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PHY 301: Mathematical Methods I

Curvilinear Coordinate System


(10-12 Lectures)
Dr. Alok Kumar ∗
Department of Physical Sciences
IISER, Bhopal

Abstract
The Curvilinear co-ordinates are the common name of different sets
of coordinates other than Cartesian coordinates. In many problems of
physics and applied mathematics it is usually necessary to write vector
equations in terms of suitable coordinates instead of Cartesian coordi-
nates. First, we develop the vector analysis in rectangular Cartesian
coordinate to see the fundamental role played by the vector-valued
~ All objects of interests are constructed with
differential operator, ∇.
the del operator ∇ ~ - the gradient of a scalar field, the divergence of
a vector field and the curl of a vector field. Later we generalize the
results to the more general setting, orthogonal curvilinear coordinate
system and it will be a matter of taking into account the scale factors
h1 , h2 and h3 . For the most general coordinate transformation we
have to consider the tensor analysis. Rectangular Cartesian coordi-
nate is a special case of the orthogonal Curvilinear coordinate system,
what we mean is h1 = h2 = h3 = 1. Intuitively, the scale factor is
1-dimensional version of the Jacobian and we encounter the Jacobian
firstly while handling the multiple integral.

Please do not take this lecture notes at the face value, verify and check ev-
erything and spot the conceptual mistakes etc. to improve it.

e-mail address: alok@iiserbhopal.ac.in

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The aim of vector analysis (calculus) to have the notion of the differentiation
and the integration in more than one dimension. The derivative of a function
in one dimension gives the rate of the change of the function with respect
to an independent variable. In more than one dimension, there are infinitely
many direction and the derivative of a scalar function φ(x, y, z) will depend
on the chosen direction. In short, the question “how fast does φ(x, y, z)
vary?”has an infinite number of answers, one for each direction we might
choose to explore [2]. Geometrically, the scalar function φ(x, y, z) represents
a family of surfaces and on a particular surface the value of the scalar func-
tion does not change. At a point P (x, y, z) on a surface, there is a unique
normal direction perpendicular to the surface and the directional derivative
along the normal direction is called the gradient of the scalar function,

grad φ = n̂ (1)
dn
where n̂ is the unit vector along the normal direction. This definition is given
independently of any coordinate system. The gradient of a scalar function
is the rate of space variation along the normal to the surface on which it
remains constant [5]. With the rule of partial differentiation,
! ! !
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy + dz. (2)
∂x ∂y ∂z

We can rewrite the equation (2) as


!
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = î + ĵ + k̂ .(dxî + dy ĵ + dz k̂) (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
~
= (∇φ).(d ~l).

The vector ∇φ ~ = (î∂x φ + ĵ∂y φ + k̂∂z φ) is the gradient of the scalar func-
tion φ(x, y, z). This definition of the gradient is with respect to rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system. Both definitions of the gradient of a scalar
functions equation (1) and equation (3) are equivalent. In equation (3) dφ
is a scalar and d~l is a vector and therefore ∇φ~ must be a vector. Like any
vector, a gradient has magnitude and direction.
~
dφ = (∇φ).(d~l) (4)
~
= k∇φkkd ~lk cos(θ).

