Professional Documents
Culture Documents
9.0 Appendix
1.0 Project Brief
The project objective is the design of an important piece of equipment from the process
researched and chosen. As can be seen on the project brief, an industrial ethanol plant was the
process. This report will contain the design of the reactor from that process.
Working from these objectives, a written report is to be compiled with the findings with the
following critical tasks:
Economic Appraisal
This is done evaluate the economic feasibility of the process.
Cash flow tables and the rate of investment return are calculated to justify it.
A Gantt chart (Appendix A) has been done to track the progress of the project.
To ensure the project is on track, meetings are to be held with the assigned tutor (Dr JT) weekly.
However, it is important to note that the group tasks are flexible dependant upon the availability
of other group members.
An overall review of the project is that though it was challenging, it was an enjoyable task that
was completed successfully. The initial schedule (Appendix A) was devised to help give
structure to time-management, however, this was a flexible and the resulting change can be seen
in Appendix B.
The obstacles encountered were mainly on two counts. The main section (Chemical Engineering
Design) over ran due to a number of numerical errors and extra design aspects initially missed.
This meant that these were corrected a number of times.
The HAZOP was planned in later than the schedule which led to the economic appraisal
investigated earlier than planned. This proved to be good initiative as this task proved to be a
tricky and time-consuming task.
The objectives I set out to achieve have been met to an acceptable degree, however, the most
important skill I used and enhanced are the following two:
Research this is the area I found the most difficult and frustrating, with no
immediate success in my search for relevant kinetic data I initially
struggled. However, with some help and determination, my kinetic data
was found and calculated successful values.
Initiative I immediately realised that there was only so much assistance I could gain
from others and I was keen on testing myself to complete as much as I
could with as little help as possible. For this reason I spent a lot of time
trying out various methods to ensure I understood what I was doing.
I found that position of group leader was harder than I imagined, however,
I also feel that the role helped me to experience and utilise various skills.
This is one of the skills I feel will assist me considerably in my career.
In Advanced Process Design Part 1, the objectives were to research and evaluate possible routes
for the manufacture of ethanol. A total of 5 routes were investigated of which two were synthetic
routes (direct and indirect hydration of ethylene) and three biological routes (fermentation of
corn and wood chips). The evaluation process looked at the raw material availability, process
complexity, conditions for example. The diagram below is a summarised form of the various
routes:
The evaluation process decision was in support of the synthetic direct hydration of ethylene.
The process is a vapour phase hydration of ethylene at 6MPa and 573K (300oC) with a solid
Phosphoric Acid catalyst. There are two reactants (ethylene and steam) that are fed into a reactor
in vapour form which reacts on the catalyst bed to form ethanol, the by products formed are
diethyl ether and acetylene ( acetaldehyde impurity hydration reaction).
The products leave at a higher temperature because the reaction is exothermic (data suggests 20K
hotter). These are cooled in a heat exchanger into liquid and vapour streams, the purpose of this
step is to reduce material costs of the pipes and equipment that follow. This also aids in the
separation of the products and reactant. This reaction has a low yield per pass of approximately
5% which results in high amounts of unreacted ethylene which is recycled, this remains in
vapour phase after cooling and is separated in an adsorber, compressed and fed back into the
reactor. The other products condense into liquid form.
The liquid products are then distilled to separate the desired product ethanol from the by
products.
Though the conversion per pass is low, the selectivity of ethylene is at acceptable 98%
conversion.
3.2.1 Reactor
This report will focus on the reactor and its design. The reactions at this stage are:
Assumption: For this design the acetylene and diethyl ether reactions will be ignored
because the amounts produced are relatively small.
The design will also concentrate on the conversion as a whole due to the small
amounts produced.
The ethanol production was specified at 100,000 tonnes of ethanol per annum. From this data,
taking into account of maintenance and shut down time (8000 hours operating time) the mass
flow rate of ethanol required is calculated to be 12,500 kg/hr.
There are various types of reactors available and the evaluation of them is described below:
Batch Reactor
This type of reactor has no flow in or out of reactants of products whilst the reaction occurs. It is
generally used for small scale production and can achieve high conversion if left in the tank for
long periods of time. However, this is unsuitable for this process because the product stream
needs to removed continuously. The other problem is the ability to apply this to a large scale
production successfully.
CSTR
This is a very common industrial processing unit where the reactants are fed in and products
removed continuously. It is used when intense agitation is required for the reaction to occur.
However, the reaction for this process occurs on the surface of the catalyst and hence, there is no
requirement for agitation.
