(H4SO4)

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as

ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate, which are highly
soluble in water and can be easily obsorbed by plant.
2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte.
3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibres
and rayon.
4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of their
component materials.
5. Used in school laboratories as a strong acid.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process

2. The process contain three stages:

STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur

i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur
dioxide SO2.

S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)
Sulphur

ii. Sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.

STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide

i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over
vanadium(V) oxide V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum
condition to produce sulphur trioxide SO3.
2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)
ii. The optimum used are
a) Temperature:450-500°C
b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

2
iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is
possible. Sulphur dioxide and oxygen that have not reacted are
allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in the converter.

STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid

i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4
to form oleum H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form
sulphuric acid H2SO4.

SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)H2S2O7(l)
Oleum

H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide
directly into water.

SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)

iii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out
because the reaction is vary vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a
result, alarge cloud of sulphuric acid fumes is produced, which is
corrosive and causes severe air pollution.

The Contact Process

3
Sulphu Oxyge
r n
2SO(g) +In the converter
O2(g)
2SO3(g)
S(s) + Temperature: 450-500°C
O2(g)SO2(g) Pressure: 2-3
atmospheres
Oxygen Catalyst: Vanadium(V)
oxide

SO2(g) +
H2SO4(aq)H2S2O7(l)
H2S2O7(l) + Unreacted
H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq) 2%so2 is
flowed back
to converter
together with
oxygen

Outline Of Contact
process

SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

4
1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-product of contact process. It is a
colourless and poisonous gas with a vary pungent smell.
2. Sulphur dioxide which escape into the air causes air pollution.
3. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolves in water to form
sulphurous acidic, H2SO3. In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide dissolve
in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic.

SO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO3(aq)

4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4,

which falls to the earth as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily
oxidised in the air to form sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve
in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.

SO3(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO4(aq)

Acid rain and environmental pollution

5
(NH3)
USES OF AMMONIA
1. Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.
2. It uses:
i. In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as
ammonium sulphate, ammonia nitric, ammonia phosphate and
urea.
ii. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.
iii. In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon.
iv. As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy
stains in the kitchen.
v. To prevent the coagulations of latex

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:

i. It colourless and has a pungent odour.
ii. It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.
iii. It less dense then water.
iv. It easily liquified (at about 35.5°C) when cool.
2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas:
a) Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to

become alkaline. Thus aqueous ammonia solution:
i. Turns red litmus paper blue.
ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization
reaction.

NH3(aq) + HCI(aq)  NH4CI(aq)

2NH3 + H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

iii. Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.

Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq)  Fe (OH)2(s)

(Form ammonia solution) Dirty green precipitate

6
MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY

1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the

haber process. In this process, ammonia is formed form direct
combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in the volume ratio 1:3.
2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air.
The hydrogen gas is obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from
the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH4, with steam.

CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)

3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron
catalyst under controlled optimum condition as below to form
ammonia gas.
i. Temperature: 450-500°C
ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

4. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture
turn into ammonia gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not
reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again in the reactor
chamber.
5. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it
condenses into a liquid in the cooling chamber.

The Haber
Process

7
 Hydroge
Nitrogen
n

N2 and H2 are mixed in the

proportion of 1:3
In the reactor chamber Unreacted N2
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH
In (g) chamber
cooling
3
and H2 gases
Temperature: 450-500°C
Pressure: Liquid 200-500
atmospheres ammonia
CatalystOutline Offillings
used: Iron Haber
process

AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS

1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins

which are necessary for growth and cell repair.
2. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air
although it is abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb
soluble nitrogen compounds from soil through their roots.
3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia
and ammonia salt which are manufacture as
chemical fertilizer.
4. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce
ammonium fertilizers.

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq)

Ammonium
nitrate

3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq)  (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonium phosphate

2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium
sulphate

ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN MATELS

8
 1. The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes
the metal to have a hight density
2. The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong.
More heat energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that
the atoms are further apart during the melting. This is why metals
usually have hight melting point.
3. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by
vibration. This make metal good conduct of heat.
4. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metal’s structure
are able to conduct electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical
conductors.
5. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged
orderly in a regular layered pattern. When a force is applied to
metal, layer of atom slide easily over one another. This make pure
metals soft, malleable and ductile.

Layer of atom
slide

Force

Metals are
ductile

Force
The shape of
the metal
change

Matel are
WHAT ARE ALLOYS? malleable

1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low
resistance to corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily.

