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 Featured Essays 54r7

EGYPT
Cross-eyed Sociology in Egypt and the Arab World
SAAD
EDDIN
IBRAHIM
Ibn Khaldoun Centerfor Development Studies, Cairo
ibnkldon(Ridscl.gov.eg
Bacliground They encouragedEgyptianrulers to send
The storyof sociologyin the ArabWorld studentsto France,and returninggraduates
beginsin Egyptaroundthe turnof the century ensureda continuousflowof knowledgeof and
and is similar to the story of the country interaction withFrenchintellectual
debatesand
itself earlypromiseof a "modernage"that innovations. Thus,whenComte(1798-1857),
kindled high expectations, followed by SaintSimon'ssecretary anddisciple,advocated
difficulties, unfulfilled hopes, and great in the 1840sa new disciplinethat he called
frustrations.The substantivedetailsof that "sociology," Egyptianstudentsreturningfrom
storycould easilybe derivedfromthe three Francepopularized the idea.
successive editions ( 1977-1997)of Ibrahim Bythe1870s,Egyptian andArabintellectuals
and Hopkins'sArabSociety. had been so impressedby the promiseof the
As a formalacademicdiscipline,sociology social sciences in general for moving and
was first offered in the newly established transforming their stagnant traditional
(1908)secularEgyptianUniversityin 1913- societies that some managed to convince
only 20 yearsafterthe Universityof Chicago Egypt's Viceroy(Khedive)Ismaelto announce
(1892), 7 yearsafterthe Universityof Paris a nationalprojectof "MakingEgyptPart of
(1906), and 6 yearsafterthe LondonSchool Europe"(Hitti 1974:844).
of Economicsand PoliticalScience. Indeed, These ambitiousmodernizationplans of
Cairo's Egyptian University introduced FrenchSaintSimonists, theirArabcounterparts,
academic sociologyahead of most western andsuccessiveEgyptianrulerswere,however,
Europeanuniversities,whichdidso onlyafter dealt a severe blow as Europeancolonial
WorldWarI. Scandinavianuniversitieshad designsunfolded:The BritishoccupiedEgypt
no professorshipsof sociology until after in 1882; the French occupiedTunisia that
WorldWar II (Shils 1989:809). sameyearand Moroccoin 1906;Britainand
Among the reasonsfor this earlystartof Franceoccupiedthe rest of the ArabEastin
academicsociologyin Egyptwasitscentury-long 1918.After the initialshock wore off, Arab
traditionof Saint Simonism,alongwith the intellectuals began to seek a more solid
rediscoveryof the work of the fourteenth- foundationfornation-building. In the absence
centuryArabthinker-statesman IbnKhaldoun. of an independent nation-state, they
Both French visionaryClaudeHenri Saint established,among other things, what we
Simon (1760-1825) and Abdel RahmanIbn might today call "nongovernmental
Khaldoun(1332-1406)are regardedby Arab organizations"(NGOs) or "civil society
intellectualsas precursorsof sociology.This organizations" (CSOs)to "educate," "liberate,"
claimto dualancestry,Westernand Eastern, and"advance" theirpeoples.
runsthroughthe 100-yearmarchof sociology To "educate" and"liberate"meant,in part,
in the Arab World causing tensions, to dig deep in Arab historyand civilization
contradictions, occasionalbrilliancebut,always, for authenticroots of progress.If sociology
a cross-eyed sociological"vision." wereto becomethe new "positivist" pride,it
Followersof Saint Simon first arrivedin should not only be embracedby fledgling
Egyptin the 1820s, believing that its new Egyptianand Arab educationalinstitutions
modernizingrulers,led by MohammedAli but it shouldalso be rootedin an authentic
(1776-1849)wouldembraceSaintSimonand Arabheritage.Itwas,ironically, in Europethat
Auguste Comte's ideas of"order" and Egyptianand other Arab graduatestudents
"progress." In fact they did help the state to would rediscoverIbn Khaldoun'swork in
establishgrandsystemsof irrigation,public translations by French,Gennan,and English
health,education,industry,andthe military. orientalists. SeveralArabstudents'
dissertations,
Some of these Saint Simonistsremainedfor done at Europeanuniversities in the first
the rest of their lives, Arabizedtheirnames, quarterof the twentiethcentury,wereabout
converted to Islam, and married"natives." thisor thataspectof Khaldoun's observations
5428 Featured Essays

