Introduction to Electronics Training Report

Amritsar College of Engineering & Technology, Amritsar
PROJECT
REPORT OF
ONE WEEK
TRAINING IN
CSE
DEPARTMENT
6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

ECE B3
Introduction to C++
C++ is an extended version C. C was developed at Bell Labs. in 1978. The purpose was
to create a simple language (simpler than assembly & machine code...) which can be used
on a variety of platforms. Later in the early 1980's C was extended to C++ to create an
object-oriented language. O(bject) O(riented) P(rogramming) is a style of programming
in which programs are made using Classes. A class id code in a file separate from the
main program - more on classes later. OOP in general & C++ in particular made it
possible to handle the complexity of graphical environments
C++ has been used successfully for every type of programming problem imaginable from
operating system to spreadsheet to expert system-and efficient compilers are available for
machine ranging in power from the Apple Macintosh to the Cray Super Computer.
The largest measure of C++ success seems to be based on purely practical considerations:
- The portability of the compiler.
- The standard library concept.
- Powerful and varied repertoire of operators.
- An elegant syntax.
- Ready access to the hardware when needed.
- And the ease with which applications can be optimized by hand coding isolated
procedures.
C++ is often called a middle level programming language. This is not a reflection on its
lack of programming power but more a reflection on its capability to access the system
low level function. Mot high level languages provide every thing the programmer might
want to do already build into the language. A low level language provides nothing other
than access to the machine basic instruction set.

ECE B3
1.Program to find largest of three nos. and arrange them in ascending

order
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,temp,large,a[3];
cout<<"\n enter three no.s";
for(i=0;i<=2;i++)
{
cin>>a[i];
}
for(i=0;i<=1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=(1-i);j++)
{
if(a[j]>a[j+1])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}
cout<<"\n largest of three no. is"<<a[2];
cout<<"\n no in ascending order are";
for(i=0;i<=2;i++)
{
cout<<a[i];
cout<<"\n";
}
getch();
Output :-
Enter three nos.
52
89
75
Largest of three no. is 89
NO. in ascending order
52
75 89

ECE B3
2.Program to enter any three nos. and generate series upto next three
nos.
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a,b,c;
int i,n,d,t,r;
cout<<"enter 3 no.\n";
cin>>a>>b>>c;
d=b-a;
if(b-a==c-a)
{
for(i=4;i<=6;i++)
{
t=a+(n-1)*d;
cout<<t;
cout<<",";
}}
r=b/a;
if(b/a==c/a)
{
for(i=4;i<=6;i++)
{
t=pow(r,n)*a;
cout<<t;
cout<<",";
}}
d=sqrt(a);
if(d==sqrt(a)&&(d+1)==sqrt(b))
{
for(i=(d+4);i<=(d+6);i++)
{
t=pow(i,2);
cout<<t;
cout<<" ,";
}}
getch();
}
Output :-
Enter 3 no.
2 ,4,8
2,4,8,,16,32,64
3.Program to find whether the enter string is palindrome or not
ECE B3
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
char s1[50],s2[50];
cout<<"\n Enter the string";
gets(s1);
strcpy(s2,s1);
strrev(s1);
if(strcmp(s2,s1)==0)
{
cout<<"\n palindrome";
}
else
{
cout<<"\n not palindrome";
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter the string
Naman
palindrome
4.Program to write prime nos. between 1-100 using functions

ECE B3
#include<conio.h>
class prime
{
public:
int num;
void prim()
{
int i,flag=0;
for(i=2;i<=num/2;i++)
{
if(num%i==0)
{
flag=1;
break;
}}
if(flag==0)
{
cout<<num<<",";
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
prime obj;
for(i=1;i<=100:i++)
{
obj.prim();
}
getch();
}
Output:-
1,2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23---------------------------------------------------,83,87,97
5.Program to draw given pattern