Tubular
This type of reactor is where the reactor is length is large with respect to the diameter. With no
moving parts they are easier to maintain and usually have the highest conversion per reactor
volume. The disadvantage is the possible occurrence of hot spots and temperature control is
more difficult.
A packed bed reactor of this type is best suited to the reaction designed in this report because of
the need for a solid catalyst with no agitation required and for it to be a continuous process.
The reactor type selected is known as a Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactor.
1
3.3 Design Considerations of a fixed bed catalytic reactor (FBCR)
In a FBCR for a fluid-solid reaction, the solid catalyst is present as a bed of relatively small
individual particles, randomly oriented and fixed in position. The gas moves by convective flow
through the spaces between the particles. Diffusive flow through the particle is also possible.
Adiabatic Operation
No attempt is made to adjust the temperature within the bed by means of heat transfer. The
exothermic or endothermic nature of the reaction determines the solution of a single stage reactor
whereas a multi stage reactor where the catalyst is divided into at least 2 beds can use heat
exchangers or a cold-shot cooling method (exothermic). The purpose of temperature adjustment
is to shift the equilibrium position to increase yield and maintain a high rate of reaction.
Amount of Catalyst
This is important in the sizing of the reactor, the volume, bed depth and diameter can be
calculated from this.
Choice between allowable (-ΔP) or D (or L) from a given W requires a trade-off between the
cost of the vessel and the cost of compressing the gas. The smaller D, the greater the L/D ratio
and the greater (-ΔP); implying the cost of the vessel is less.
These are generally calculated from experimental data where the rate has been calculated under
known conditions to which they can be directly related in the design. However, I was unable to
find such data where the exact conditions and process inputs matched. The closest data I found
was from a journal which had differences in that the catalyst was different and the temperature
was lower. Nevertheless, its data is valuable in assisting in the design as the reaction is the same.
The LH model is based on a fluid – solid catalyst reaction where adsorption and desorption
occurs on the catalyst surface. I am evaluating my rate equation based on this model.
mol/m3 hr or
mol/kg hr
mol/ m3 hr
atm-1
atm-1
mol/m3
mol/m3
Based on assumptions on the adsorption or lack of adsorption this equation can be evaluated to
another form.
Calculating Concentration
By substituting equation (3) into the ideal gas equation (2), the resulting equation (4) can be used
to calculate the concentration.
The pressures required for this equation are the partial pressure as we are trying to find the
concentration of each reactant. However, as the mole fraction are the same the partial pressure
will also be the same, and hence half of the total pressure of 6 MPa.
Substitute values into equation (4)
The values calculated and those from the journal can be substituted into equation (1) to work out
the rate of reaction.
This rate value is expressed in terms of the volume, when designing a fixed bed catalytic reactor
it can also be expressed in terms of the mass. Therefore, by using the following equation this is
achieved with respect to the catalyst bed.
3.3 Catalyst Holdup
When designing any reactor, there is a design equation for each type of reactor which
corresponds to calculating an important design aspect. For a fixed bed reactor, it is expressed in
terms of W (catalyst holdup) as the equation below shows.
W amount of catalyst kg
FA molar flowrate kmol/hr
XA conversion 0.98 (specified from TP1)
(-r’A) rate of reaction kmol/kg hr 0.07125 mol/kg hr
The unknown from the above equation is the molar flowrate. The following expression to
calculate the molar flowrate is used because both the mass flowrate and relative molecular mass
are already known.
Substitute values into the above equation.
Now substituting this into equation (7) gives the catalyst weight.
Based on general assumptions commonly used, the total volume can can calculated.
Since the mass has been calculated, the volume it occupies can be calculated using the following
equation.
In this type of reactor, the catalyst volume takes up anywhere between 50 – 75% of the reactor
volume.
Assumption: the catalyst volume is two thirds of the cylindrical volume of the reactor
The volume of the hemisphere can only be calculated once the diameter or radius is known.
Diameter of the reactor = 2.1 m (see section Reactor Sizing below for calculation)
Assumption: the height of will be set at half the diameter of the reactor
If Dr = 2.1 m
However, both the diameter and length are unknown. Hence, general correlations are to be tried
and compared.
(1) If L = 2D
Therefore
(2) If L = 3D
Therefore
After comparing the values of the length with the flowrate (554.262 kmol/hr), the first
assumption gives more realistic values of the reactor sizing.
Cylinder Diameter = 2.1 m
Cylinder Length = 4.2 m
Assuming that the diameter of the catalyst is the same as the reactor diameter, the depth of the
catalyst can be calculated by using the volume it occupies in the reactor.