on Medieval Arab society and their overview of the research agendas and
applicabilityin contemporary Arablife(Zayed publishingactivitiesof Arabsociologistsand
1995:42-70;AbuZeid1997).Hisidentification theirsubregionalvariationsfromthe Gulf to
of the three basic modes of living in Arab Morocco. We then discuss some of the
society (desert tribal, rural peasant, and problemsof Arabsociologistsand,finally,offer
urban), their characteristics, and their a few reflectionson the future.
conflictualinteractionswerethe foundation
of Ibn Khaldoun'stheoryof power,the rise, From Advocacy to Oversellirlg:
decline,and fallof Arabdynasties.His acute Sociology from the 1920s to the 1950s
observations in the "Muqaddimah"or If the current generation of Arab
Prolegomenaand seven other volumes of sociologistsfeelsundervalued bypolicymakers
"Kitabal 'Ibar"(Bookof Examples and the or laymen,their unease may be traced to
ofOriglns
Collectiorl ofie HistoryoftheArabsarld earliergenerationsof well-intentionedbut
Berbers),have remainedcomplexsourcesof naive sociologistswho first advocated,then
knowledge and testable hypotheses for overstated, and ultimately oversold the
contemporary Arabsociologists(IbnKhaldoun discipline.
1400 [1858]). By 1922,followingthe 1919popularrevolt
These twin sources of sociological againstthe Britishoccupation,Egypthadwon
knowledge,one external/European and the anindependenceof sortsandbegunto display
otherauthentic/Arab, wouldcontinueforthe the trappings of sovereignty,e.g., it hadjoined
restof the twentiethcentury.SomeearlyArab the newlycreatedLeagueof Nations,andhad
sociologistsmergedthemcreatively(e.g.,Taha a constitution,a parliament,a newflag,anda
Hussain,and A. A. Wafi);othersopted for nationalanthem.One signof sovereigntywas
one or the other; and some distortedboth a modernstateuniversity.Insteadof building
altogether.Overall, this dualityhas led to anew,the governmenttookoverthe Egyptian
passionatedebatesaboutthe value or utility University, renamedit KingFouadI University
of Western sociological paradigms for (KFU),andexpandedits faculties.Sociology
understandingnon-Westernsocieties and, joined the departmentof philosophyin the
conversely,aboutwhetheranindigenous Arab facultyof arts.
sociologycouldemerge.A similarly impassioned New graduateswere sent abroad,mainly
debate had raged in midcenturybetween to France,fordoctorates.Between1925 and
sociologists and nonsociologists over the 1955 a numberof Egyptianand European
"scientific"claimsof the field.A thirddebate sociologists joinedKFU(anamethatchanged,
amongEgyptianand otherArabsociologists again, in 1953, to Cairo University). In
hasfocusedon theirrolesin policymaking and Alexandria,King FaroukUniversity (later
their relations with policymakers.And, of AlexandriaUniversity) was established in
course,there arethe ongoingdebatesamong 1941. In 1951, a third Egyptian secular
sociologistsover ideologiesand intellectual universitywas established,first as Ibrahim
and academic approaches in theory and Pasha and later (1953) as Ain Shams
practice(Ibrahim1988). University (ASU). In addition, Higher
Meanwhile,the numberof universities that Teachers' Training Institute (HTTI) and
have at least one sociologydepartmenthas SocialWorkInstitutes(SWI)wereestablished
grown (Ain Shams has three), as have the in CairoandAlexandria in the late 1930s,with
numberof Ph.D.'s in sociology,the annual sociologycoursesprominently featuredin their
numberof graduates, and the number of fields Elsewhere
curricula. in the Arab World,the
in which they work in Egyptand the Arab American University of Beirut (AUB),
World.Yetthereareproblems andfrustrations: founded in 1866 as the Syrian Protestant
Some are relatedto the growth in numbers, College,beganto offer sociologycoursesin
others to the stagnation or even the the interwarperiod.
deteriorationof quality. Withthe independenceof Iraq(1930)and
We shall begin with an overviewof the Syria (1946), both Baghdadand Damascus
evolutionof the field of sociologyin Egypt, established universities that followed the
whereit startedearlyin the centuryandfrom CairoUniversitymodel,combiningsociology
whichit spread,in midcentury,to the restof with philosophy in one department and
the ArabWorld.This will be followedby an borrowingheavilyboth facultyand sociology
 Featured Essays 54r9

