Therapeutic Ultrasound (US)

Sound is defined as the periodic mechanical disturbance of an elastic medium

such as air. Sound requires a medium for its transmission and cannot cross a
vacuum.
 Ultrasound refers to mechanical vibrations, which are essentially the same as
sound waves but of a higher frequency. Such waves are beyond the range of human
hearing and can therefore also be called ultrasonic.
 Vibration merges with sound at frequencies around 20 Hz; vibration below this
frequency is often called infrasound or infrasonic.
y Audible sound – 20 to 20000 Hz
y Ultrasound – Greater then 20000 Hz
y Infrasound – Less than 20 Hz
y Therapeutic ultrasound – 0.5 to 5 MHz
– 1 to 3 MHz
 The wavelength is the distance between the closest points on the wave that are
performing the same motion at any instant in time.
 The frequency is the number of times a particle undergoes a complete cycle in one
second.
 The velocity of a wave is the speed at which the wave moves through the
medium, and varies depending upon the physical nature of the medium.

• Nature of Sonic (Sound) Waves:

 Sonic waves are series of mechanical compressions and rarefactions in the
direction of travel of the wave, hence they are called longitudinal waves. They
can occur in solids, liquids, and gases and are due to regular compression and
separation of molecules.

rarefaction compression

 The passage of these waves of compression through matter is invisible because it

is the molecules that vibrate about their average position as a result of the sonic
wave. It is energy that travels and not the matter.
 As sound waves pass through any material their energy is dissipated or
attenuated. Sometimes all the energy is absorbed at once; sometimes the sound
wave passes with almost no loss.

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  The molecules of all matter are in constant random motion; the amount of
molecular agitation is what is measured as heat – the greater the molecular
movement, the greater the heat.
 As the molecules jostle one another energy will be transferred from one to
another so that some will oscillate at higher frequencies and with greater
amplitude because they have gained energy while others will be at lower
frequencies and amplitudes because their energy has been transferred by
collision.
 When sonic vibration is applied to a material it is superimposed on the existing
motions and will add to them. The ultimate result is that the regular sonic wave
energy tends to become randomized as the energy it gives to particular molecular
motions becomes spread out in collisions with other molecules. In this way the
sonic energy is steadily converted to heat energy.
 The rate at which this exchange occurs will depend on both the nature of the
material and the frequency of the sonic wave. Thus the ratio of transmission to
absorption of sonic waves differs in different materials and varies with frequency
of the sonic energy.
 Sound waves will pass more rapidly through material in which the molecules are
close together, thus their velocity is higher in solids and liquids than in gases.
y Air – 344 m/s
y Water – 1410 m/s
y Salt water – 1500 m/s
y Muscle – 1540 m/s
 At other frequencies ultrasound is used for various purposes.
y In industry low-frequency ultrasound is used for many cleaning and mixing
processes since efficient vibration of very small particles is achieved.
y It can also be used for cutting and engraving as well as detecting cracks in
metal such as welding defects.
y The other major medical uses of ultrasound are in body imaging and dental
drills / descalers. These latter usually operate at between 20 to 60 kHz.

• Production of Therapeutic Ultrasound:

 Piezoelectrical transducers are used to achieve the high-frequency ultrasound
energy needed for imaging and therapy. These are suitably cut crystals, which
change shape under the influence of an electric charge.
 Many types of crystal can be used but the most favored are quartz, which occurs
naturally, and some synthetic ceramic materials such as barium titanate and lead
zirconate titanate (PZT). These crystals deform when subjected to a varying
potential difference – a piezo-electric effect.

