Synchronous Machines - Structure
Synchronous Machines - Structure
• rotates at constant speed.
• primary energy conversion
devices of the word’s electric
power system.
• both generator and motor
operations
• can draw either a lagging or a
leading reactive current from the
supply system.
Non-salient pole generator
• high speed (2 - 4 poles)
• large power (100 - 400 MVA)
• steam and nuclear power plants
Salient pole generator
• small and mid-size power ( 0 - 100 MVA)
• small motors for electrical
clocks and other domestic
devices
• mid size generators for
emergency power supply
• mid size motors for pumps
and ship propulsion
• large size generators in
hydro-electric power plants
 Synchronous Generators – No-load

• excitation voltages

• frequency depends on the speed

np 120 f
f = n= Ef = 4.44 f Φ f NK w Ef ∝ nΦ f
120 p

• open circuit characteristics

• magnetization characteristics
 Synchronous Generators - loaded

• the stator currents will establish a rotating field in the air-gap

• armature reaction flux Φa
• resultant air-gap flux

Φr = Φ f + Φa
Synchronous Machines – The Infinite Bus
Synchronous Machines – Paralleling with The Infinite Bus

• same
• voltage
1. Same f and phase sequence
• frequency
• phase sequence
• phase

2. Same V and phase sequence

• synchronizing lamps

1. Same V and f
 Synchronous Motor - Starting
• high inertia of the rotor prohibits direct connection into supply net

• variable-frequency supply • start as an induction motor

Synchronous Machines – Per Phase Equivalent Circuit Model
• armature flux, armature reaction flux, armature leakage flux

Φa = Φar + Φal

Φr = Φ f ( I f ) + Φar ( I a )

Er = Ear + Ef

−Ear = jXar I a

Ef = I a jXar + Er
•magnetizing reactance Xar , (reactance of armature)

• synchronous reactance Xs =Xar + Xal

• synchronous impedance Zs =Ra + jXs
 Synchronous Machines – Equivalent Circuit Model

• Norton equivalent circuit

Ef Xar 2 N re
I f′ = I f′ = nI f n=
Xs Xs 3 N se
 Equivalent Circuit Model – Determination of the
Synchronous Reactance

• open circuit test

• synchronous speed
• stator open-circuited
• measure Vt(If)
• open-circuit characteristic
• air-gap line

• short circuit test

• synchronous speed
• stator short-circuited
• measure Ia(If)
• short-circuit characteristic
• straight line
• flux remains at low level

• Ia lags the Ef by almost 90 because Ra  X s

 Equivalent Circuit Model – Determination of the
Synchronous Reactance

• unsaturated value from the air-gap line

Eda Eda
Zs(unsat) = = Ra + jXs(unsat) Xs(unsat) 
I ba I ba
 Equivalent Circuit Model – Determination of the
Synchronous Reactance – Saturated

Er = Vt + I a ( Ra + jXal ) ≈ Vt

• at infinite bus operation the saturation level is defined by terminal voltage

• operation point c
• if the field current is changed the excitation voltage will change along
modified air-gap line OC

Eca
Zs(sat) = = Ra + jXs(sat)
I ba

Eca
Xs(sat) 
I ba
 Synchronous Machines – Phasor Diagram
• terminal voltage taken as the reference vector

• generator
• power angle positive

Ef = Vt + I a Ra + I a jXs = Ef δ
• motor
• power angle negative

Vt = Ef + I a Ra + I a jXs

Ef = Vt 0° − I a Ra − I a jXs
= Ef −δ

convention: generating current flows out of the machine

 Synchronous Machines – Power and Torque

Vt = Vt 0°

Ef = Ef δ

Zs = Ra + jXs = Zs θ s

S = Vt I a*
* * *
⎛ Ef − Vt ⎞ E V
I a* = ⎜ ⎟ = f
− t
⎝ Zs ⎠ Zs* Zs*
Ef −δ Vt 0
= −
Zs −θ s Zs −θ s
Ef Vt
= θs − δ − θs convention: lagging reactive power positive
Zs Zs
 Synchronous Machines – Power and Torque
• complex power
2
Vt Ef Vt
S= θs − δ − θs
Zs Zs

• real power
2
Vt Ef Vt
P= cos(θ s − δ ) − cosθ s
Zs Zs

• reactive power
2
Vt Ef Vt
Q= sin(θ s − δ ) − sin θ s
Zs Zs
 Synchronous Machines – Power and Torque
• Ra neglected

• real power

3 Vt Ef
P3φ = sin δ = Pmax sin δ
Xs
• reactive power
2
3 Vt Ef 3 Vt
Q3φ = cos δ −
Xs Xs
• torque

P3φ 3 Vt Ef
T= = sin δ = Tmax sin δ N ⋅ m
ωsyn ωsyn Xs
 Synchronous Machines – Complex Power Locus

2
3 Vt Ef 3 Vt Ef 3 Vt
P3φ = sin δ = Pmax sin δ Q3φ = cos δ −
Xs Xs Xs
Synchronous Machines – Capability Curves

• armature heating, length of OM

• field heating, length of YM
• steady-state stability δ
 Synchronous Machines – Power Factor Control
• machine connected to an infinite bus

P = 3Vt I a cos φ
• for constant power operation

I a cos φ = const.