curricula from Egyptian universities a marketed as more "scientific"than other

pattern followed for five decades by every humanand social disciplines,more capable
newlyestablishedArabuniversity. of treating social problems left over from
EminentWesternsocialscientiststaughtin colonialism,and more able to bring about
the newlyestablishedsociologydepartments: "integrated development" as opposedto "crass
Britishsocial anthropologist Evans-Pritchardeconomicgrowth."Perhapsthe second and
(1902-73) spent the early 1930s at Cairo third generationsof Arab sociologiststruly
University teaching what was called believedthat the disciplinecould deliveron
"comparative hismentorRadcliffe- theirpromises.Buttheiraggressivemarketing
sociology";
Brown(1881-1995)taughtsocialanthropology could also be attributed to a desire for
in the late 1940satAlexandria's HighInstitute academic independence from the older
of SocialSciences.However,it wasthe French disciplineswithwhichtheysharedpublicand
school of Emile Durkheimthat dominated physical space as if the lack of absolute
sociologyin Egyptandthe ArabWorldin the autonomystuntedtheirabilityto "give."
firsthalfof the twentiethcentury.All the early Fromthe mid-19SOs on, mostoldersociology
Arab Ph.D.'s in sociologywere obtainedin unitsbecameindependent departmentsin the
Franceby studentsstudyingunderDurkheim three secular Egyptianuniversities (Cairo,
ortrainedbyhisnephewMarcelMauss(1872- Alexandria, andAinShams). Newerdepartments
1950),whohimselftaughtinCairointhe 1930s. were"bornfree"in the Egyptianuniversities
With the exception of AUB and AUC, establishedin the 1960s and 1970s (Assyut,
Americaninfluencein thoseearlydecadeswas Menia, Mansura,Zagazig,Tanta, Helwan)>
minimal.It wasall European: Comte,Spenser, Outside Egypt, the 30-odd new Arab
Marx,Durkheim,and Weber.In the 1950s universitiesfoundedbetweenthe mid-1950s
severalEnglish-trained sociologistsand social and the mid-1980s all had independent
anthropologists returned,joiningAlexandria sociology departments.By the 1960s, the
University(e.g.,AhmedAbu-Zeid, Ali Issa,and discipline,its institutionalintegrity,and its
Abdel-MoezNasr), Ain Shams University autonomywere well established. In Egypt
(HamedAmmarandHassanSaaty),Baghdad alone, the numberof full-timePh.D. faculty
University and,to a lesserextent, grewfrom 12 in three departmentsin 1955,
(Alial-Wardi),
CairoUniversity(Ahmedal-Khashab).The to 81 in ten departmentsin 1975, to 150 in
Frenchschoolof sociologycontinuedinto the 1985,andto over200 by the mid-1990s.The
1950sto graduatemoreArabPh.D.'sthanthe numberof students majoringin sociology
others e.g.,Al-Yaffiin Damascus, TalaatIssa increasedfromfewerthan 400 to morethan
in Cairo,andHassanSaafanin Ain Shams. 3,000duringthe sameperiod.Also significant
Duringthatfirsthalf-century, sociologywas was the founding,in 1959, of the National
represented as an exciting, intellectual Center for Sociologicaland Criminological
enterprise.This perceptionbeganwith a first Research(NCSC) as an independentstate
generationof sociallycommittedintellectuals institution to promote policy and action-
and scholarswho were not formallytrained orientedresearch.The NCSC employedthe
(1900-1925), andit continuedwitha second best and brightestgraduatesin the social
generationof academically trainedsociologists sciences,especiallysociologymajors.Itsstatus
(1925-1945). They succeeded in gaining and salaryscaleswere amongthe highest in
recognitionforsociologyandadmissionto the Egypt(Megahed1995).
academicranks,oftenas "juniorpartners"in The late 1950s and the 1960s also
departments(e.g., with economics,politics, witnessed,forthe firsttime,the exportof Arab
or philosophy)and sometimesas equal or Ph.D.studentsto theUnitedStates(e.g.,Badr
senior partners (e.g., with psychology, E.Ali, EzzatHegazy,AbdelBassetHassan,S.
anthropology,socialwork,andeducation.). E. Ibrahim, SamirNa'im,Khaldounal-Naquib,
The 1940sand 1950switnesseda gradual A. BakiHermassi).These U.S.-trainedArab
shift of Arabsociologistsfrom"advocacy" to sociologists,along with the British-trained
"overstating" and"overselling"theirdiscipline. cadre of a decade earlier, undertookmore
Coinciding with independence and the empiricalresearchthanhadthe twopreceding
formation of new Arab states, the third generations.They, with their locallytrained
generationexaggeratedthe valueof sociology students, would dominate the field in the
in the state-buildingprocess.Sociologywas 1970s and ben,rond. Their rise reflects the
550 Featured Essays

ascendancyof Americansociologyin thepost- Youngergenerationsof sociologists in the