1
ECE B3
01
101
…………………….n
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int i,j,n;
cout<<"\n Enter the no. of lines for the generation of series";
cin>>n;
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
if(i%2==0&&j%2==0||i%2!=0&&j%2!=0)
{
cout<<"1";
}
else
{
cout<<"0";
}
}
cout<<"\n";
}
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter the no. of lines for the generation of series
5
1
01
101
0101
10101
6.Program to deposit ,withdraw & display the current balance using

classes using menu driven method

ECE B3
#include<conio.h>
class bank
{
public:
int balance;
void deposit()
{
int amt;
cout<<"\n enter the amt";
cin>>amt;
balance=balance+amt;
}
void withdraw()
{
int amt;
cout<<"\n enter the amt";
cin>>amt;
balance=balance-amt;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"\nthe current balance is "<<balance;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
int choice,x=0;
bank obj;
obj.balance=0;
while (x=0)
{
cout<<"\npress 1 for deposit\n";
cout<<"press 2 for withdraw\n";
cout<<"press 3 for display\n";
cout<<"press 4 for exit\n";
cin>>choice;
switch(choice)
{
case1:
obj.deposit();
break;
case2:
obj.withdraw();
break;
case3:

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obj.display();
break;
case4:
x=1;
break;
default:
cout<<"wrong choice";
}}
getch();
}
Output:-
press 1 for deposit
press 2 for withdraw
press 3 for display
press 4 for exit
1
Enter the amt
7896
press 1 for deposit
press 3 for display
press 4 for exit
3
The current balance is
7896
press 1 for deposit
press 3 for display
press 4 for exit
4
7.Program to print student’s record using single inheritance

#include<conio.h>

ECE B3
class student
{
private:
int rn;
char name[50];
char add[50];
public:
void readdata()
{
cout<<"\n enter name";
cin>>name;
cout<<"\n enter address";
cin>>add;
}
void displaydata()
{
cout<<"\n name is"<<name;
cout<<"\n address is"<<add;
}
};
class newstudent:public student
{
private:
int marks;
char fathers[50];
public:
void readdata1()
{
readdata();
cout<<"\n enter marks";
cin>>marks;
cout<<"\n enter fathers name";
cin>>fathers;
}
void display()
{
displaydata();
cout<<"\n marks is"<<marks;
cout<<"\n fathers name is"<<fathers;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
newstudent obj;
obj.readdata1();

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obj.display();
getch();
}
Output:-
Enter name Shreya aggarwal
Enter address 53-a rani ka bagh
Enter marks 98
Enter father’s name Anil aggarwal
Name is shreya aggarwal
Address is 53-a rani ka bagh
Marks is 98
Father’s name is anil aggarwal

ECE B3
PROJECT
REPORT OF
ONE WEEK
TRAINING IN
MECHANICAL
DEPARTMENT

ECE B3
PROJECT
REPORT OF
FOUR WEEK
TRAINING IN
ECE
DEPARTMENT
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

ECE B3
Electronics is the
branch of science and
technology which
makes use of the
controlled motion of
electrons through different media and vacuum. The ability to control electron flow is
usually applied to information handling or device control. Electronics is distinct from
electrical science and technology, which deals with the generation, distribution, control
and application of electrical power. This distinction started around 1906 with the
invention by Lee De Forest of the triode, which made electrical amplification possible
with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950 this field was called "radio technology"
because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers
and vacuum tubes.
Most electronic devices today use semiconductor components to perform electron

control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a
branch of physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve
practical problems come under electronics engineering. This article focuses on
engineering aspects of electronics.
Types of circuits

ECE B3
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital. A particular
device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types
1. Analog circuits
Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from
combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of
voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. Analog circuits are sometimes
called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such
as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and
transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators. One rarely finds modern
circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even
microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called
"mixed signal" rather than analog or digital. 46069025.doc