VC = 9.534 m3
DR = 2.1 m
Catalyst Bed
The catalyst bed will be separated into two compartments of 1.375 m length and 2.1 m diameter
each. However, the reaction is exothermic (temperature increased by 20K) and this extra heat
needs to be removed. For this safety a heat exchanger will be added.
Heat exchanger
The heat exchanger is required to remove heat generated by the process. As the temperature is
relatively small, the heat transfer area will also relatively small and is to be placed inside the
reactor between the catalyst beds as can be seen in the dimensional diagram below.
3.5.3 Dimensional Design of Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactor
Product Output
(Ethanol)
3.5.4 Heat Exchanger
The purpose of the design here is to calculate the area required for the specified duty (rate of heat
transfer). The actual design here will be a simple calculation and will not explore all the specifics
regarding the number of tubes for example. It is also important to note that alternate options are
available.
This is calculated using the flowrate and heat capacity of ethanol using the following equation:
The mass flowrate of ethanol into the heat exchanger will be half the total exiting the reactor, this
is because of the design to separate the catalyst bed into two compartments. The amount of
ethylene converted will be half the amount so its flowrate will also be half. This will be reflected
in the calculation below.
The heat capacity calculated in the energy balance is expressed in the form of J/mol K, however,
it is needed in the form of its mass as opposed to the number of moles.
By dividing by its relative molecular mass the form changes into what is required.
Substitute values into equation (13) to calculate the area of heat transfer
Every reactor needs to have a designed thickness to ensure it has sufficient strength to cope with
the design conditions, it is ever more important in a design where the reaction requires high
pressure within the reactor.
The pressure value used will be the burst disc pressure (see bursting disc calculations below).
This is calculated using the following equation.
PBD Burst Disc Pressure 66 MPa or 66 bar
DR Diameter 2.1 m
2 4
fi design stress of material 101 N/mm or 1010 bar (stainless steel (320))
Corrosion Allowance
Corrosion to the reactor is a consideration that needs to be taken into account when sizing the
thickness of the reactor, though stainless steel is resistant to many forms of corrosion, an
allowance still needs to be calculated into the thickness. Most design codes and standards specify
a minimum of 1mm 5. For this reason, this value of 1mm is to be used.
The pipes and vessel will all be made out of stainless steel as it is high strength and resistant to
corrosion except the steam pipe. The reasons are:
The high pressure and temperature required in the reactor means that stainless
steel is the safest option.
The steam pipe does not require such high strength material and the cost saving
compared stainless steel is significant. However, due to the high temperature, an
additional alloy (chromium) will need to be added to improve the tensile strength.
3.7 Reactor Support
The reactor has a weight and will need to be supported because of the earth’s gravitational pull
on it. This force is calculated by working out the load of the contents (equation 16) and the load
of the vessel (equation 17).
Weight of Contents
Weight of Vessel
6
Figure 2: Saddle Design Dimensions
To calculate the pressure drop the Ergun equation is used. The Ergun equation is a correlation for
the friction factor in a column as a function of the Reynolds number.
f friction factor
ug superficial linear velocity m/s
gas density kg/m3
LD bed depth m
d’p effective particle diameter m
Bed voidage
RE Reynolds Number
Bed Voidage
Reynolds Number
There are many variations of the Reynolds number, for a packed bed reactor the following is
most suitable.
Average density 8.547 kg/m3
ug superficial velocity 0.0232 m/s
d’p particle diameter 2 x 10-3 m
12
viscosity 0.000017 kg/ms
bed voidage 0.474
All the unknown values have been calculated and the pressure drop can be worked out by
substituting them into equation (18).
Pressure Drop
To convert this number into bar, the following conversions can be applied.
The pressure drop and vessel dimensions from a given catalyst weight will have an impact on the
vessel cost. However, in a reactor where the pressure plays an important role in the conversion
process, it is important that the pressure drop is controlled.
The value calculated here is relatively small and acceptable for this reactor, when compared to
the pressure required (~60bar).
Over-pressure / pressure exceeding the system design pressure, is one of the most serious
hazards in chemical plant operation. Failure of a vessel or the associated piping can trigger a
sequence of events that culminate in a disaster. Pressure vessels are invariably fitted with some
form of pressure relief device, set at the design pressure so that potential over-pressure is
relieved in a controlled way. A bursting disc a thin disc of material that is manufactured and
designed to fail at a predetermined value, giving a full bore opening for flow.9
The information required by a manufacture is the area and diameter of the disc. The area is
calculated through the following equation.