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In equation (4), the change in dφ will be maximal for θ = π2 for fixed kd~lk
i.e. when d~l points in the direction of ∇φ ~ for fixed kd~lk. Therefore we state,
the gradient ∇φ~ points in the direction of the maximum increase of the func-
tion φ. From equation (1), it is obvious that the direction of the gradient is
that of the normal to the surface given by the φ(x, y, z) = c . This can be
taken as geometrical interpretation of the gradient of a scalar function. For
a point P (x, y, z) to be stationary point, ∇φ(x, ~ y, z) = 0.
It is to be noticed that in the definition of the gradient of a scalar func-
~
tion ∇φ(x, y, z) = î∂x φ(x, y, z) + ĵ∂y φ(x, y, z) + k̂∂z φ(x, y, z), the formal ap-
pearance of the del operator ∇ ~ is very crucial. Now ∇φ ~ is a vector quan-
tity, φ(x, y, z) is a scalar quantity and therefore the differential operator
∇~ ≡ ∂ î + ∂ ĵ + ∂ k̂ must behave like a vector quantity (like Quotient rule).
∂x ∂y ∂z
It is not a vector in usual sense but it is a vector-valued differential opera-
tor and hungry to differentiate [1]. Anything comes behind the ∇, ~ get just
multiplied ordinarily and anything comes in front of it get differentiated.
So the ∇ ~ mimics the behaviour of an ordinary vector by acting upon any
function and differentiating it. This operator play a very significant role in
the whole vector calculus. ∇ ~ and ∇2 are invariant under rotation i.e.
~
î∂x + ĵ∂y + k̂∂z = iˆ0 ∂x0 + jˆ0 ∂y0 + k̂ 0 ∂z0 . Just imagine, with the del operator ∇
we have the power of vector algebra in one hand and the power differential
calculus in other hand.
How to prove the equivalence of two definitions of the gradient of a scalar
function, equation (1) and equation (3)?
Let us consider the scalar function in three dimensions, φ(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 +
z 2 = c. Obviously √ it represents a family of spheres centred at the (0, 0, 0)
with the radius c and on a particular sphere the value of the scalar func-
tion φ(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = c remains constant i.e. c will be a constant
on a particular sphere. More generally, any scalar function φ(x, y, z) = c
represents a family of surfaces with different values of c. Let us consider two
nearby surfaces, φ(x, y, z) = c and φ(x, y, z) = c + ∆c with the origin chosen
at the point O. P is a point on φ(x, y, z) = c and P 0 on φ(x, y, z) = c + ∆c.
OP~ = ~r, OP ~ 0 = ~r + d~r and P~P 0 = d~r. Let the unit normal vector n̂ at
the point P makes an angle θ with P~P 0 = d~r. Hence dn = n̂.d~r = dr cos θ.
Therefore, from equation (1),

dφ dφ
dφ = dn = n̂.d~r = grad φ.d~r. (5)
dn dn

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We compare equation (3) and equation (5) to get
dφ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ~
grad φ = n̂ = î + ĵ + k̂ = ∇φ (6)
dn ∂x ∂y ∂z
and hence the both definitions are equivalent.
The vector field is defined as the set all unique vectors corresponding to each
point (x, y, z) ∈ R3 . Needless to mention the pivotal role of the del operator
in the study of vector calculus. What are the quantities of interest for the
study the vector field? In Newtonian mechanics we study the motion of any
rigid body by breaking its motion two parts : the translational motion of the
centre of mass and the pure rotational motion in the centre of mass frame.
Similarly we analyse the vector field - the linear content (the divergence) and
the rotational content (the curl) at a point.
The Divergence of a Vector Field:
The divergence of a vector field is closely associated with the notion of flux
of a vector field and we encounter this in the study Gauss law for the electric
field flux. The flux of any vector field across any small area around a point
is defined as
~ S
dφA~ = A.d ~ = A.n̂
~ dS (7)
where n̂ the outward normal unit vector. Physically it represents the flow of
the vector through the elementary area. The total flux through the whole
arbitrary small closed surface around the point is given by
I I
φA~ = ~ S
A.d ~= ~ dS.
A.n̂ (8)
S S

The divergence of a vector field at a point of the vector field is the limiting
value of the ratio of the flux of the vector field across an elementary closed
surface around the point to the volume of the enclosure when the volume of
the enclosure contracted on to the point.

~ S
H
A.d ~
~ = lim
div A S
. (9)
∆τ →0 ∆τ
This definition is independently of any coordinate system. Let us choose
Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system and in this system the Divergence
of a Vector Field will have the following computational form with the defini-
tion in equation (9)

~ = ∇.
div A ~ A~ = ∂Ax + ∂Ay + ∂Az . (10)
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Physically the divergence of a vector field at a point represents the ’source
strength’ of the vector field. If the divergence at a point is positive, the point
is behaving like the source, if it is negative the point is behaving like the sink.
If the divergence of a vector field is zero at all points, we say the vector field
~ A
is ’Solenoidal’ i.e. ∇. ~ = 0 ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 . Intuitively, it is associated with
the outward normal components on an arbitrary surface around the point
and hence it is capturing the linear contents (w.r.t. normal direction) of the
vector field. The definition in equation (9) is good motivation for the Gauss
Divergence Theorem.
The surface integral of a vector field carried over the entire surface of a closed
figure is equal to the ’volume integral of the divergence of the vector field’.
That is, I Z
~ ~
A.dS = ∇. ~ A~ dτ (11)
S τ
where S is the surface area of the closed figure and τ is the volume of the
space enclosed by the same figure.
The Curl of a Vector Field:
The curl of a vector field around a point is defined as a vector along the
normal to an elementary area centered on the point and of the magnitude
equal to the limiting value of the ratio of the line integral to the area itself as
the area is contracted into that point.
~ ~l
A.d
H
~ = lim
curl A n̂. (12)
∆S→0 ∆S

where ∆S is an elementary area and n̂ is the unit vector along the normal to
∆S. This definition is also independently of any coordinate system. In the
Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system the above definition will be