ECE B3
2. Digital circuits
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. To most
engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are
interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use two
voltage levels labeled "Low"(0) and "High"(1). Often "Low" will be near zero
volts and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.
Electronic devices and components
An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the
electrons or their associated fields in a desired manner consistent with the intended
function of the electronic system. Components are generally intended to be connected
together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an
electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or
oscillator). Components may be packaged singly or in more complex groups as integrated
circuits. Some common electronic components are capacitors, resistors, diodes,
transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active (e.g. transistors and
thyristors) or passive (e.g. resistors and capacitors).
1. PASSIVE COMPONENTS
A passive component, depending on field, may be either a component that consumes

(but does not produce) energy, or a component that is incapable of power gain.
1.1 Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its
terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with
Ohm's law:
V = IR

ECE B3
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below
which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the
limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and
dimensions of the resistor.Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as
well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to
equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when
dissipating their power.
(a) Series Resistor Circuit
As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each
resistor in the chain and the total resistance, RT of the circuit must be equal to the sum of
all the individual resistors added together. That is
RT = R1 + R2 + R3

ECE B3
and by taking the individual values of the resistors in our simple example above, the total
resistance is given as:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1kΩ + 2kΩ + 6kΩ = 9kΩ
Therefore, we can replace all 3 resistors above with just one single resistor with a value
of 9kΩ. Where 4, 5 or even more resistors are all connected together in series, the total
resistance of the series circuit RT would still be the sum of all the individual resistors
connected together. This total resistance is generally known as the Equivalent
Resistance and can be defined as; " a single value of resistance that can replace any
number of resistors without altering the values of the current or the voltage in the
circuit". Then the equation given for calculating total resistance of the circuit when
resistors are connected together in series is given as:
Series Resistor Equation
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... Rn etc.
(b) Resistors in Parallel
Resistors are said to be connected together in "Parallel" when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors. The voltage drop
across all of the resistors in parallel is the same. Then, Resistors in Parallel have a
Common Voltage across them and in our example below the voltage across the resistors
is given as:
VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = VAB = 12V
In the following circuit the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all connected together in parallel
between the two points A and B.

ECE B3
Parallel Resistor Circuit
In the previous series resistor circuit we saw that the total resistance, RT of the circuit was
equal to the sum of all the individual resistors added together. For resistors in parallel the
equivalent circuit resistance RT is calculated differently.
Parallel Resistor Equation
Resistor Combinations
Resistor circuits that combine series and parallel resistors circuits together are generally
known as Resistor Combination circuits and the method of calculating their combined
resistance is the same as that for any individual series or parallel circuit. For example:
For example, Calculate the total current (I) taken from the 12v supply.

ECE B3
At first glance this may seem a difficult task, but if we look a little closer we can see that
the two resistors, R2 and R3 are both connected together in a "SERIES" combination so
we can add them together and the resultant resistance for this would be,
R2 + R3 = 8 Ω + 4 Ω = 12 Ω
So now we can replace both the resistors R 2 and

R3 with a single resistor of resistance value 12 Ω

ECE B3
Now we have single resistor RT in "PARALLEL" with the resistor R4, (resistors in
parallel) and again we can reduce this combination to a single resistor value of R (combination)
using the formula for two parallel connected resistors as follows.
The resultant circuit now looks something like this:

ECE B3
The two remaining resistances, R1 and R(comb) are connected together in a "SERIES"
combination and again they can be added together so the total circuit resistance between
points A and B is therefore given as:
R( A - B ) = Rcomb + R1 = 6 Ω + 6 Ω = 12 Ω. and a single resistance of just 12 Ω can be used

to replace the original 4 resistor combinations circuit above.
Resistor Colour Code
The resistance value, tolerance, and watt rating of the resistor are generally printed onto
the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistor is big enough to read the
print, such as large power resistors. When resistors are small such as 1/4W Carbon and
Film types, these specifications must be shown in some other manner as the print would
be too small to read. So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to
indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor
indicating its wattage rating. These coloured painted bands are generally known as a
Resistors Colour Code.An International resistor colour code scheme was developed
many years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors value. It consists of
coloured rings (in spectral order) whose meanings are illustrated :