Mass flowrate
Relieved Pressure
If pressure = 6 MPa
F value
The isentropic exponent k for air we assume is 1.4(table 2 BS 2915 value for Air).
The back pressure pb we are assuming as 1 bar absolute, this is because when the burst disc
ruptures it will open to atmosphere.
Coefficient of Discharge
This value depends on factors such as the manufacturer model and type, disk bursting
characteristics and flow restrictions. However, for the purpose of this design a general value of
0.62 can be used if the following four conditions are met:
The disk must be installed within 8 pipe diameters of the vessel
The disk discharge pipe must not exceed 5 pipe diameters
The disk must discharge directly to the atmosphere
The inlet and outlet piping is at least the same nominal pipe size as the bursting disk. 10
Vent Temperature
Compressibility Factor
This value is a function of the reduced pressure and temperature’s which are then used to
estimate the compressibility factor from the correlation in Appendix C.
The inlet and outlet pipe diameters are calculated using the following equation
d pipe diameter m
vo volumetric flowrate m3/s
u gas velocity m/s
Ethylene Pipe
The volumetric flowrate has been calculated in the pressure drop calculation but here is needed
in the form m3/s
Steam Pipe
If u = 15 m/s
If u =30m/s
If u = 15 m/s
Assumption: The calculations give unrealistic values, hence the pipe diameter will be assumed
to be 1 inch.
Mean resident time (Resident Time Distribution) is the time spent by the reactant in the reactor.
It is calculated using the following equation:
Reactor Data
Volume 14.159 m3
Diameter 2.1 m
Length 6.3 m
Wall Thickness (inc. corrosion) 71.9 mm
Reactor Weight (support) 368 kN
Material Stainless Steel
Pressure Drop 0.0928 bar
Ethylene Pipe Inlet 1 inch
Steam Pipe Inlet 1 inch
Ethanol Pipe Inlet 1 inch
Catalyst Data
Kinetic Data
Instruments are used in industrial plants to indicate, monitor, control and/or record the key
process variables during operation.
Process variables such as pressure can be incorporated into automatic control loops, manual
13
monitoring and/or automatic computer logging systems in order to ensure its safe level.
Critical processes are fitted with automatic alarms to ensure the safety of all.
The main objectives of using instrumentation and control when designing the packed bed reactor
(PBR) are the following:
Safe reactor operation:
This is achieved by ensuring the critical situations are prevented. For example, the pressure
in the reactor is monitored and controlled using a pressure control instrument.
Production rate:
Instruments such as flow controller will ensure that the desired amount of flow enters the
reactor to produce the required amount of ethanol.
Product quality:
The product is achieved using specific temperature, pressure and ratio of reactants which are
maintained using the different instruments and control.
Cost:
It is always desirable to operate at the lowest production cost, however cost commensurate
with other objectives. For example: production rate will depend on cost.
4.2.2Valves
Gate Valves
They are controlled manually and are designed to be either open or closed fully. They have no
role in flow regulation.
Control Valves
Control valves are vital components of modern manufacturing. Chemical plants consists of
hundreds or more control loops all networked together to ensure the process is run correctly and
producing the desired product.
In the reactor section, control valves (V02) and (V05) are used to control the amount of flow of
both ethylene and steam entering the reactor.
V02
Closing/Stop Valves
Closing valves are used for safety trips. They prevent developments of hazardous situation.
Closing valves are used in the reactor section (figure 8) to stop the inlet feed (ethylene and
steam) when temperature and/or pressure go above or below the operating conditions.
Figure 4: Closing Valve
V03
The purpose of a control loop is to automate operator’s actions, by specifying a set point the
instrument will continuously monitor and adjust the process as required to achieve the desired
value.
The reactor operates at high pressure and temperature to achieve the required conversion, for this
reason control loops are required to ensure that both of these are at the set point or within an
acceptable tolerance.
Design Pressure = 60 bar
Due to the equilibrium nature of this reaction, lower pressure values will result in low conversion
whereas high pressure results in higher operating costs and poses a danger with respect to
material constraints.
The pressure indicator (PI-03) at the reactor is linked to the flow controller (FIC-101 and FIC
102) which is able to control the flow of the reactant streams.
Design Temperature = 300oC / 573 K
The temperature also has an effect on the reaction again due to the equilibrium nature of the
reaction similar to the pressure. Therefore, a series of temperature indicators (TI-01, TI-02, TI-
03) are placed at various positions that provide feedback to the flow controllers (FIC-101 and
FIC 102) which increase or decrease the flowrate of the reactant streams.