î ĵ k̂

~ ×A
∇ ~ = ∂
∂x ∂ ∂
.

(13)
∂y ∂z
A Ay Az
x

With the definition in equation (12) we can motivate to ’Stokes’s Theo-


rem’,
This theorem states that the line integral of a vector field along the closed path
is equal to the surface integral of the curl of the vector carried throughout the
area bounded by the path. That is,
I Z
~ ~l =
A.d ~ S.
curlA.d ~ (14)
S

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If the curl A ~ = 0 ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 , the vector field A ~ is called irrotational
field. Physically the curl of a vector field like vortex in the fluid motion and
if we put a wheel suitably in a rotational fluid it will start rotating. Laminar
flow is like irrotational velocity vector field.
~ = f (r)r̂ is zero, it has no vortex like structure,
The curl of a central field A(r)
what makes it a conservative field. The gradient of a central scalar function
can be calculated directly, ∇f~ (r) = r̂ d f (r).
dr
Theorem : Curl-free (or “irrotational”) fields. The following condi-
tions are equivalent for a curl-free vector field A ~ [2]:

~ ×A
1. ∇ ~ = 0∀(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ;

2.
Rb
~ ~l is independent of the path;
A.d
a

3.
H
~ ~l = 0 for any closed loop;
A.d
~ is the gradient of some non-unique scalar field, A
4. A ~ = −∇φ.
~

Theorem : Divergence-less (or “solenoidal’) fields. The following


~ [2]:
conditions are equivalent for a divergence-less vector field A
~ A
1. ∇. ~ = 0 ∀(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ;

2.
R
~ a is independent of the surface, for any given boundary line;
A.d~
surf ace

3.
H
~ a = 0 for any closed surface;
A.d~
surf ace

~ is the curl of some vector field, A


4. A ~ = −∇×
~ W~ , where W
~ is not unique.

The Laplacian operator is second order differential operator is defined as


~ ∇
∇2 = ∇. ~ = ∂xx + ∂yy + ∂zz and satisfy the identity in three dimension,
!
1 ~r
 
∇ 2 ~
= −∇. = −4πδ(r) (15)
r r3

and 1r is interpreted as the Green’s function the Laplacian operator ∇2 . For


proof of equation (15), see reference [2]. The equation is closely related to
the identity in 3-dimension
~ n~r) = (n + 3)rn .
∇.(r (16)

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Left hand side of (16) is zero for n = −3, it is related to (15) in three
dimension. In two dimension
~ n~r) = (n + 2)rn .
∇.(r (17)

In (17) n = −2 makes zero. So in two dimension the Green’s function of the


∇2 is ln(r) instead of 1r [6].

∇2 (ln(r)) = kδ(r) (18)

where k is the strength of the delta function to be determined. For m di-


mension we conjecture
~ n~r) = (n + m)rn .
∇.(r (19)
~ ∇
Writing ∇2 = div grad = ∇. ~ and using grad f (r) = r̂ d f (r)
dr

d(rn )
!
 
2 n
∇ (r ) = div r̂ ~ n~rrn−2 = n(n + m − 2)rn−2
= ∇. (20)
dr

for the dimension, m.


There are many vector identities see [2, 3, 4] but two are of utmost
importance,

1. The curl of gradient of a scalar function is zero. ∇~ × ∇φ(x,


~ y, z) = 0.
Intuitively it state that the rotational content of a gradient (conserva-
tive) vector field zero.
~ ∇
2. The divergence of curl of a vector field is zero. ∇.( ~ × A)
~ = 0. Intu-
itively it state that the curl of a vector field has no linear content and
hence its divergence is zero.