9
 2. To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of
another element (usually metal) is added to form another an alloy.
3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non-metal)
in a specific proportion. For example:
a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)

THE PURPOSE OF MAKING ALLOYS:

1. Increase the strength
a. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of
carbon is added to iron, an alloy, steal is formed. The more
carbon is added, the stronger the steel becomes.
b. Pure aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of
copper and magnesium are added to aluminium, a strong,
light and durable alloy call duralumin is produced.
2. Improving the resistance to corrosion
c.Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron,
0.4% of carbon, 18% of chromium and 1% of nickel does not
rush. These properties make stainless steel suitable for
making surgical instrument and cutlery.
d. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the
yellow alloy which is known as brass develops a high resistance to
corrosion.
3. Enhancing the appearance
a. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only
hard but also has a more beautiful white silvery appearance.
b. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an
alloy that has an attractive silvery, bright appearance is formed
which is suitable for making coins.

10
 Alloy Composition Properties Uses
High carbon 99% iron Strong,hard and • Making of
steel 1% carbon high wear cutting tools,
resistance hammers and
chisels
Stainless steel 80.6% iron Do not rust and • Making of
0.4% carbon tarnish, strong surgical
18%chromium and durable instrument,
1% nickel knives forks
and spoons
Brass 70% copper Hard, do not • Making of
30% zinc rust, bright ornaments,
appearance electrical
wiring and
plug.
Bronze 90% copper Hard, do not • For casting
10% tin corrode easily bells, medals,
and durable swords and
statues
Pewter 90% tin Ductile and • Making of
2.5% copper malleable, white ornaments,
0.5% antimony silvery souvenirs and
appearance mugs
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light, strong • Making part of
4% copper and durable aircrafts and
1%magnesium racing cars
Cupronickel 75%copper Attractive, • Making of
25%nickel silvery silver coins
appearance,
hard and tough
Composition, properties and uses of alloys

The formation of alloy

11
WHAT ARE POLYMER

1. Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar

units joined together repeatedly are called polymer.
2. The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are
caller monomer.
3. The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form
a long chain polymer is called polymerisation.
4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural
polymer are found in plant and in animals for example of natural
polymers are starch cellulose, protein and rubber.
5. Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are
additional polymerisation.
6. Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition
polymerisation.

Some Common Addition Polymers

Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties Uses
Polyethylene
–(CH2- ethylene film wrap,
low density soft, waxy solid
CH2)n– CH2=CH2 plastic bags
(LDPE)
Polyethylene electrical
–(CH2- ethylene rigid,
high density insulation
CH2)n– CH2=CH2 translucent solid
(HDPE) bottles, toys
Polypropylen atactic: soft, similar to
e –[CH2- propylene elastic solid LDPE
(PP) different CH(CH3)]n– CH2=CHCH3 isotactic: hard, carpet,
grades strong solid upholstery
Poly(vinyl vinyl
–(CH2- strong rigid pipes, siding,
chloride) chloride
CHCl)n– solid flooring
(PVC) CH2=CHCl
Poly(vinylide –(CH2- vinylidene dense, high- seat covers,

12
ne chloride) chloride
CCl2)n– melting solid films
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2
hard, rigid, clear
–[CH2- styrene toys, cabinets
Polystyrene solid
CH(C6H5)]n CH2=CHC6H packaging
(PS) soluble in
– 5 (foamed)
organic solvents
Polyacrylonitr high-melting
ile –(CH2- acrylonitrile solid rugs, blankets
(PAN, Orlon, CHCN)n– CH2=CHCN soluble in clothing
Acrilan) organic solvents
non-stick
Polytetrafluor tetrafluoroe
–(CF2- resistant, surfaces
oethylene thylene
CF2)n– smooth solid electrical
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2
insulation
methyl
Poly(methyl
–[CH2- methacrylat hard, lighting
methacrylate)
C(CH3)CO2 e transparent covers, signs
(PMMA, Lucite,
CH3]n– CH2=C(CH3) solid skylights
Plexiglas)
CO2CH3
vinyl
Poly(vinyl –(CH2-
acetate latex paints,
acetate) CHOCOCH soft, sticky solid
CH2=CHOC adhesives
(PVAc) 3)n–
OCH3
requires
cis- –[CH2- isoprene
vulcanization
Polyisoprene CH=C(CH3 CH2=CH- soft, sticky solid
for practical
natural rubber )-CH2]n– C(CH3)=CH2
use
Polychloropre –[CH2- chloroprene synthetic
tough, rubbery
ne (cis + trans) CH=CCl- CH2=CH- rubber
solid
(Neoprene) CH2]n– CCl=CH2 oil resistant
Uses of synthetic polymers

13
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Synthetic polymers have many advantages over other type of

materials:
a. They are cheap, light-weight and translucent.
b. They are easily coloured, easily moulded and shaped.
c. They are non-corrosive, waterproof and good insulator.
d. They are durable and long lasting because they are resistant to
decay, rusting and chemical attacks.
2. There are disadvantage using synthetic polymer:
a. Most of the synthetic polymer are flammable. When a synthetic
polymer material catches fire, poisonous fumes are produce
causing air pollution.
b. Synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable. When there are
discharge, they cause litter problem and pollute the
environment.
c. Plastic container that are left aside in an open area collect
rainwater which becomes the breeding ground for mosquitoes.
d. There are limitation in recycle have to be separated out as the
addition of non-recyclable polymers in the mixture affect the
properties of the recycled polymers.