WorldWarII period,especiallyin the 1960s. 1970sand 1980s(i.e., the fourthgeneration)
Bythe late 1960s,sociologistsin Egyptand seemeddisillusionedcomparedto theirelders
the rest of the ArabWorldhad much,if not in sociology, as well as to the populist
all, of what they had strivenfor in the first revolutionary rulers.
half of the century:recognition,academic This disillusionmentoperationalized itself
acceptance, institutional autonomy,good in wholesalerejectionof the professionaland
salaries,andprestige.Whatremainedwasfor the scholarlypracticesof older sociologists.
them to deliver. Attempts to evolve a more authentic and
respectableArabsociologymultipliedin the
A SIixed XIativest 1980s. Two elaborateseminarsbearingthe
Abdel Aziz Ezzat, a leading Egyptian same name, "Towardan Arab Sociology,"
sociologist in the l950s and 1960s, once wereindependently organizedin 1983in Abu-
claimedthat the goal of his writingswas to Dhabi (Saleh 1983) and in 1986 in Tunis
establisha mobilizingideologythatwouldbe (Zayed1994).Reviewingthepapersof the two
at once "ethical, scientific, reformative, seminars and those of a third on "Arab
industrial,andArabsocialist"(Saafan,1970: Intelligentsia and Power," which was
21-22). At a time when Nasser's "Arab convenedin Cairoin 1987 (Ibrahim1988),
Socialism"wasin vogue,Ezzat'swordsclearly one sensesthe tremendousdisappointment of
impliedthat he, the distinguishedprofessor, earlier generations in their distorted
could providea sociologicalpanacea(Ezzat importation of both "functionalism"and
1961).He dedicatedhisbookto Nasser.Seven "Marxism," aswell as a profoundresentment
yearsearlier,EzzathadpublishedUruty,Order, fueled by their scramblefor power, which
and Action e arly slogans of Egypt's 1952 they did not get anyhow. While
Revolution. That book he dedicated to scramblersfor quick fame and fortunestill
General MohammedNaguib, Egypt'sfirst exist in the fourth generation of Arab
leader,who wastoppledby Nasser. sociologists, the majority are developing
Different as they were, the two books more realisticviews of their discipline and
attempted to prove that what the have refrainedfrom "oversell."Many are
revolutionary officerswereadvocatingwasnot engaged in serious research, publishings
only commendablebut also in line with the and applied project implementation.
mostadvanced"sociological principles"(Ezzat Much of the sociologicalresearchin the
1957, 1961). Both books were blatant 1960swasondecolonization (Ben-Jelloun 1974),
attempts to market sociology and/or to the impactof land reform,industrialization,
promotethe authorvis-a-visthe new young urbanization, and bureaucratization (Ibrahim
revolutionaryleader. Several Egyptianand and Hopkins 1977). In the 1970s Arab
ArabsociologistsfollowedEzzat'slead.Thus sociologicalresearchfocusedon oil-related
Ahmed El-Khashab, another prominent phenomena e.g., inter-Arab labormigration,
sociologist,assertedthe importanceof Arab rapiddevelopment in desertcommunities,and
social theory for leading the socialist consumerism (HopkinsandIbrahim1985).In
cooperativedemocraticrevolutiondownthe the 1980s, the research focus was on the
right path: "ArabSocial Theoryshould be problems,impediments,andconsequencesof
effectivelypracticalin transforming the Arab "faileddevelopment," "failedstate,"ethnicand
existence throughthe creationof a radical civilstrife,socialmovements,Islamicactivism,
Arab social philosophy.This will lead the andotherformsof socialunrest(Hopkinsand
Arabsto developspiritually,psychologically, Ibrahim1997).The 1990sresearchagendahas
and sociallyinto renovatedhumanbeings" expanded to include civil society,
(quotedin Zayed,1995:5X,fromEl-Khashab, democratization,environment,population,
1970: 12)¢ gender,humanrights,the impactof economic
Nearlyeverysociologistwished,at thetime, reformand structuraladjustment(ERSAP),
to becomethe ideologistor adviserof the new andglobalization (Abu-Zeid1997).Some600
rulingelite andpossiblyto joinits ranks.In new booksin sociologyhave been published
the process,the credibilityof sociologistsand in Arabicbetween1955and 1995,aboutone-
their disciplinewas boundto erode,at least third of them based on empiricalresearch
in the eyes of the largereducated public. (Ibrahimand Hopkins 1977; Hopkins and
 Featured Essays 551