Helmholtz’s Theorem 1: A vector field is uniquely specified by giving its


divergence and its curl within a simply connected region (without holes) and
its normal component over the boundary.
Helmholtz’s Theorem 2: A vector field satisfying ∇. ~ A~ = s and ∇ ~ ×A~ = ~c
with both the source and the circulation densities vanishing at infinity may
be written as the sum of two parts, one of which is irrotational, the other of
which is solenoidal.[4]
We developed vector analysis in the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system.
A Cartesian coordinate system offers the unique advantage that all three unit

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vectors, î, ĵ and k̂ are constants in magnitude as well as in direction. Unfor-
tunately, not all physical problems are well adapted to a solution in Cartesian
coordinates. For instance, if we have a central force problem, F~ = r̂F (r),
such as gravitational force, Cartesian coordinates may be unusually inappro-
priate. Such a problem demands the use of a coordinate system in which the
radial distance is taken to be one of the coordinates, that is, spherical polar
coordinates. The point is that the coordinate is chosen to fit the problem, to
exploit any constraint or symmetry present in it. Then it is likely to be more
readily soluble than if we had forced it into a Cartesian framework [4]. We
generalise the results developed in the rectangular Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem to orthogonal Curvilinear coordinate system and we see the translation
of all results developed so far will be boiled down to taking into account the
scale factors h1 , h2 , h3 . We follow reference [3] for Curvilinear formulation.
Our physical three dimensional space is the continuum of physically points.
In Cartesian it is represented by the set {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 }. The same physical
point is denoted by (u1 , u2 , u3 ) in a general coordinate system. Both (x, y, z)
and (u1 , u2 , u3 ) represent the same physical point P and therefore we demand
both coordinates are related via some mapping.
 
x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ) 
 u1 = u1 (x, y, z) 

y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ) u2 = u2 (x, y, z) . (21)
 
z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 ) 
u3 = u3 (x, y, z) 

We demand that the function between two sets (x, y, z) and (u1 , u2 , u3 ) should
be single valued and have continuous derivatives so that the correspondence
is unique. Therefore given a physical point P with rectangular coordinates
(x, y, z) we can associate a unique set of coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) called the
curvilinear coordinates. The set of the transformation (21) define a trans-
formation of coordinates. Now there are three coordinate surfaces and three
coordinate curves given by
 
u 1 = c1 
 u1 = c1 &u2 = c2 

u2 = c2 coordinate surf aces; u1 = c1 &u3 = c3 coordinate curves.
 
u 3 = c3  u2 = c2 &u3 = c3 
(22)
see the Fig. 1 in chapter 7 of reference [3]. If we keep one of the coordinate
fixed and let other two vary, a surface of definite shape is traced. Such
surfaces are called coordinate surfaces. Two surfaces cut to give a curved
line, is called coordinate curve. Let ~r = îx + ĵy + k̂z be the position vector of

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a physical point P and its position vector in terms of curvilinear coordinate is
~r = ~r(u1 , u2 , u3 ). ∂~r(u∂u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~
1
, r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 )
2
and ∂~r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 )
3
are the tangent vectors
along the u1 , u2 and u3 curves respectively at the point P . The unit tangent
vectors (ê1 , ê2 , ê3 ) are
∂~
r(u1 ,u2 ,u3 )
h1 = k ∂~r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 )
 
h1 ê1 = ∂u1


 1
k 


∂~
r(u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~r(u1 ,u2 ,u3 )
h2 ê2 = ∂u2
h = k ∂u2
 2
k 
scale f actors (23)
∂~
r(u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~r(u1 ,u2 ,u3 )
h3 = k ∂u3 k
 
h3 ê3 = ∂u3
 

~ 1
where h1 , h2 and h3 are called scale factors. We know that the gradient ∇u
~ 2
at the point P is along the normal to the surface u1 = c1 and similarly ∇u
~ 3 are along the normal to the surfaces u2 = c2 and u3 = c3 . The unit
and ∇u
normal vectors at the point P

~ 1
∇u
Ê1 = ~ 1k
k∇u




~ 2

∇u
Ê2 = ~ 2k
k∇u
. (24)

~ 3
∇u

Ê3 =


~ 3k

k∇u
 
It is a simple exercise to show that two bases ∂~r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~
1
, r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~
2
, r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 )
3

and (∇u~ 1 , ∇u
~ 2 , ∇u
~ 3 ) are dual (reciprocal) to each other, see the solved prob-
lem 15 of reference [3]. Any vector A ~ can be written as