• reactive current can be

controlled by field current

jXs I a = Vt − Ef

• also

Vt Ef
P=3 sin δ Ef sin δ = const
Xs
 Synchronous Machines – Independent Generators

• purely inductive load (Isc is short-circuit current)

Vt = Ef − I a Xs
= I sc Xs − I a Xs
= Xs ( I sc − I a )

• purely resistive load

Ef Xs I sc
Ia = =
RL2 + Xs2 RL2 + Xs2

Vt = I a RL
• quarter ellipse

Vt2 I a2
+ =1 • control curves
( Xs I sc )2 2
I sc • constant terminal voltage
 Salient Pole Synchronous Machines
• the field mmf and flux are along the d-axis

• stator current is in phase with the

excitation voltage
• armature mmf and flux are along the
q-axis

• stator current is lagging the

excitation voltage by 90 degrees
• armature mmf and flux act along the
d-axis, directly opposing the field

• the same magnitude of the armature

mmf produces more flux in d-
direction than that in q-direction
• magnetizing reactance is not unique
in a salient pole machine
 Salient Pole Synchronous Machines
• the armature quantities can be resolved into two components – one acting along
the d-axis (Fd, Id), and the other acting along the q-axis (Fq, Iq),

• these components produce fluxes

along the respective axes (Φad, Φaq),

• d-axis armature reactance Xd

• q-axis armature reactance Xq
• leakage reactance Xal

• synchronous reactances

Xd = Xad + Xal
Xq = Xaq + Xal
 Salient Pole Synchronous Machines – Phasor Diagrams
• the component currents (Id, Iq), produce component voltage drops (jIdXd, jIqXq)

Ef = Vt + I a Ra + Id jXd + I q jXq I a = Id + I q
• generator phasor diagram (Ia lagging)

• ψ internal power factor angle

• φ terminal power factor angle
• δ torque angle

• Ra neglected
 Salient Pole Synchronous Machines – Phasor Diagrams

• motoring phasor diagram (Ia lagging)

• ψ internal power factor angle
• φ terminal power factor angle
• δ torque angle

Vt = Ef + Id jXd + I q jXq
ψ =φ ±δ
I a Xq cos φ
tan δ =
Id = I a sinψ = I a sin(φ ± δ ) Vt ± I a Xq sin φ
I q = I a cosψ = I a cos(φ ± δ ) Ef = Vt cos δ ± Id Xd
 Power Transfer

S = Vt I a*
= Vt −δ ( I q − j Id )*

= Vt −δ ( I q + j Id )

Ef − Vt cos δ
Id =
Xd

Vt sin δ
Iq =
Xq
 Power Transfer

2 2
Vt Vt Ef Vt
S= sin δ −δ + 90° − δ − cos δ 90° − δ = P + jQ
Xq Xd Xd
2
Vt Ef Vt ( Xd − Xq )
P= sin δ + sin 2δ = Pf + Pr
Xd 2 Xd X q

Vt Ef 2 sin 2 δ cos 2 δ
Q= cos δ − Vt +
Xd Xq Xd

• if Xd = Xq, then

2
Vt Ef Vt Ef Vt
P= sin δ Q= cos δ −
Xd Xd Xd
 Power Transfer - Torque

2
Vt Ef Vt ( Xd − Xq )
P= sin δ + sin 2δ = Pf + Pr
Xd 2 Xd X q
 Determination of Xd and Xq

• slip test
• rotor is driven at a small slip
• field winding open-circuited
• stator is connected to a balanced three phase supply
• stator encounters varying reluctance path
• amplitude of the stator current varies

Vt
Xd =
imin 2

Vt
Xq =
imax 2
Speed Control of Synchronous Motors

• open-loop frequency control

 Speed Control of Synchronous Motors
• frequency control

3Vt Ef
P = Tω m = sin δ
Xs
4π f
ωm =
p

Xs = 2π fLs

• field current kept constant

Ef = K1 f

Vt
T = K sin δ
f
• voltage is changed with the frequency
 Speed Control of Synchronous Motors

• self-controlled synchronous motor

• rotor position information is
used to decrease the stator
frequency

• open-loop / closed-loop control

 Applications
• ac generator

• constant speed operation

• high efficiency
• motor-generator set, air compressor, centrifugal pump, blower, crusher, mill
• power factor control, synchronous reactor, -condenser