Figure 5 below shows the piping and instrumentation diagram of the pressure control loop.
FIC
101
C01
A-H
PI
01
A-L
V01
S02
FIC
102
V04
The flowrate of the ethylene and water streams are controlled by the data interpretation from the
above pressure indicators by using a control valve (V02 and V05) as can be seen in Figure 6.
These valves will vary its position depending on the flow controllers.
FIC
101
S03
C01
A-H
PI
01
A-L
V01 V02
S02
FIC
102
S04
V04 V05
Ratio control is necessary when a certain ratio is required to maintain a safe operation and/or
product quality, for this reaction it is important that the ethylene is kept ever so slightly in excess
(studies have found that when steam is in excess, the catalyst life decreases significantly). For
this reason a ration control system has been implemented with a set point.
If the ethylene stream flow was changed due to pressure indicators from the reactor, the ratio
controller will also implement the required change in the steam to ensure the ratio remains
constant. This is achieved by linking the ratio control to the flow controllers (FIC-01 and FIC
102) which vary the flow through the control valves (V02 and V05) as can be seen in Figure 3.
S05
FIC
101
S03
C01
A-H
Ratio PI
Controller 01
A-L
V01 V02
S02
S06
FIC
102
S04
V04 V05
As stated before, this reaction occurs at high pressure and temperatures, for this reason an
emergency shutdown system also needs to be implemented. This needs to be an automatic and
immediate action so it is vital that this system is automated through computers.
This can be accomplished by the stop valves (V03 and V06) as shown in Figure 8 that receive
input from the alarms from PI-01 and PI-02
S05
FIC
101 E01
S03
C01
A-H
Ratio PI
Controller 01
A-L
V01 V02 V03
S02
S06
FIC
102
S04 E02
To ensure these are activated when needed it is linked to the high alarm highlighted in Figure 8,
this safety trip will notify the operators but will not wait for their response and will use the stop
valve immediately. This is shown by the label C01/C02 (cause) and E01/E02 (effect), the cause
is high pressure/temperature and the effect is the shutting of the valve.
For the situation where the reduction of flowrate can resolve the problem, the control is achieved
through the usage of the control valves (V02 and/or V05).
This system is designed to be implemented into both the pressure and temperature control
systems.
As this reaction is exothermic the need to control the temperature is because of the effect it can
14
have on the efficiency and high temperatures that leads to sintering of the catalyst.
The importance of removing the heat generated is heightened because the catalyst bed has been
separated into two compartments, this increases the risk of catalyst damage in the second bed.
The solution for this is to include a heat exchanger in the reactor between the catalyst
compartments. To ensure that this process operates to spec, a temperature indicator controller
(TIC-103) measures the temperature of the outlet coolant. This is linked to a control valve (V08)
placed at the inlet of the coolant to increase/decrease the flow as Figure 9 shows.
HE01
TIC
01
R01
S07
V08
TI
03
Cascade Control
Cascade control is where the output of the primary controller is used to manipulate the set point
of the secondary controller to ensure safe operation.
The example of its use here is the pressure control, this is partly maintained by varying the flow
of the reactants by use of the pressure indicator at the reactor.
Alarm and safety trips in the reactor section are required not just to ensure a continued and
smooth run of operation but to comply with health and safety requirements.
Key instruments such as temperature and pressure are fitted with audible and visual alarms
where lack of response by operator or delays could cause a hazardous situation.
Alarms
Audio and visible alarms are fitted to the pressure and temperature indicators to notify operators
of any hazardous situation to ensure their safety, as can be seen on Figure 8 there are two types
of alarms used, a high alarm and a low alarm. They are used depending of the seriousness of the
situation.
Alarm high (A-H) if the pressure exceeded the design pressure for example
Alarm low (A-L) if the pressure dropped outside the tolerance set by design
Safety Trips
Safety trips are used in conjunction with the high alarms to automatically prevent any hazardous
situation. The main trips are those that are connected to the stop valve which would immediately
stop the flow of the reactants as can be seen in Figure 8.
Bursting Disc
This is used as a safety relief system in order to protect vessels, piping and equipment due to
high pressure. It is designed to burst at a specific pressure releasing the contents of the vessel.
Lagging
Lagging is to be used on the pipes and reactor. The reasons for this are:
Safety of the operators. The temperature in the pipes and reactor are significantly
high and the lagging will ensure that the risk will be as minimal as possible. In
addition to this, hazard signs will also be used to further minimize the risk.
To prevent heat loss from the pipes and the reactor. The reactants need to react at
high temperature so any heat loss will reduce the conversion.
Noise levels above 60 decibels are rendered areas where it is obligatory to provide
noise protection. By ensuring this limit is not exceeded, the operator risk is
reduced and cost is removed.
5.1 Introduction
A-H PI
FIC
01
101 A-L
C01
1-SS-001-2L
ETHYLENE
V01 V02 V03
Ratio
Controller BDI
A-H
01
BD01
FIC
A-H PI
102
02
C01
A-L
C01
A-H
PI
1-CS-002-2L
03 TI
A-L
STEAM 02
E-8
C01 TIC
A-H
TI
103
01
A-L
R01
1-SS-004-2L
V08
TI
03
5.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) Item List
Equipment List
Equipment Description
R01 Reactor Vessel
HE01 Heat Exchanger
Located inside reactor
BD01 Bursting Disc
Pipes List
Pipe Description
1-SS-001-2L Ethylene Inlet Pipe Code Explanation
Valves List
Pipe Description
V01 Gate Valve (Ethylene Pipe)
V02 Control Valve (Ethylene Pipe)
V03 Stop Valve (Ethylene Pipe)
V04 Gate Valve (Steam Pipe)
V05 Control Valve (Steam Pipe)
V06 Stop Valve (Steam Pipe)
V07 Gate Valve (Heat Exchanger)
V08 Control Valve (Heat Exchanger)
V09 Gate Valve (Heat Exchanger)
Instrument List
Instrument Description
FIC-01 Flow Indicator Controller
Ethylene Pipe
PI-01 Pressure Indicator (Ethylene Pipe)
FIC-02 Flow Indicator Controller
Steam Pipe
PI-02 Pressure Indicator (Steam Pipe )
PI-03 Pressure Indicator (Reactor Inlet)
TI-01 Temperature Indicator (Bed 2)
TI-02 Temperature Indicator (Bed 1)
TIC-01 Temperature Indicator Controller
Heat Exchanger Outlet
TI-03 Temperature Indicator Product
Pipe
6.1 Introduction
The technique of Hazard and Operability Study, commonly known as a HAZOP has been used
and developed over a few decades in order to identify ‘potential hazards and operability
problems’ caused by deviations in new and existing plants. It is best described as a procedure for
the systematic, critical, examination of the operability of a process.15
It has become an important tool in predicting hazards and operability issues in the planning stage
and generally finds solutions to problems that could be very costly to resolve once the plant has
been commissioned.
6.2 Basics of a HAZOP
Firstly a HAZOP team is required which consists of a Chairperson (experienced in HAZOP but
not directly involved in design who ensures that the method is followed correctly), Scribe
(documents outcomes) and other team members (people from varied disciplines such as
maintenance and designer).
A HAZOP systematically questions the sections of the process to establish the deviations that
can occur, once these are identified an assessment can be made upon the causes and
consequences of these deviations. If considered important, the necessary action is sought to
rectify them.
As this tool has been developed, certain guidewords and deviations have been investigated to the
extent that they are considered necessary for all HAZOP’s. They are as follows:
Guidewords
Flow Temperature
Pressure Level
Deviation
Word Meaning
No The design intent does not occur (e.g. Flow/No),
Less A quantitative decrease in the design intent occurs (e.g.
Pressure/Less)
More A quantitative increase in the design intent occurs (e.g.
Temperature/More)
Reverse The opposite of the design intent occurs (e.g. Flow/Reverse)
Early Usually used when studying sequential operations, this
would indicate that a step is started at the wrong time or
done out of sequence
Late As Early
Other The activity occurs, but not in the way intended (e.g.
Flow/Other could indicate a leak or product flowing where it
should not, or Composition/Other might suggest unexpected
proportions in a feedstock)
The assessment is carried out for all the deviations relating to each guideword. Other guidewords
and deviations are also carried out that relate will relate to every plant, for example a plant shut
down is an important deviation. These can be seen in the full HAZOP below for the ethanol
production process. Figure 4 below explains the systematic approach applied to a HAZOP.
16
Figure 10: Method in Conducting a HAZOP
6.3 Process Line for HAZOP
The chosen process step for the HAZOP carried out by our group is not from the section
considered in this report, for this reason the Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) of the
chosen process is included below.
The HAZOP is to be carried out at the process line between the heat exchanger and the separator,
during this stage partial condensation has occurred at the heat exchanger where the ethylene can
be separated (in order to be recycled and fed into reactor). The ethylene is the only material from
the reactor which will remain in its vapour form, the ethanol and other by products will be
condensed into liquid form by the heat exchanger.