Ibrahim1985; Hopkinsand Ibrahim1997). sociologyof Islam and personally-e.g., by

Arab Maghreb(North African)sociologists participating
in socialmovements(Said1980;
have tilted their research toward Arab Samelouty 1980; Radwan 1982; Fayyoumi
migrantsin Europe;Arab Gulf sociologists 1977) . This group appears increasingly
towardthe impactof Asianmigrationon their alienatedfrom and hostile to the West in
societies; and Palestinian and Lebanese general and Western social science in
sociologiststowardpostwarandpostcolonial particular. Thus, the "cross-eyed"Arab
reconstruction. sociologyof the early twentieth century is
becomingmorelike"splitvision"fora growing
Conclusion number of Arab sociologists. Some have
The resentmentandrejectionofsociologists growndeeplyinvolvedin businessconsulting
incurredby their oversellingin the middle and marketsurveyresearchor have started
generation(1950sand1960s)haveleftsomeof privateresearchfirms.Othershavemigrated
the newer generationwithoutpositive role outsidethe ArabWorldaltogether.Eventheir
models.Althoughtheirnumbersaregrowing passionatepartisanship,their dispositionfor
all over the ArabWorld,manyof the 2,000 debatingthe bigissues,seemto havepaledor
sociologistsin the mid-1990sseemleaderless, markedlydeclined. The state of mind and
without professionalfoci, and plagued by state of affairsof Arab sociologists almost
individualand collective self-doubt.Three surely reflects a wider, deeper, and more
national,regional,and globaldevelopments generalArabmalaisein the 1990s.
havecontributed to thedemoralization
ofArab Arabsociologistshavebeenhumbled,even
sociologists in the 1990s: the collapse or humiliated,by the limitedyieldof earlierbig
declineof the so-called"revolutionary
socialist promises.Thisnewhumilityhasinspireda few
stateprojects"in severalmajorArabcountries youngsociologiststo producesolidworkwith
(e.g., Egypt,Algeria, Yemen,Tunisia, and little fanfare.These arethe men and women
Iraq);the collapseor declineof the so-called whopromiseto emergeas rolemodelsto lead
"socialistbloc"led by the formerUSSR, on a fifthgenerationof Arabsociologistsinto the
which many leftist Arab sociologists had twenty-firstcentury.
pinned their ideological hopes; and the
disastrousSecond Gulf War (1990-1991),
whichbitterlydividedandweakenedboththe
ArabWorldandArabintellectuals, including, Youmayrequest copies
ofthereferences
foriis essay
in particular,
sociologists.
Thesedeepdivisions fromie Contemporary Sociologyofficebyemail
have, since 1991, preventedthe few extant (consoc(Rsadri.umass.edu), phone(413-545-5987),
pan-Arab and national sociological or regularmail (ContemporarySociology,
associationsfromconveningregularmeetings. MachmerHall, Universityof Massachusetts,
SomeArabsociologistshaveretreatedinto Arnherst, MA01003)
religion both professionally e.g., writing

SENEGAL
Scholarship and Societies in Senegal: A Survey
MoMArCOUMBA DIov
lnstitut Fondamental D'AfriqueNoire CheikhAnta Diop, SenegaZ
mcdiop@ifan.refer.sn
EBA SALL
CODESRXA
Councilfor the DeveZopmentof Social ScienceResearch tn Africa
ebrima@sonatel.senet.net
Reviewtrallslatedby NathalieGoubet
Introduction Senegal. We shall try to focus on the
We hope that the analysisthat followswill, innovative aspects of some works and on
despitelimitationsof space,contributeto the rupturesin the cycle of the productionof
constructionof a sociologyof knowledgeof knowledge.Becauseof the multidisciplinary