ECE B3
Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are
the milliohm (1x10−3), kilohm (1x103), and megohm (1x106).
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
CAPACITORS
ECE B3
Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a

passive device, and one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which
produces a potential (Static Voltage) across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor
consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not connected but are electrically
separated either by air or by an insulating material called the Dielectric. When a voltage
is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving one
plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge. This
flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow
until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage
Vc.
Types of Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitor
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by coating
two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked
together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc
of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-
K) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small
physical size. They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against
temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they
are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few
picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are generally quite
low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to
identify their capacitance value. For example, 103 would indicate 10 x 103pF which is
equivalent to 10,000 pF or 0.01μF. Likewise, 104 would indicate 10 x 104pF which is
equivalent to 100,000 pF or 0.1μF and so on. Letter codes are sometimes used to indicate
their tolerance value such as: J = 5%, K = 10% or M = 20% etc.

ECE B3
CERAMIC CAPACITOR
Electrolytic capacitor
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic

conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume
than other types. They are often referred to in electronics usage simply as "electrolytics".
They are used in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits, particularly
in power supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and
current fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors
in circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not. There are two types of
electrolytics; aluminum and tantalum.
Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance values of any
type of capacitor. However they have drawbacks which limit their use. The voltage
applied to them must be polarized; one specified terminal must always have positive
potential with respect to the other. Therefore they cannot be used with AC signals
without a DC bias. They also have very low breakdown voltage, higher leakage current
and inductance, poorer tolerances and temperature range, and shorter lifetimes compared
to other types of capacitors

ECE B3
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
(a) Capacitors in Series
Capacitors are said to be "connected in series" when they are effectively "daisy chained"
together in a single line. The charging current (Ic) flowing through the capacitors is THE
SAME for the same amount of time so each capacitor stores the same amount of charge
regardless of its capacitance and:
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 etc.....
In the following circuit, capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 are connected together in series
between points A and B.
Figure 4 : Series Capacitor Circuit
(b)Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors are said to be connected "in parallel" when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other capacitor or capacitors. The

ECE B3
voltage (Vc) across all the capacitors connected in parallel is THE SAME. Then,
parallel capacitors have a Common Voltage supply across them and:
VC1 = VC2 = VC3 = VAB = 12V
In the following circuit capacitor, C1 and capacitor, C2 are connected in parallel between
points A and B.
When capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance in the circuit is equal to
the sum of all the individual capacitors added together. That is:
Parallel Capacitors Equation
Where all the capacitors are given in the same capacitance units, either uF, nF or pF.
Inductor
An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a

magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to

ECE B3
store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance,

in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a
conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping
to create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due
to Ampere's Law. Due to the time-varying magnetic
field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according
to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
which by Lenz's Law opposes the change in current
that created it. Inductors are one of the basic
electronic components used in electronics where
current and voltage change with time, due to the
ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating
currents. In everyday speak inductors are sometimes
called chokes, but this refers to only a particular type and purpose of inductor
2.ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Active components are those that have gain or directionality, in contrast to passive
components, which have neither. They include semiconductor devices and vacuum tubes
(valves).
• DIODES

ECE B3
1.The Zener Diode
In the previous Signal Diode tutorial we saw that a "reverse biased" diode passes very
little current but will suffer breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across it
is made to high. However, Zener Diodes or "Breakdown Diodes" as they are sometimes
called, are basically the same as the standard junction diode but are specially made to
have a low pre-determined Reverse Breakdown Voltage, called the "Zener Voltage"
(Vz). In the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing current,
but when the reverse voltage applied to it exceeds the selected reverse breakdown voltage
a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the current
through the diode increases to the maximum circuit value, which is usually limited by a
series resistor. The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less
than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes construction giving it a specific
Zener Breakdown voltage (Vz) ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred volts.
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics
Zener Diodes are used in the "REVERSE" bias mode, i.e. the anode connects to the
negative supply, and from its I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the Zener
diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant voltage
regardless of the current flowing through the diode. This voltage across the diode (it's
Zener Voltage, Vz) remains nearly constant even with large changes in current through
the diode caused by variations in the supply voltage or load. This ability to control itself
can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load
variations. The diode will continue to regulate until the diode current falls below the
minimum Iz value in the reverse breakdown region.