The HAZOP team is as follows:
Chairperson: Dr J Titiloye
Core Team: Irfan Badat
Mohammed Abu Jafor
Onyeka Muehlhoezer
Theophilus Domobiyo
Danara Basbayeva
Scribe: Irfan Badat
The HAZOP checklist signed by the Chairperson (Dr J Titiloye) can be seen in Appendix D.
6.4 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram of Chosen Process Line
Coolant brine in
PI
08
V-30
PI
07
P04-B
CO1
V-26
P04-A V-29
TCV-8
V-27
V-28
V-32 AH LI
TIC AL 31
8 V-25
PI
01 HXC1
PI FIC
03 16
Feed from reactor V-2
V-7 V-13
V-5
V-6 PI
P01-B V-14
P02-B 04
Key PI
P0 – Centrifugal pump 05
V - Gate Valve
V - 3,4,6,11,12,14,20,21,24,28,27 – Drain Valve Products to distillation
PI – Pressure indicator
V-19
FIC – Flow Indicator Controller
FCV – Flow Control Valve V-18
V-22
TIC – Temperature Indicator Controller HXC1 AND ST1 CONTAINED IN BUND
V-20 V-21 PO3-A
TCV – Temperature Control Valve
LI – Level Indicator ALL ALARMS/INDICATORS CONNECTED TO CONTROL ROOM V-23
P-97
Guide Word Deviation Hazard Possible Causes Consequences Action Action Required
No. No.
Flow
No 1 Blockage Over-pressure 1.1 Install an pressure indicator and
alarm
Back-pressure 1.2 Relief valve
1.3 Use by-pass line
1.4 Ensure line can withstand
pressure
1.5 Use correct material
Rupture of Heat Exchanger pipes 1.6 see 1.4 & 1.5
No material into separator 1.7 Level Indicator in Heat
Exchanger
Power failure 1.8 Arrange back-up power
arrangements
The main purpose of investing money into a chemical plant is to make a profit. In
order to ensure that a profit would be made from a certain process, it is essential to
carry out an economic evaluation of the process.
Design engineers need to be able to estimate a quick, rough cost of process equipment
and alternative process designs for project evaluation. Before the profitability of a
plant can be assessed, an estimate of the investment required and the cost of the
production are needed.
Various components make up the capital and operating costs of a plant. This section
calculates an estimate of the various costs and the net cash flow to prove or disprove
its economic viability.
Capital Costs are those required to bring a project to a commercially operable status
and are a one off payment. These include land, buildings, construction and equipment.
There are various methods to estimate the capitol cost, for the purpose of this design
two have been chosen. The Wilson Method and another devised by Zevnik and
Buchanan.
7.1.1 Wilson Method
This method is based on the number of plant items, its principle is that the average
cost of one item of equipment is a function of the process size and complexity.
Capitol Cost
Installation factor
Plant items
Pressure factor
Temperature factor
However, this equation relates to the capitol cost in 1971. An adjusted UK plant cost
index has been calculated that gives a more accurate cost for 2004.
The updated version has an added factor of 27.3.
There are 4 plant items which include the reactor, heat exchanger, adsorber and
distillation column.
Normally a heat exchanger is not included but due to the high usage and importance
of it, it has been included.
Average Unit Cost (AUC)
Using the AUC value the installation factor is found graphically using Appendix E.
f = 1.85
The material chosen is stainless steel due to the high pressure and temperature in the
reactor.
FM = 1.3
If P = 60 bar FP = 1.1
If T = 300oC FT = 1.1
Capitol Cost
7.1.2 Zevnik and Buchanan Method
Where
Capitol Cost
Capacity
Capacity (Q)
Ethanol production specified at 100,000 tonnes per year
Capitol Cost
There are 2 reactant raw materials (ethylene and steam) and the coolant (brine) to be
calculated.
Ethylene
17
Cost per kg = £ 0.46
Mass flowrate = 7763.975 kg/hr
Total operating time = 8000 hours
Steam
22
Cost per kg = £ 7 per tonne
Mass flowrate = 4991.127 kg/hr
Total operating time = 8000 hours
Brine
This has been calculated as a function of its chemical composition of 25% sodium
chloride and 75% water.
22
Water Cost per kg = 0.05 £/tonne
Mass Flowrate = 390,000,000 kg/yr
Ethanol
The cost of ethanol has been taken from two sources, the first from the literature
which was an average value taken in 1998 and the second is a current price. The
updated price was used as the initial value used was significantly higher than
expected.