14
WHAT ARE GLASS?

1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world.
Many products are made from glass because of its specials
properties.
2. Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack.
e. Easy to maintain.

Type of glass Composition Properties Uses

Fused glass SiO2: 100% • Transparent • Lens
• High melting • Telescope
point mirrors
• Good heat • Laboratory
insulator apparatus
Soda-lime glass SiO2: 75% • Low melting • Drinking glass,
Na2O:15% point, easily bottles
CaO: 9% molded into • Electric bulbs
Other:1% desired shape • Window glass
and size
• Low resistant
to chemical
attacks
• Brittle
Borosilicate SiO2: 78% • Resistant • Cooking
glass B2O3: 12% chemical utensils
Na2O: 5% attack and • Laboratory
CaO: 3% durable glassware such
Al2O3:2% • High melting as conical flaks
point and boiling tube
• Good insulator
to heat
Lead crystal SiO2: 70% • High refractive • Lenses and
glass (flint glass) Pbo/PbO2:20% index prisms
Na2O: 10% • High density • Decorative

15
 • Attractive glassware and
glittering art object
appearance • Imation
jewellery

CERAMICS

1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay

such as kaolin to a vary high temperature.
2. Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the
most useful materials in our everyday life. That:
a. Are hard, strong but brittle
b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperature
c.Are heat and electric instrument
d. Are resistant to corrosion and wear
e. Are chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress
3. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a. Construction materials
i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks
cement, sinks, and toilet bowls.
ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks because high
resistant to heat.
b. Decorative items
i. To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they
do not tarnish easily and are durable.
ii. They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall
tiles.
c.Electrical insulator
i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items
such as toasters, fridges and electrical plug.

Materials Melting Density/G Elastic Hardness/

point/ °C cm-3 modulus/ mohs
GPa
Oxide
ceramic 2054 3.97 380 9
Alumina,AL2 2574 3.01 370 8
O3 2710 5.68 210 8
Beryllia, BeO
Zirconia, ZiO
Non-oxide
ceramics
Boron 2350 2.50 280 9

16
carbide,B4C3 2830 3.16 400 9
Silicon
nitride, Si3, 1900 3.17 310 9
n4
Metals
Aluminium 660 2.70 70 3
Steel 1515 7.86 205 5

17
WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS?

1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that

is formed by two or more different substances such as metal, glass,
ceramic and polymer.
2. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforces concrete
b. Superconductor
c.Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass

• REINFORCES CONCRETE
a. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap
and easy to maintain. It is more important construction
materials.
b. The reinforces is a combination of concrete and steel.

• SUPERCONDUCTOR
a. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of
electricity, but 20% of the electric energy is lost in the form
of heat during transmission.
b. Super conductor are materials that have no resistance to the
flow of electricity at a particular temperature. Hence, 100%
electricity transmission is possible.
c. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is
its ability to levitate a magnet. Superconductor are used to
build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at about 552
km/h).
d. Superconductor are used to make chips for smaller and
faster supercomputer. Superconductor also play an
important role in high speed data processing in internet
communication.

• FIBRE OPTIC
a. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit
signals for light
wave.
b. Fibre optic is used in
 Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked
by fibre optic cables.

18
  Domestic cable television network
 Closed circuit television security system.
c. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number
of instrument
which enable the investigation for internal body part
without having to
perform surgery
• FIBRE GLASS
a. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is
dropped onto a
refractory rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass
to form fibre.
b. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot,
resistant to fire
and water but is brittle.
c. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite
material fibre glass
reinforces plastic is formed.
d. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties
than glass and
plastic. It is
 Extremely strong
 Light weigh
 Resistant to fire and water
 Can be molded, shaped and twisted

• PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
a. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic
substances) and a small amount of copper (II) chloride are
added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glass is
formed.
b. The photochromic glass has a special property. It is dark
when exposed to strong sunlight or ultraviolet.
c. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.

19
APPRECIATING VARIOUS SYNTHETIC INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

1. Continuous research and development is required to produce

better material used to improve our standard of living.

2. New materials are required to overcome new challenges and

problem we facing in changing world.

3. Synthetics materials are developed constantly due to the

limitation of natural materials.

4. New needs and new problems will stimulate the development of

new synthetic materials. New superconductors made from
composite materials have to develop.

5. The understanding of the interaction between different chemicals

is important for both the development of new synthetic materials
as waste.

20