ECE B3
2.Light Emitting Diodes
Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the types of
diodes available. They are the most visible type of diode, that emits a fairly narrow
bandwidth of either visible coloured light, invisible infra-red or laser type light when a
forward current is passed through them. A "Light Emitting Diode" or LED as it is more
commonly called, is basically just a specialised type of PN-junction diode, made from a
very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material. When the diode is
Forward Biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band combine with holes
from the valence band, releasing sufficient energy to produce photons of light. Because
of this thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate
away producing a coloured light output.
Unlike normal diodes which are Typical LED Characteristics

made for detection or power Semiconductor VF @
rectification, and which are Material
Wavelength Colour
20mA
generally made from either GaAs 850-940nm Infra- 1.2v

ECE B3
Germanium or Silicon Red

semiconductor material, Light GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v
Emitting Diodes are made from GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v
compound type semiconductor GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v
materials such as Gallium GaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v
Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
GaInN 450nm White 4.0v
Phosphide (GaP), Gallium
Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP),
Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium
Indium Nitride (GaInN). The exact
choice of the semiconductor
material used will determine the
overall wavelength of the photon
light emissions and therefore the
resulting colour of the light
emitted, as in the case of the
visible light coloured LEDs,
(RED, AMBER, GREEN etc)
3.The PN-junction
As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type
material has become positive with respect to the P-type. The external voltage required to
overcome this barrier potential that now exists and allow electrons to move freely across
the junction is very much dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its
actual temperature, and for Silicon this is about 0.6 - 0.7 volts and for Germanium it is

ECE B3
about 0.3 - 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is not
connected to any external power source.
The significance of this built-in potential is that it opposes both the flow of holes and
electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice, a
PN-junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining
or fusing together two separate pieces. Electrical contacts are also fused onto either side
of the crystal to enable an electrical connection to be made to an external circuit.
The Basic Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

ECE B3
But before we can use the PN-junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we
need to firstly "Bias" the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage
axis above "Reverse Bias" refers to an external voltage potential which increases the
potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in
the "Forward Bias" direction.
There are 3 possible "biasing" conditions for the standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias - No external voltage potential is applied to the PN-junction.
2. Reverse Bias - The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type
material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the
effect of Increasing the
PN-junction width.
3. Forward Bias - The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type
material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the
effect of Decreasing the PN-junction width.

ECE B3
Reverse Bias.
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to

the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive
voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode
and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away
from the junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer
grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path,
almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing
current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
A Reverse Biased Junction showing the Increase in the Depletion Layer.
This condition represents the high resistance direction of a PN-junction and practically
zero current flows through the diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very
small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in
microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the junction
is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the PN-junction to overheat
and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to

ECE B3
become shorted and will result in maximum circuit current to flow, Ohm's Law and this
shown in the reverse characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Diode.
Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits
where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown
current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the
diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in
a later tutorial.
2.Forward Bias.
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to

the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, 0.7 volts for
Silicon and 0.3 volts for Germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome
and current will start to flow as the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards
the junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being
pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results

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in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this "knee" voltage and high
current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Diode.
This results in the depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow and which now
represents a low impedance path thereby producing a very small potential barrier and
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this takes place is represented on the
static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

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Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion

Layer.
This condition represents the low resistance direction in a PN-junction allowing very
large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The
actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of
the depletion layer at about 0.3v for Germanium and about 0.7v for Silicon diodes. Since
the diode can conduct "infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, resistors are used in series with the device to limit its current flow.
Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more
power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in failure of the device.

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4.Transistor
Bipolar Transistor Construction
The construction and circuit symbols for both the NPN and PNP bipolar transistor are
shown above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of
conventional current flow between the base terminal and its emitter terminal, with the
direction of the arrow pointing from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type
region, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
There are basically three possible ways to connect a Bipolar Transistor within an
electronic circuit with each method of connection responding differently to its input
signal as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.
• 1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

• 2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
• 3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage
Gain.