~ = Ai êi = ai Êi
A (25)
where dummies indices means sum over is understood. For orthogonal curvi-
linear coordinate, e1 .e2 = e2 .e3 = e1 .e3 = 0 and we are interested in this
system. The most fundamental quantity in geometry is the distance between
two neighbour points
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 3 = d~r.d~r. (26)
From ~r = ~r(u1 , u2 , u3 ) with the rule of partial differentiation
∂~r ∂~r ∂~r
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 du1 ê1 + h2 du2 ê2 + h3 du3 ê3 . (27)
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
The equation (26) can written as
ds2 = d~r.d~r = (h1 du1 ê1 + h2 du2 ê2 + h3 du3 ê3 ).(h1 du1 ê1 + h2 du2 ê2 + h3 du3 ê3 )
(28)

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h21 ê1 .ê1 h1 h2 ê1 .ê2 h1 h3 ê1 .ê3
  
  du1
2 2
ds = du1 du2 du3  h2 h1 ê1 .ê2 h2 ê2 .ê2 h2 h3 ê2 .ê3   du2 
  

h1 h3 ê1 .ê3 h3 h2 ê2 .ê3 h23 ê3 .ê3 du3


(29)
for orthonormal system the off-diagonal elements of the equation (29) will
be zero. Therefore in the orthogonal curvilinear system the distance element
(the first fundamental form ) is given

ds2 = h21 (du1 )2 + h22 (du2 )2 + h23 (du3 )2 . (30)

Comparing the Cartesian distance element as in equation (26) with the or-
thogonal curvilinear distance element as in equation (30), we find the change
along u1 is by the scale factor h1 and similar story for other coordinate curve.
The volume element would be given equation (34), scalar triple product. The
gradient, the divergence, the curl and the Laplacian in the (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is a
matter taking into account the scale factor properly and the proof of all
equations (36 -39) are given in the Spiegel [3].
We need to study two most commonly used Orthogonal Curvilinear coordi-
nate systems in full details.

1. Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, φ, z) :The following coordinate trans-


formation is called Cylindrical Coordinates.
x = ρ cos φ, y = ρ sin φ, z = z;
where ρ ≥ 0, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π, −∞ < z < ∞
hρ = 1, hφ = ρ, hz = 1.

2. Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, φ) :The following coordinate transfor-


mation is called Spherical Coordinates.
x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ;
where r ≥ 0, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
hρ = 1, hθ = r, hφ = r sin θ.

It is to noted that for any orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system


what is important the scale factors as we can see in equations (36-
39).

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References

1. Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton and Matthew Sands


Lectures on Physics, Volume 2 (Indian edition), Narosa Publishing
House, (986).e

2. David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics (2nd edition),


Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, (1998).

3. Murray R. Spiegel, Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis (SI metric


edition), Schaum’s Outline Series, (1974).

4. George B. Arfken and Hans J. Weber, Mathematical Methods for


Physicists (sixth edition), Academic Press, (2005).

5. N. N. Ghosh, Teach Yourself Physics Mathematical Physics, Bharati


Bhawan (Patna, Bihar), (1990).

6. B. S. Agarwal1 , Mechanics , Kedar Nath Ram Nath (Meerut, U.P.), (2000).

1
All titles by him highly-recommended for undergraduate students .

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Quick to Curvilinear Coordinate System
Given a physical point P is represented by xi in rectangular Cartesian and
by ui in any general coordinate system.

ui = ui (xj ). (31)
1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~
In R3 two natural bases dual to each other are ( ∂~r(u∂u 1
, r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ∂~
2
, r(u∂u
1 ,u2 ,u3 )
3
)
~ 1 , ∇u
and (∇u ~ 2 , ∇u
~ 3 ).
ds2 = d~r.d~r (32)
∂~r(u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂~r(u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂~r(u1 , u2 , u3 )
d~r(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
(33)

dV = k(h1 du1 eˆ1 ).((h2 du2 eˆ2 ) × (h3 du3 eˆ3 ))k (34)

∂~
r (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂~r(u1 , u2 , u3 )

h1 = ; h1 eˆ1 =
∂u1 ∂u1

∂~
r (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂~r(u1 , u2 , u3 )

h2 = ; h2 eˆ2 =
∂u2 ∂u2

∂~
r (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂~r(u1 , u2 , u3 )

h3 = ; h3 eˆ3 = (35)
∂u3 ∂u3
~ i = eˆi
∇u
hi
~ ik = 1
k∇u
hi
~ i
∇u
Êi =
~ ik
k∇u
eˆi = Êi
f or orthogonal system.

h1 , h2 and h3 are scale factors owing to curvilinear nature of the coordinate


system.

~ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂φ
∇φ = ê1 + ê2 + ê3 (36)
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

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Table 1: Common Scale Factors
Curvilinear Cartesian Spherical Cylindrical
u1 x r ρ
u2 y θ φ
u3 z φ z
h1 1 1 1
h2 1 r ρ
h3 1 r sin θ 1

" #
~ A~ 1 ∂(A1 h2 h3 ) ∂(A2 h1 h3 ) ∂(A3 h2 h1 )
∇. = + + (37)
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

ê1 ê2 ê3

~ ×A
∇ ~ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

(38)

A1 A2 A3
" ! ! !#
2 1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂φ ∂ h1 h3 ∂φ ∂ h1 h2 ∂φ
∇φ = + + (39)
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 h1 ∂u1 ∂u2 h2 ∂u2 ∂u3 h3 ∂u3

where (eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 ) is a curvilinear orthonormal basis.

~ = (∇.d~
dA ~ r)A~ (40)
Extensions of the above results are achieved by a more general theory of
curvilinear systems using the methods of tensor analysis. All these results
are smoothly derived in Spiegel [3].

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Suggested Assignments:

~ and B
1. If A ~ are irrotational, prove that A
~×B
~ is solenoidal.

2. If f(r) is differentiable, prove that f(r)~r is irrotational.


~ × 5V
3. If U and V are differentiable scalar fields, prove that 5U ~ is
solenoidal.

4. Show that A ~ = (2x2 + 8xy 2 z)î + (3x2 y − 3xy)ĵ − (4y 2 z 2 + 2x3 z)k̂ is not
~ = xyz 2 A
solenoidal but B ~ is solenoidal.

5. In what direction from the point (1,2,3) is the directional derivative of


Φ = 2xz − y 2 a maximum? What is the magnitude of this maximum?

6. Find the values of the constants a, b, c so that the directional derivative


of Φ = axy 2 + byz + cz 2 x3 at (1,2,-1) has maximum magnitude 64 in a
direction parallel to the z-axis.

7. Verify Stokes’ theorem for A~ = (y − z + 2)î + (yz + 4)ĵ − xz k̂, where S


is the surface of the cube x=0, y=0,z=0,x=2,y=2,z=2 above xy plane.

8. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for C (3x2 − 8y 2 )dx √


+ (4y − 6xy)dy,
H

where C is the boundary of the region defined by :y = x, y = x2 .

9. Prove that φ(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 is scalar invariant under rotation


of axes.

10. Show that under a rotation

~ = î ∂ + ĵ ∂ + k̂ ∂ = iˆ0 ∂ + jˆ0 ∂ + k̂ 0 ∂ = ∇
∇ ~0 (41)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0

11. Show that under a rotation Laplacian operator is invariant.


~ r) and (φ.~
12. Given the dyadic φ = îî + ĵ ĵ + k̂ k̂, evaluate ~r.(φ.~ ~ r).~r. Is there
~
any ambiguity in writing ~r.φ.~r. What is the geometrical significance of
~ r = 1.
~r.φ.~
~ = xz î − y 2 ĵ + yz 2 k̂ and B
13. If A ~ = 2z 2 î − xy ĵ + y 3 k̂, give a possible
significance to (A~ × ∇)~ B ~ at the point (1,-1,1).

14
~ = 4xî − 2y 2 ĵ + z 2 k̂ taken over the
14. Verify the divergence theorem for A
2 2
region bounded by x + y = 4, z = 0 and z = 3.

15. Show that


~ 1 ) = − ~r3
1. 5( r r
~ r) = 3
2.5.(~
~ × (~r) = 0
3.5
~ × (~a × ~r) = 2~a where ~a is a constant vector.
4..5

16. Problem numbers 37, 42, 46, 50, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 60, 67 of chapter 7
of reference [3].
It is always fine to solve many more problems as in reference [2, 3, 4].
With the best of luck!!

15

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