by which a physical, mechanical or

optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly, with a suitable mechanism, into
an electrical signal (current, voltage and frequency). The production of these signals is
based upon electrical effects which may be resistive, inductive, capacitive etc. in nature.
The input versus output energy relationship takes a definite reproducible function. The
output to input and the output to time behavior is predictable to a known degree of
accuracy, sensitivity and response, within the specified environmental conditions.
Electrical transducers have numerous advantages. Modern digital computers have made
use of electrical transducers absolutely essential.

Electrical transducers suffer due to some draw-backs too, such as low reliability in
comparison to that of mechanical transducers due to the ageing and drift of the active
components and comparative high cost of electrical transducers and associated signal
conditioners. In some cases the accuracy and resolution attainable are not as high as in
mechanical transducers.

Comparison:

A digital device is
distinguished from an
analog device in
that its response to a
displacement is a
series of discrete pulses
or voltage levels (each
representing a well-
defined amount of
travel) rather than a
continuously variable
proportional signal.
When properly
registered, these finite
steps resemble a
staircase with a
displacement being
defined by the number
of steps it takes to reach.
Digital transducers
employ mechanical
means to generate such
step signals and
therefore they will
remain just as stable as
the mechanical parts
themselves used to
generate those signals.
For example, such a
device can be
constructed by painting
stripes at uniform
intervals on a piece of
glass and pass it in front
of a light sensor. The
distance the glass travels
can be expressed with
the number of "dark"
and "light" transitions it
causes. When the
distance between the
stripes is accurately
known, then the exact
magnitude of the
displacement can be
derived. It is easy to see
that the measurement
will be highly repeatable
as long as the glass or
the markings do not
change, and that it will
not be sensitive to
variations in light level
or sensor gain at all. It is
further recognizable that
once such a system is
made, it requires no
periodic calibration as
there is nothing one can
calibrate, thus its
accuracy remains
constant with time.

Analog displacement
systems, on the other
hand, rely on a
transduction process that
is continuous, and a
finite displacement
causes a corresponding
proportional electrical
signal. For example, in
the case of the LVDT,
the electromagnetic
coupling of the primary
to the secondary coils is
varied by shifting the
iron core within. The
signal generated by a
given displacement of
this core will be
governed by the
displacement and also
the input (primary)
voltage, the load on the
output (secondary) coil,
and the gain of the
amplifier sensing it, just
to mention a few. None
of these are inherently
related to distance,
therefore it is necessary
to adjust gains and
offsets in the signal
processing network until
the output signal
becomes proportional to
the core displacement.
Once this condition of
"calibration" is
achieved, it must be
maintained over long
periods of time, a task
not easy to accomplish
even with modern
integrated circuits. To
further complicate
matters linear
relationship can be
observed only over a
narrow portion of the
coil. Since there is an
ever present mechanism
for loss of calibration
(amplifier drift,
excitation voltage
variation, temperature
sensitivity of resistors
and potentiometers, etc.)
even in the short term, it
is necessary to
frequently verify the
signal to displacement
proportionality and
recalibrate if necessary.
THE ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL DISPLACEMENT
TRANSDUCER OVER LVDT

The use of the Linear Variable Differential

Transformer (LVDT) in dilatometry is a
widespread practice that has its roots in the
historical development of this technique.
LVDTs were , for a long time, the only
displacement transducers readily adoptable
for this application, easy to integrate with
analog data recorders, and affordable in
cost. Digital transducers, although in
principle have been known for many
years, became practical to use and
affordable in price only in the past decade.
They are much more complex than
LVDTs and are considerably more
difficult to integrate into systems. Perhaps
due to these initial difficulties and
development costs, other dilatometer
manufacturers have been reluctant to
capitalize on this new technology.

• conditioning network.