Answers

1. Particle Relative charge

Proton +1
electron -1
Neutron 0
2. Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
3. Number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom.
4. 168O = 8 protons and 8 neutrons
12
6C = 6 protons and 6 neutrons

5. Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same number of protons but different number
of neutrons. 12 C has 6 neutrons, 13 C has 7 neutrons and 14 C has 8 neutrons.
6. Orbit : The path of an electron around the nucleus of an atom.
Orbital : The wave function of an electron in atom, indicating the electrons’ probable location.
7.

8. Hund’s Rule ; Electrons will fill a set of degenerate by keeping their spins parallel.
9.

Same way do for chromium 24 electrons I couldn’t draw the boxes

10. 1st I.E. of an element is defined as the energy change for the conversion of 1 mol of gaseous
atoms into gaseous ions.
11. 2nd I.E. is the energy needed to convert the +1 charged ion into a +2 charged ion.
12. Group 3
13. A. atomic Radius B. shielding effect C. nuclear charge D. electron pairing
14. And( both period 2 and the 3 SC to Zn are discussed)
15.

The patterns in periods 2 and 3

Talking through the next 17 atoms one at a time would take ages.
We can do it much more neatly by explaining the main trends in
these periods, and then accounting for the exceptions to these
trends.

The first thing to realise is that the patterns in the two periods are
identical - the difference being that the ionisation energies in period
3 are all lower than those in period 2.
Explaining the general trend across periods 2 and 3

The general trend is for ionisation energies to increase across a

period.

In the whole of period 2, the outer electrons are in 2-level orbitals -

2s or 2p. These are all the same sort of distances from the nucleus,
and are screened by the same 1s2 electrons.

The major difference is the increasing number of protons in the

nucleus as you go from lithium to neon. That causes greater
attraction between the nucleus and the electrons and so increases
the ionisation energies. In fact the increasing nuclear charge also
drags the outer electrons in closer to the nucleus. That increases
ionisation energies still more as you go across the period.

Note:  Factors affecting atomic radius are

covered on a separate page.

In period 3, the trend is exactly the same. This time, all the
electrons being removed are in the third level and are screened by
the 1s22s22p6 electrons. They all have the same sort of
environment, but there is an increasing nuclear charge.

Why the drop between groups 2 and 3 (Be-B and Mg-Al)?

The explanation lies with the structures of boron and aluminium.

The outer electron is removed more easily from these atoms than
the general trend in their period would suggest.

Be 1s22s2 1st I.E. = 900 kJ mol-1

 B 1s22s22px1 1st I.E. = 799 kJ mol-1
You might expect the boron value to be more than the beryllium
value because of the extra proton. Offsetting that is the fact that
boron's outer electron is in a 2p orbital rather than a 2s. 2p orbitals
have a slightly higher energy than the 2s orbital, and the electron
is, on average, to be found further from the nucleus. This has two
effects.

 The increased distance results in a reduced attraction and

so a reduced ionisation energy.
 The 2p orbital is screened not only by the 1s2 electrons but,
to some extent, by the 2s2 electrons as well. That also
reduces the pull from the nucleus and so lowers the
ionisation energy.

The explanation for the drop between magnesium and aluminium is

the same, except that everything is happening at the 3-level rather
than the 2-level.

Mg 1s22s22p63s2 1st I.E. = 736 kJ mol-1

Al 1s22s22p63s23px1 1st I.E. = 577 kJ mol-1
The 3p electron in aluminium is slightly more distant from the
nucleus than the 3s, and partially screened by the 3s 2 electrons as
well as the inner electrons. Both of these factors offset the effect of
the extra proton.
16. Atomic Radius : Distance between the nucleus to the outermost shell of an atom.
17. A positive ion is smaller than its parent atom as the shell is lost
A negative ion is larger than its parent atom as the nuclear charge remaining same but an
increase in the number of electrons.
18.

Ionic bonding

In ionic bonding, electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another. In the

process of either losing or gaining negatively charged electrons, the reacting atoms
form ions. The oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces,
which are the basis of theionic bond.
For example, during the reaction of sodium with chlorine:
 sodium (on the left) loses its
one valence electron to chlorine (on
the right),

resulting in

a positively charged sodium ion(left)

and a negatively charged chlorine ion
(right).

The reaction of sodium with chlorine

Concept simulation - Reenacts the reaction of sodium with chlorine.
(Flash required)

Notice that when sodium loses its one valence electron it gets smaller in size, while
chlorine grows larger when it gains an additional valence electron. This is typical of the
relative sizes of ions to atoms. Positive ions tend to be smaller than their parent atoms
while negative ions tend to be larger than their parent. After the reaction takes place, the
charged Na+and Cl- ions are held together by electrostatic forces, thus forming an ionic
bond.
19. Covalent bonding; a chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen atoms only need two electrons in their outer level to reach the noble
gas structure of helium. Once again, the covalent bond holds the two atoms
together because the pair of electrons is attracted to both nuclei.

20. Hydrogen Bonding: A strong dipole-dipole force that occurs among molecules in which hydrogen
is bonded to nitrogen, fluorine or oxygen.
Ammonia
 In a molecule of ammonia, nitrogen, an electronegative atom is bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The nitrogen
atom forms a negative site of the molecule whereas each of three H-atoms acquires a partial positive charge.
The ammonia molecules are associated by H-bonds as shown below:

fig 1.36 – Ammonia

21. Electrostatic Bonding Forces

The electrostatic bonding forces existing between the cation and the anion
produced by the electron transfer from one atom to the other is known as the
ionic (or) electrovalent bond. The compounds containing such a bond are
referred to as ionic (or) electrovalent compounds. Ionic bond is non directional
and extends in all  directions. Therefore, in solid state single ionic molecules do
not exist as such. Only a network of cations and anions which are tightly held
together by electrostatic bonding forces exist in the ionic solids. To form a stable
ionic compound there must be a net lowering of energy. That is, energy is
released as a result of electovalent bond formation between positive and
negative ions.
[ usually ionic bonding is otherwise known as electrostatic bonding]

Electrostatic bonding

Electrostatic bonding (also known as anodic or field assisted bonding) was first reported in
1969 having been developed and patented by P R Mallory and Co Inc (for which reason it is
sometimes known as Mallory bonding).

The technique is used to join glass to metals and semiconductors at temperatures well
below the softening point of the glass. The components to be joined are polished to a
smooth, flat surface finish (e.g. 50µm rms) then heated to a temperature below the
softening point of the materials, but sufficiently high for ionic conduction to occur (200-
600°C for glass). A d.c. voltage is applied across the components such that the metal (or
semiconductor) is at a positive potential with respect to the glass. The voltage applied can
vary from a few hundred volts to three thousand volts, for bonding times of 10 seconds to
several hours.

A bond is formed as a result of the joint interfaces being brought into intimate contact by
the electrostatic forces generated by ion migration in the glass. No external pressure is
applied other than that required to hold the components in contact.

A reasonable match of thermal expansion coefficients is desirable to avoid strain in the joint,
but joints between unmatched glass/metal combinations have been made successfully when
the metal is in the form of thin foil or film.
Current status

Electrostatic bonding is a technique primarily used for joining glass to silicon for pressure
transducer fabrication and solar cell encapsulation. However, it has also been investigated
for the joining of glass windows in FeNiCo alloy opto-electronic packages. Use of the process
is therefore limited and specialised. A brief description of these applications together with
the reasons for electrostatic bonding being chosen as the most suitable joining process are
given below.

Fig.1. A typical capacitive

transducer structure