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• The NPN Transistor
In the previous tutorial we saw that the standard Bipolar Transistor or BJT, comes in
two basic forms. An NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) type and a PNP (Positive-
Negative-Positive) type, with the most commonly used transistor type being the NPN
Transistor. We also learnt that the transistor junctions can be biased in one of three
different ways - Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector. In this
tutorial we will look more closely at the "Common Emitter" configuration using NPN
Transistors and an example of its current flow characteristics is given below.
An NPN Transistor Configuration

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Output Characteristics Curves for a Typical Bipolar Transistor
The most important factor to notice is the effect of Vce upon the collector current Ic
when Vce is greater than about 1.0 volts. You can see that Ic is largely unaffected by
changes in Vce above this value and instead it is almost entirely controlled by the base
current, Ib. When this happens we can say then that the output circuit represents that of a
"Constant Current Source". It can also be seen from the common emitter circuit above
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that the emitter current Ie is the sum of the collector current, Ic and the base current, Ib,
added together so we can also say that " Ie = Ic + Ib " for the common emitter
configuration.
The PNP Transistor
The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN Transistor device we looked at in
the previous tutorial. Basically, in this type of transistor construction the two diodes are
reversed with respect to the NPN type, with the arrow, which also defines the Emitter
terminal this time pointing inwards in the transistor symbol. Also, all the polarities are
reversed which means that PNP Transistors "sink" current as opposed to the NPN
transistor which "sources" current. Then, PNP Transistors use a small output base current
and a negative base voltage to control a much larger emitter-collector current. The
construction of a PNP transistor consists of two P-type semiconductor materials either
side of the N-type material as shown below.
A PNP Transistor Configuration

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A PNP Transistor Circuit
The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very similar to those for
an equivalent NPN transistor except that they are rotated by 180o to take account of the
reverse polarity voltages and currents, (the currents flowing out of the Base and Collector
in a PNP transistor are negative).
Identifying the PNP Transistor
We saw in the first tutorial of this Transistors section, that transistors are basically made
up of two Diodes connected together back-to-back. We can use this analogy to determine
whether a transistor is of the type PNP or NPN by testing its Resistance between the three
different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector. By testing each pair of transistor leads in
both directions will result in six tests in total with the expected resistance values in Ohm's
given below.
• 1. Emitter-Base Terminals - The Emitter to Base should act like a normal

diode and conduct one way only.
• 2. Collector-Base Terminals - The Collector-Base junction should act like a
normal diode and conduct one way only.
• 3. Emitter-Collector Terminals - The Emitter-Collector should not conduct in
either direction

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Field Effect Transistor
The Field Effect Transistor, or simply FET however, use the voltage that is applied to
their input terminal to control the output current, since their operation relies on the
electric field (hence the name field effect) generated by the input voltage. This then
makes the Field Effect Transistor a VOLTAGE operated device.
The Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar device that has very similar properties to those
of the Bipolar Transistor ie, high efficiency, instant operation, robust and cheap, and they
can be used in most circuit applications that use the equivalent Bipolar Junction
Transistors, (BJT). They can be made much smaller than an equivalent BJT transistor and
along with their low power consumption and dissipation make them ideal for use in
integrated circuits such as the CMOS range of chips.
We remember from the previous tutorials that there are two basic types of Bipolar
Transistor construction, NPN and PNP, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are
made. There are also two basic types of Field Effect Transistor, N-channel and P-channel.
As their name implies, Bipolar Transistors are "Bipolar" devices because they operate
with both types of charge carriers, Holes and Electrons. The Field Effect Transistor on
the other hand is a "Unipolar" device that depends only on the conduction of Electrons
(N-channel) or Holes (P-channel).
The Field Effect Transistor has one major advantage over its standard bipolar transistor
cousins, in that their input impedance is very high, (Thousands of Ohms) making them
very sensitive to input signals, but this high sensitivity also means that they can be easily
damaged by static electricity.