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 [Piezo-electric effect: The production of a small e.m.f. across certain
substances on being subjected to external pressure. Such substances are
known as piezo-electric substances.]
 The crystal must be cut to suitable dimensions – the most important being the
thickness – so that it will resonate at the chosen frequency and so achieve
maximum vibration.
 In order to apply the electric charges, metal electrodes must be fixed to the
crystal. If a suitable metal plate is fixed to one surface of the crystal while the
opposite surface is in air, then almost all the vibrational energy is transmitted
from the crystal to the plate and hence to any solid or liquid to which it is
applied. This is the treatment head, which is used to transmit sonic energy to the
tissues.
 The other essential parts of a therapeutic ultrasound generator are a circuit to
produce oscillating voltages to drive the transducer and s controlling circuit,
which can turn the oscillator on and off to give a pulsed output.
 A suitable circuit can maintain a constantly oscillating electric charge to cause
the piezoelectric crystal to change shape at the same frequency and so drive the
metal plate backwards and forwards also at the same high frequency,
producing a train of sonic compression waves in any medium with which it is
in contact.
 A suitable resistance circuit is provided to control the amplitude of an electrical
oscillations which in turn controls the magnitude of the mechanical vibration
of the crystal and hence the amplitude of the sonic wave.
 This amplitude is referred to as the intensity and is the energy crossing unit
area in unit time perpendicular to the sonic beam. It is therefore measured in
watts per square centimeter (i.e., joules/sec/cm2).
 Current supplied to the oscillator circuit can be automatically switched on and off
to produce a pulsed output, typically giving ratios 1:1 or 1:4.
 A meter is often included which measures the electrical oscillations applied to the
crystal but not the vibration of the crystal.

• Transmission of Sonic Waves:

 Due to the fact that the wavelength of these waves is much smaller than the
transducer face; the sonic beam is roughly cylindrical and of the same
diameter as the transducer.
 This beam of ultrasound emitted from the transducer is by no means uniform
even in a homogenous medium. The beam non-uniformity ratio (BNR) is the
ratio between peak intensity and average intensity in the beam. The lower the
BNR the more uniform the beam.

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 Waves emitted from the different places on the face of the transducer will travel
to the same point in space in front of the transducer face by different paths and
hence arrive out of phase.
 Some waves cancel out, others reinforce so that the net result is a very irregular
pattern of the sonic waves in the region close to the transducer face, called the
near field or Fresnel zone. In the region beyond this, the far filed or Fraunhofer
zone, the sonic field spreads out somewhat and becomes much more regular
because the differing paths lengths from points on the transducer become
insignificant at greater distances.
 The length of the near field depends directly on the square of the radius of the
transducer face and inversely proportional to the wavelength of the sonic
waves.
Length of Fresnel zone = r2 / λ

 For practical purposes therapeutic ultrasound utilizes the near field and hence
is irregular. There relatively more energy on average, carried in the central part
of the cross-section of the beam.
 The intensity of such fields cannot be expressed in a simple way because it varies
from place to place in the ultrasonic beam. Thus the spatial peak intensity or the
spatial average intensity may be specified.
 If the output is pulsed the intensity over time varies so it can either be expressed
as temporal average intensity or temporal peak intensity.
 Thus intensity can be described in four ways:
y Spatial average temporal average (SATA)
y Spatial peak temporal average (SPTA)
y Spatial peak temporal peak (SPTP)
y Spatial average temporal peak (SATP)
 This irregularity can be ‘ironed out’ to some extent by continuous movement of
the treatment head during the therapy.

Ö Boundaries between Media:

 Sonic waves involve vibratory motion of molecules so that there is a
characteristic velocity of wave progression for each particular medium.
 It depends on the density and elasticity of the medium and together these
specify what is known as the acoustic impedance of the medium.
 The acoustic impedance can be found by multiplying the density of the
medium by the velocity of sonic waves through it.

Acoustic impedance = density of medium ¯ velocity of wave

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 The energy carried by a wave also depends on its frequency (the higher the
frequency, the greater the energy) and its amplitude (the larger the amplitude,
the greater the energy).

Medium
(High velocity) reflected radiation
incident radiation

Medium
(Low velocity) refracted radiation

emergent radiation

 When sonic waves come to a boundary, various changes occur:

1) They must travel in the new medium at a velocity characteristic for that
medium and related to its acoustic impedance.
2) The frequency remains the same, so the wavelength must change.
3) Some of the energy is reflected back. The amount of the energy reflected
is proportional to the difference in acoustic impedance between the two
media.
Water / Glass – 63% of energy is reflected
Water / Soft tissue – 0.2% of energy is reflected
4) If the wave front strikes the boundary at some other angle the reflected
wave will travel away from the boundary at the same angle; that is, the
angle of incidence of a beam equals the angle of reflection and is in the
same plane.
5) If some energy is reflected back, but the frequency remains the same,
there must be decrease in amplitude of the wave.
6) Refraction also occurs with sonic waves due to the difference in acoustic
impedance. The beam of sonic energy that passes through the second
medium does not continue in a straight line but changes direction at the
boundary because of the different velocities in the two media. If the
acoustic impedances are closely matched little refraction will occur.
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 7) The tuning back of a wave in the same medium has a further consequence.
Two waves, the original and the reflected, are traveling in opposite
directions so that at some points they will be combined, producing a
much greater amplitude and hence wave energy, and at other points they
will cancel one another out. This tends to produce a stationary wave
pattern, logically called a standing wave.

Ö Absorption of Sonic Waves:

 Kinetic energy is converted to heat energy as it passes through the material.
 The energy will decrease exponentially with distance from the source
because a fixed proportion of it is absorbed at each unit distance so that the
remaining amount will become a smaller and smaller percentage of the initial
energy.
 There is an inverse relationship between the amount of energy that
penetrates a material and the amount that is absorbed. Thus if a beam of
ultrasound is passed through the tissues it will be steadily reduced in intensity.
This can be expressed as the absorption coefficient.
D Half-Value Depth:
 The depth or distance at which half the initial energy has been absorbed is
known as half-value depth.
 The conversion of sonic energy to heat is due to increased molecular
motion it follows that the amount converted will depend on the nature of
those molecules and on the frequency / wavelength of the ultrasound.
 Thus the half-value depth will be different in different tissues for any given
ultrasound frequency.

Half-value depth of penetration in mm for 1 MHz and for 3 MHz is as

follows:

Tissue 1 MHz 3 MHz

Skin 40 25
Fat 50 16
Muscle 10 –20 30 – 60
Bone 15 5

 Absorption of sonic energy is greatest in tissues with largest amounts of

structural protein and lowest water content.

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 Protein content & absorption of ultrasound in various tissues
Blood Least protein content Least absorption of US
Fat
Nerve
Muscle
Skin
Tendon
Cartilage
Bone Greatest protein content Greatest absorption of US

Ö Attenuation of Ultrasound in the Tissues:

 The loss of energy from the ultrasound beam in the tissues is called
attenuation and depends on both absorption (the energy of the ultrasonic
beam is converted to heat by the tissues) and scattering (the normally parallel
beam becomes more dispersed the further it passes into the medium).
 Absorption accounts for some 60 – 80% of the energy lost from the beam.
The scattered energy may also be absorbed other than in the region to which
the ultrasound beam is applied.
 Scattering is caused by reflections and refractions, which occur at interfaces
throughout the tissues. This is particularly apparent where there is a large
difference in acoustic impedance.
At 1 MHz At 3 MHz
Fat Muscle Bone Fat Muscle Bone
100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
depth in tissues (mm) depth in tissues (mm)
Proportional heating of 1 and 3 MHz ultrasound through tissues
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  Shear waves can also be formed which transmit energy along the periosteal
surface at right angles to the ultrasound beam. Due to the fact that this
reflection is quite large (almost 25%) and that sonic energy is absorbed
almost immediately in bone, there is marked heating at the bone surface.
This mechanism is considered to account for the periosteal pain that can arise
with excessive doses of therapeutic ultrasound. Differences of acoustic
impedance between other soft tissues are much smaller.
D Heating in the Tissues due to Ultrasound:
 The important factor for heating in the tissue due to ultrasound is the rate
of tissue heating, which is, influenced both by the blood flow, which
constantly carries heat away, and by heat conduction.
 In highly vascular tissues such as muscle it is likely that heat would be
rapidly dissipated preventing any large temperature rise; on the other
hand, less vascular tissue, such as dense connective tissue in the form of
tendon or ligament, may experience a relatively greater temperature rise.
 Moving the transducer head during the treatment is important because of
following effects:
y To smooth out the irregularities of the near field
y It also reduces some of the irregularities of absorption that might
occur due to reflection at interfaces, standing waves, refraction, and
differences in tissue thermal conduction or blood flow
y It also reduces shear wave formation and thereby reduces chances of
periosteal pain
 Thus resulting heating pattern is likely to be much more evenly distributed.
It has been estimated that for an output of 1 W/cm2 there is a temperature
rise of 0.8°C/min if vascular cooling effects are ignored.

Ö Pulsed Ultrasound:
 A circuit in the ultrasonic generator is arranged to turn the ultrasound on in
short bursts or pulses.
 This reduces the time averaged intensity and hence the amount of energy
available to heat the tissues while ensuring that the energy available in each
pulse (pulsed averaged intensity) is high enough for mechanical rather than
thermal effects to predominate.
 Many therapeutic ultrasound generators produce 2 ms pulses and vary the
intervals between pulses. This can be expressed either as:
y The mark : space ratio, which is the ratio of the pulse length to the
interval
y The duty cycle, which is the ratio of the pulse length to the total length
of the pulse plus interval, expressed as percentage.

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 Ratio of pulse
Mark:space Duty
Pulse Interval to total period
ratio cycle
2 ms 2 ms 1:1 1 in 2 50%
2 ms 8 ms 1:4 1 in 5 20%

D Effects of Pulsing:
 If pulsed ultrasound is applied at a mark:space ratio of 1:4 the amount of
introduced energy is one-fifth of that which would be introduced by
continuous ultrasound applied for the same length of time and at the
same intensity.
 The same amount of energy could be introduced into the tissues either by
extending the treatment for 5 times the length or giving 5 times the
intensity of the continuous treatment. The effect is not the same because
with pulsed treatment there is time for heat to be dissipated by conduction
in the tissues and in the circulating blood. Therefore, higher intensities
can be safely used in a pulsed treatment because the average heating is
reduced.
 Ultrasound application can increase rates of ion diffusion across cell
membranes; this could be due to increased particle movement on either
side of the membrane and possibly, increased motion of the phospholipids
and proteins that form the membrane.
 Mild mechanical agitation of the tissues has certain effects, which remain
the same no matter how long the agitation, is continued but that short bursts
of more vigorous agitation have different, more significant effects.

• Physical & Physiological Effects of Ultrasound:

As oscillation or sonic energy is passed through the body tissue, it causes
transfer of heat energy in the body tissues. If this energy is not dissipated by
normal physiological response, then there is local rise in temperature, which
accounts for thermal effects.
If heat dissipation equals heat generation there is no net rise in
temperature and any effects are said to be non-thermal. Using low intensities or
pulsing the output achieves non-thermal effects.
D Thermal Effects:
 The advantage of using ultrasound to achieve heating is due to the
preferential heating of collagen tissue and to the effective penetration of
this energy to deeply placed structures.
 Heating fibrous tissue structures such as joint capsules, ligaments,
tendons, and scar tissue may cause a temporary increase in their
extensibility, and hence a decrease in joint stiffness.
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  Mild heating can also have the effect of reducing pain and muscle spasm
and promoting healing processes.
D Non-Thermal Effects:
1) Cavitation:
 Cavitation is the formation of tiny gas bubbles in the tissues as a result
of ultrasound vibration. These bubbles, generally of a micron (10-6 m)
or so in diameter.
 These can be of two types, namely stable cavitation or transient
cavitation.
 Stable cavitation occurs when the bubbles oscillate to and fro within
the ultrasound pressure waves but remain intact.
 Transient (or collapse) cavitation occurs when the volume of the
bubble changes rapidly and then collapses (implodes) causing high
pressure and temperature changes and resulting in gross damage to
tissues.
 Stable cavitation associated with acoustic streaming, is considered to
have therapeutic value but the transient cavitation, which is only likely
to occur at high intensities, can be damaging.
 In practice the danger of tissue damage due to cavitation is minimized
by the following measures:
y Using space-averaged intensities below 4W/cm2
y Using a pulsed source of ultrasound
y Moving the treatment head during insonation
2) Acoustic Streaming:
Acoustic streaming is a steady circulatory flow due to radiation torque.
 Additionally, as a result of either type of cavitation there is a localized,
unidirectional fluid movement around the vibrating bubble. These very
small fluid movements also occur around cells, tissue fibres, and other
boundaries, which is known as microstreaming.
 Microstreaming exerts viscous stress on the cell membrane and thus
may increase membrane permeability.
 This may alter the rate of ion diffusion causing therapeutically useful
changes, which includes increased secretion from mast cells,
increased calcium uptake, and greater growth factor production by
macrophages.
 All these effects could account for the acceleration of repair following
ultrasound therapy.
3) Standing Waves:
 Standing waves are due to reflected waves being superimposed on the
incident waves.
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  The result is a set of standing or stationary waves with peaks of high
pressure (antinodes), half a wavelength apart, between which are zones
of no pressure (nodes).
 Gas bubbles collect at the antinodes, and cells collect at the nodes.
 This pressure pattern causes stasis of cells in blood vessels at the
pressure nodes.
 The endothelium of the blood vessels exposed to standing waves can
also be damaged leading to thrombus formation.
 Erythrocytes can be lysed if they are swept through the arrays of bubbles
situated at the pressure antinodes.
 There is also the possibility of marked local heating where the
amplitude of the combined waves is high.
 If transducer head is moved during the treatment, then standing waves
are unlikely to form.
4) Micromassage:
 The micromassage effect of ultrasound occurs at a cellular level where
the cells are alternately compressed and then pulled further apart.
 The waves of compression and rarefaction may produce a form of
micromassage, which could reduce oedema.
 Ultrasound has been found to be effective at reducing recent traumatic
oedema and chronic indurated oedema.

• Effects of Ultrasound on Inflammation & Tissue Repair:

D Acute Stage:
 Stable cavitation and acoustic streaming increases calcium ion diffusion
across the cell membrane, which works as a cellular ‘secondary messenger’,
and thereby increases the production and release of wound-healing factors.
 These include the release of histamine from mast cells and growth factors
released from macrophages.
 In this way, ultrasound has the potential to accelerate normal resolution of
inflammation providing that the inflammatory stimulus is removed.
 This acceleration could also be due to the gentle agitation of the tissue fluid,
which may increase the rate of phagocytosis and movement of particles and
cells.
 Thus, ultrasound has a pro-inflammatory, not an anti-inflammatory action.
D Proliferative (Granulation) Stage:
 This begins approximately 3 days after injury and is the stage at which the
connective tissue framework is laid down by fibroblasts for the new blood
vessels.

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  During repair, fibroblasts may be stimulated to produce more collagen;
ultrasound can promote collagen synthesis by increasing cell membrane
permeability, which allows the entry of calcium ions, which control cellular
activity.
 Not only is more collagen formed but it is also of greater tensile strength
after ultrasound treatment.
 Ultrasound encourages the growth of new capillaries in chronic ischaemic
tissue and the same could happen during repair of soft tissues after injury.
 The enhanced release of growth factors from macrophages following
exposure to therapeutic ultrasound may cause proliferation of fibroblasts.
 It has been suggested that ultrasound treatment given during the first 2
weeks after injury accelerates bony union, but, if given to an unstable
fracture during the phase of cartilage formation, it may result in the
proliferation of the cartilage and consequently delay of bony union.
D Remodelling Stage:
 This stage last months or years until the new tissue is as near in structure as
possible to the original tissue.
 Ultrasound is considered to improve the extensibility of mature collagen
such as is found in scar tissue, which occur by promoting the reorientation
of the fibres (remodelling), which leads to greater elasticity without loss of
strength.

• Therapeutic Uses of Ultrasound:

 Varicose Ulcers:
Ultrasound promotes healing of varicose ulcers and pressure sores
(decubital ulcer).
[Varicose Ulcer: Ulcer (circumscribed depressed lesion on the skin or
mucous membrane of any internal organ following sloughing of necrotic
inflammation) in the leg associated with varicose veins is known as
varicose ulcer.
Pressure Sore: A bed sore; a decubital ulcer appearing on dependent
sites usually on lumbosacral region, most commonly in bed-ridden elderly
persons is known as pressure sore.]
 Pain relief:
Ultrasound is used in herpes zoster, low backache, prolapsed
intervertebral disc (PIV) and many other conditions.
[Herpes Zoster: Shingles (band-like involvement of neurocutaneous
tissues) caused by varicellazoster virus. It involves posterior root ganglia
and presents with severe continuous pain in the distribution of the
affected nerve.
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 Prolapsed Intervertebral Disc: Abnormal descent of intervertebral disc
between the vertebra is known as prolapsed intervertebral disc.]
 Acute tissue injury:
Ultrasound is used in soft tissue and sport injuries, in occupational
injuries and post-natal injuries. It is used for perineal post-natal pain, for
painful shoulders and for both neurogenic & chronic pain.
 Scar tissue:
Ultrasound improves quality of scar tissue and excessive fibrous tissue. It
is used in conditions like Dupuytren’s contracture and plantar fasciitis.
[Dupuytren’s contracture: Thickening and contracture of palmar fascia,
typically affects the ring finger and may involve years later incompletely
little finger is called Dupuytren’s contracture.
Plantar fasciitis: Tenderness under the heel from plantar fibromatosis or
tear of plantar fascia is called plantar fasciitis.]
 Bony injury:
Ultrasound therapy in the first 2 weeks after bony injury can increase
bony union, but, given to an unstable fracture during the phase of cartilage
proliferation, it may result in the proliferation of cartilage and therefore decrease
bony union. Ultrasound has also been used in the early diagnosis of stress
fractures.
 Chronic Indurated Oedema:
The mechanical effect of ultrasound has an effect on chronic oedema and
helps in its treatment. It also breaks down adhesions formed between adjacent
structures.

• Dangers of Ultrasound:
There are very less evidences of dangers of ultrasound but it may occur in
some conditions only.
 Burns could occur if the heat generated exceeded the physiological ability to
dissipate it.
 Tissue destruction would result from transient cavitation.
 Blood cell stasis and endothelial damage may occur if there is standing wave
formation.
These dangers would be more likely with high-intensity continuous output
with a stationary head or over bony prominences.

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• Contraindications of Ultrasound:
 Rapid dividing tissues:
Since ultrasound affect tissue repair it is possible that it could affect
abnormal tissue activity so that it might encourage neoplastic growth and
provoke metastases. Therefore, treatment over tumours or over tissue in
precancerous states should be avoided.
 Pregnant Uterus:
To the rapidly dividing and differentiating cells of the embryo and fetus
should be avoided by not applying treatment over the pregnant uterus. Diagnostic
ultrasound is entirely safe and it is probable that low doses of therapeutic
ultrasound would have no ill effects.
 Epiphyseal Plates:
Avoid giving ultrasound on cartilaginous epiphyseal plates because
growth of the bone is impeded.
 Spread of Infection:
Bacterial or viral infection could be spread by ultrasound, presumably by
facilitating microorganism movement across membranes and through the tissues.
The low-grade infections of venous ulcers, or similar, would seem to be safe to
treat.
 Tuberculosis:
Due to the possible risk of reactivating encapsulated lesions tuberculous
regions should not be treated.
 Vascular Problems:
Circumstances in which hemorrhage might provoke should not be treated.
For example, where bleeding is still occurring or has only recently been
controlled, such as an enlarging haemarthrosis or haematoma or uncontrollable
haemophilia.
Severely ischaemic tissues should be avoided because of the poor heat
transfer and possible greater risk of arterial thrombosis due to stasis and
endothelial damage.
Treatment over recent venous thrombosis might extend the thrombus or
disrupt its attachment to the vein wall forming an embolus. Areas of
atherosclerosis are best avoided for the same reason.
[Haemarthrosis: Bleeding into the joint usually from an injury, which
results in a swelling of the joint, is known as haemarthrosis.
Haematoma: A collection of blood inside the body, caused by bleeding
from an injured vessel is called haematoma.

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 Haemophilia: An inherited coagulation defect characterized by a
permanent tendency to hemorrhages due to a defect in the coagulation of
blood is known as haemophilia.
Atherosclerosis: A condition caused by intramural deposition of Low
Density Lipoprotein (LDL), secondary to exposure of smooth muscles to
lipid, resulting in platelet induced smooth muscle proliferation, formation of
fibrotic plaques and calcification is known as atherosclerosis.]
 Radiotherapy:
Areas that have received radiotherapy in the last few months should not
be treated because of the risk of encouraging pre-cancerous changes.
 Nervous System:
Where nerve tissue is exposed, e.g. over a spina bifida or after a
laminectomy, ultrasound should be avoided. Treatment over the cervical ganglia
or vagus nerve might be dangerous in cardiac disease.
[Spina bifida: Failure of closure of the spinal canal due to defective
fusion of the vertebral arch in the lumbosacral region and is associated
with depression, pigmentation or presence of hair is known as spina
bifida.
Laminectomy: Surgical removal of the entire lamina of a vertebra as a
treatment of herniation of intervertebral disc is known as laminectomy.
 Specialized Tissue:
The fluid-filled eye offers exceptionally good ultrasound transmission and
retinal damage could occur.
Treatment over the gonads is not recommended.
 Implants:
Smaller and superficial implants, like metal bone-fixing pins
subcutaneously placed; as a precaution, low doses should be used in these
circumstances.
Plastics used in replacement surgery, such as high-density polyethylene
and acrylic should be avoided.
Treatment over implanted cardiac pacemakers should not be given
because the sonic vibration may interfere with the pacemaker’s stimulating
frequency.
 Anaesthetic areas:
High doses should not be given over anaesthetic areas.

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 • Precautions of Ultrasound:
1) Use ultrasound only if adequately trained to do so
2) Use ultrasound to treat only those patients with conditions known to respond
favorably to this treatment
3) Use the lowest intensity that produces the required effect, because higher
intensities may be damaging
4) Move the applicator constantly throughout the treatment, to avoid the damaging
effects of standing waves
5) If the patient feels any additional pain during treatment, either reduce the
intensity to a pain-free level or abandon the treatment
6) Use properly calibrated and maintained equipment
7) If there is any doubt, do not irradiate

Ö Phonophoresis:
 Phonophoresis is the movement of drugs through skin into the subcutaneous
tissues under the influence of ultrasound.
 Many drugs are absorbed through the skin only very slowly; high-frequency sonic
vibration may accelerate this process. It is also known as sonophoresis or
ultrasonophoresis.
 Phonophoresis relies on perturbation of the tissues causing more rapid particle
movement and thus encouraging absorption of the drug.
 The effects of phonophoresis are those of the particular drug employed, combined
with the effects of ultrasound.
 Theoretically phonophoresis is possible utilizing the acoustic streaming forces,
which exist in the ultrasound field.
 Phonophoresis will be dependent not only on the frequency, intensity, duty cycle
and treatment duration of the ultrasound, but also on the nature of the drug molecule
itself.
 In phonophoresis:
y Ultrasound facilitates the passage of some drugs into and through the skin
y The effects are due both to absorption of the drug and to the ultrasound
y Lower ultrasonic frequencies appear to lead to deeper drug penetration
y Pulsing ultrasound may lead to better drug penetration
y The quality of drug entering the skin is proportional, in general, to the time
and intensity of ultrasound application

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Ö Drugs used in Phonophoresis:
 Phonophoresis of hydrocortisone has been used in the treatment of many skin
conditions including psoriasis, scleroderma, and pruritus.
 A lotion containing zinc oxide, tannic acid, urea, and menthol has been applied
by phonophoresis to treat herpes simplex virus type II in both oral and genital
infections.
 Antibiotics such as penicillin have been given by phonophoresis for treatment of
skin infections.

Product Active ingredients

Steroids
1) Cobadex cream
2) Locoid lipocream
Anti-inflammatory drugs
1) Intralgin gel
2) Movelat cream
Local anaesthetics
1) Emla cream
2) Xylocaine ointment
Hydrocortisone, Dimethicone
Hydrocortisone Butyrate
Benzocaine Salicylamide
Corticosteroids, heparinoid,
salicylic acid
Lignocaine, Prilocaine
Lignocaine Hydrochloride

[Psoriasis: A chronic disorder characterized by well defined, scaly,

erthematous plaques on the extensor surfaces of the extremities like elbows
and knees, trunk, back and scalp is called psoriasis. It may be localized or
generalized and is considered as an autoimmune disease.
Scleroderma: Widespread thickening and fibrosis of the skin due to
accumulation of excess collagen and polyglycans, a manifestation of
systemic sclerosis (an induration of tissue due to excess fibrosis) is known
as scleroderma.
Pruritus: Severe itching is known as pruritus.]

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