Price 1
22
Cost per kg = £4.2
Mass flowrate = 12,500 kg/hr
Total operating time = 8000 hours
Price 2
18
Cost per $ gallon = 3.7
To convert this into a mass form the following calculation was done.
19
Multiply the volume of 1 US gallon by the density of ethanol to work out the mass of
1 US gallon.
Method 1
This method utilises the fixed capitol cost so both the Wilson and Zevnik & Buchanan
values will be used to calculate the operating costs.
21
Figure 12: Operating Cost Calculation
Other(C)
Sales Expense 20% of A&B 7,601,583 10,461,790
Having compared all the values (Capital Cost, Raw Material Cost and Operating
Cost), the decision to exclude price 1 of ethanol and operating cost method 1 has been
taken because of irregularities in the cash flow table where there were significant
profits or significant losses.
The cash flow table which produces the most reasonable results is price 2 of ethanol
and the Zevnik and Buchanan cost methods.
7.5 Assumptions
Certain assumptions are important to carry out the analysis. They are as follows:
First 2 years are for construction
Capital Cost split 50:50 between first 2 years
Working Capital is included in Capital Cost
Operating Plant Life is 10 years
Operating at full capacity
Supply = Demand
A major problem with every business is its ability to sell its products, the assumption
resolves this. However, as this is optimistic the ethanol will be sold at a more
competitive price during the plant life of 10 years.
From this the annual profit can be calculated (excluding capital cost).
From the information collected, a cash flow table can be constructed from which the
payback time of the project can be calculated.
Figure 13: Cash Flow Table
Capital Cost Operating Income Net Cash Cumulative Cash
Year
(£) Cost(£/yr) (£/yr) Flow(£/y) Flow(£/yr)
0 -31,747,528 -31,747,528 -31,747,528
1 -31,747,528 -63,495,056 -63,495,056
2 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 -46,265,795
3 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 -29,036,533
4 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 -11,807,271
5 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 5,421,990
6 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 22,651,252
7 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 39,880,514
8 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 57,109,775
9 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 74,339,037
10 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 91,568,299
11 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 108,797,560
12 62,770,738 80,000,000 17,229,262 126,026,822
The table and graph show the pay back time of the investment into the project to be
accomplished during Year 6. As the plant life is 12 years, this means that there will be
7 years of 100% profit and approximately 33% profit in the year where the project
break evens.
The Return on Investment (ROI) accounts for the loss of value of investment and in
this project the cumulative net cash flow (NCF) is accounted for.
The process uses ethylene which is an oil derived substance and with the instability of
the market. The following cash flow table has been done to include a 2% increase in
its cost per annum from Year 3.
Figure 17: Cash Flow Table
Figure 18: Cash flow table with material and product cost changes (see Appendix G)
This economic appraisal shows a very positive outlook for the ethanol producing
industry. The annual income projected at over £ 17 million in the final cash flow helps
strengthen the position for an increase in plant life.
The pay back period would start during the Year 6 from where annual income is still
significantly whichever situation is taken. Even with the current economic climate,
most investors would be eager to secure an investment return at 13.5%.
However, there are also certain issues which have been touched upon during this
section. The methods used are general correlations and are only estimates, for
example, the two methods of calculating capital costs were approximately £ 47
million apart. Even thought the higher value was taken, it clearly shows the need for a
more accurate method.
8.0 Reference
Coulson & Richardson: Chemical Engineering Design, R K Sinnot, Volume 6, Edition 4, Chapter
5.7.1 Instruments, Page 227
14
Coulson & Richardson: Chemical Engineering Design, R K Sinnot, Volume 6, Edition 4, Chapter
5.7.1 Instruments, Page 233
15
Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design, R K Sinnot, 3rd Edition. Volume 6, Chapter
9.5, Hazard and Operability Study, Page 379
16
http://www.lihoutech.com/hzp1frm.htm
17
Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design, R K Sinnot, Volume 6, Edition 4,Chapter
6.9.1 Estimation of Operating Costs, Page 263
18
http://www.icispricing.com/il_shared/Samples/SubPage173.asp
19
http://bilet.pp.ru/calculator/gallon_litre_conversion_calculator_convert_gal_l.php
20
Dr J Brammer, Process Economics – 4A, Operating Costs, Page 4
21
Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design, R K Sinnot, 3rd Edition. Volume 6, Chapter
6.9.1, Estimation of Operating Costs, Page 266