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• Printed circuit board
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways,
tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-
conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB)
or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a
printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board
assembly (PCBA).
PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more
layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-
point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume
production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and
quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC
organization
• Integrated circuit
In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon

chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor
devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a
thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all

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electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.
Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the
structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated
circuits.
A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual

semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit
board. A monolithic integrated circuit is made of devices manufactured by diffusion of
trace elements into a single piece of semiconductor substrate, a chip.
Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and
resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters and
digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are
usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the
different measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but
may display a bar of length proportional to the quantity measured.

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A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They
can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

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MULTY-MELODY GENERATOR WITH

INSTRUMENTAL EFFECTS
DISCRIPTION
The Multi Melody Generator circuit is powered by a 3V battery. A switch (S2) is the
main input-select switch for producing different tones in the loudspeaker. Various modes
of operation can be selected through DIP switches S3, S4 and S5 connected to pins 3, 5
and 7 of UM3481A (IC1), respectively. Pin 7 is the envelope circuit terminal through
which instrumental effects are produced. The preamplifier outputs are available at pins 10
and 11, which are fed to loudspeaker, driver transistors T1 (SK100) and T2 (SL100),
respectively.
When the circuit is switched on by closing switch S1, LED1 glows. When DIP switches
S3 and S5 are closed and S4 is open; and switch S2 is pressed, a melody is generated
through the loudspeaker. (The potentiometer VR1 is provided for volume control in the
circuit). Pressing the switch S2 again generates a new melodious tone. If switches S3 and
S4 are opened while S5 is closed, the same tone keeps repeating for every press of switch
S2. When switch S5 is open, an instrumental effect is generated from the loudspeaker.
This effect is produced by the enveloping circuit consisting of capacitor C1 and resistor
R2 connected to pin 7 of IC1. Only C1 or R2 or its parallel combination can be used to
generate a distinct instrument effect. To select any of these options, two jumper terminals
J1 and J2 are provided in the circuit at C1 and R2, respectively. For example, if you want
to use only C1, you can join J1 terminals using hookup wire or jumper cap and keep J2
open. The repetition of the musical effect depends on the status of switches S3 and S4.
The oscillation frequency is produced by the resistor and capacitor connected at pins 14
and 13 of IC1. This frequency is used as a time base for the tone, rhythm and tempo
generators. The quality of the melody tones depends on this frequency. Resistor R6 (100-
kilo-ohm) connected to pin 15 makes the circuit insensitive to variations in the power
supply.

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Amritsar College of Engineering & Technology, Amritsar

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

1.Program to find largest of three nos. and arrange them in ascending

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

4.Program to write prime nos. between 1-100 using functions

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

5.Program to draw given pattern

6.Program to deposit ,withdraw & display the current balance using

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

7.Program to print student’s record using single inheritance

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

Most electronic devices today use semiconductor components to perform electron

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

Electronic devices and components

A passive component, depending on field, may be either a component that consumes

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

(a) Series Resistor Circuit

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1kΩ + 2kΩ + 6kΩ = 9kΩ

Series Resistor Equation

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... Rn etc.

(b) Resistors in Parallel

VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = VAB = 12V

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

Parallel Resistor Circuit

Parallel Resistor Equation

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

So now we can replace both the resistors R 2 and

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

The resultant circuit now looks something like this:

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

R( A - B ) = Rcomb + R1 = 6 Ω + 6 Ω = 12 Ω. and a single resistance of just 12 Ω can be used

Resistor Colour Code

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

(a) Capacitors in Series

Figure 4 : Series Capacitor Circuit

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VC1 = VC2 = VC3 = VAB = 12V

Parallel Capacitors Equation

An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance,

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING

1.The Zener Diode

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

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2.Light Emitting Diodes

Unlike normal diodes which are Typical LED Characteristics

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Germanium or Silicon Red

6 WEEKS INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING