TRACKING

MANUAL

Additional Reading: Tracking Negative Indications

Copyrighted 2008, all rights reserved. No part of this material may be

reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from
the author.
 Table of Contents

Introduction………………………………… Page 3

Section 1 Basic Categories………………. Page 4

Section 2 Canine Behavior……………… Page 6

Section 3 Basic Needs…………………... Page 7

Section 4 Basic Senses………..…………. Page 7

Section 5 Recognizing Behavior……….… Page 9

Section 6 Aspects of Scent…………….… Page 10

Section 7 Scent Picture…………………... Page 11

Section 8 Conditions Effecting Scent.…… Page 14

Section 9 Types of Scent……..…………... Page 20

Section 10 Surface Effects………...……… Page 21

Section 11 Aged Tracks…………………… Page 23

Section 19 Handler Tracking Tips.…….…. Page 26

Section 20 Tracking Self Test………….…. Page 28

 INTRODUCTION

Although the need for tracking dogs diminished years ago, due to the increase in recent
world events the need for good, sure and reliable tracking dogs is on the incline.
However, in this day and age of asphalt and concrete the tracking dogs and their handlers
of today must be better trained. In order to train and maintain a sure and reliable tracking
dog you must first understand the dog's olfactory capabilities and human scent. You will
also need to know and understand the different types of tracking dogs and the training
methods used to develop them. Tracking dogs can be classified into four basic categories:

1) Ground Scenting Dogs

2) Trailing Dogs
3) Search Dogs (air scenting)
4) Combat Tracking Dogs

It is imperative to understand each type of tracking dog and how and why each type of
dog works in order to be an effective handler. It is only through a basic understanding of
canine behavior and psychology that this is clearly understood.

All of the information presented will be based solely on scientific principles, facts and
years of experience.
 BASIC CATEGORIES

Ground Scenting Dogs

Ground scenting dogs represent the “TRACKING DOG” that everyone thinks of. This
so–called true tracker uses only ground (ecological) scent to follow the track. These types
of dogs have been taught to recognize and follow the ground scent. The ground scent is
comprised of the crushed grasses, disturbed dirt, over turned leaves, etc. The ground
scenting dog uses very little if any available human scent and the dog will track very
slowly. This type of dog works from one footprint to the next footprint. Ground scenting
dogs will however indicate evidence dropped on the track by the suspected combatant, if
it is dropped directly on the track. They normally track slowly enough for a small child to
hold on to the leash. The West German combat schools teach that this is the most
effective way for a combat dog to track. They adopted this method of training in 1930.
They changed training methods they say because: “Individual human scent is not the
leading factor for the dog working out a track . . . a dog cannot distinguish one human
scent from another. Getting the dog to accept human scent as the leading scent is more
difficult if the dog is not familiar with the scent. This goal can only be achieved with very
few especially talented dogs and only under the most favorable conditions.” (Taken from
a West German Combat Canine Training Manual).
They also say that under the most ideal conditions the absolute time limit that a dog can
pick up the track and follow it is 48 hours. This same philosophy has been adopted by
many American combat dog trainers. This can be attributed to the German dog sport
called Schutzhund. There are trainers here in the U.S. that import Schutzhund trained and
titled dogs and sell them as combat dogs. While others use the Schutzhund training
methods of tracking.

Trailing Dogs
Trailing dogs work in close proximity to the actual track itself. Unlike the tracking dog
the trailing dog will have a tendency to work with his nose higher and just downwind of
the track. The trailing dog will use some of the available ground scent but they also use
the individual scent as well as the reinforcing scent that is close to the track. The trailing
dog like the ground scenting dog will not only indicate on evidence dropped by the
suspected combatant but evidence that is thrown very far by the suspected combatant. A
discussion on the individual scent is covered in some depth in the section titled Human
Scent. These dogs will normally work faster than the true tracking dogs for several
reasons:

1) Motivated to a higher level

2) More available scent
3) Less handler interference
Search Dogs
These dogs are also called air-scenting dogs, area search dogs, or scout dogs. This type
of dog is not a tracking dog in any real meaning of the word. A search (air-scenting) dog
does not use any ground scent or any scent close to the track itself. This type of dog
works solely off of the human scent that is airborne, this scent is called skin rafts. It is
being covered for two reasons; first some people will say that their dog tracks people
when they really air scent. Secondly, there is a use for this type of dog and this type of
training.

Combat Tracking Dogs

Before discussing how the combat tracking dog differs from other types of tracking
dogs it helps to examine why the other three types will not work in combat situations.
In the case of the ground scenting dogs, I personally feel that using this type of tracking
dog for real work is absurd. If you just consider a few basic concepts in dealing with
combatants. First, if they run, how are you going to catch them when you and your dog
are walking? Second, let us address the issue of the dog not being able to separate one
human scent from another. By breaking down the different secretions into the chemicals
that we know exist in the human body there are 6,227,020,800 different combinations of
scent; this is a proven fact of science. This does not take into account the extra scents that
you apply to your body, (reinforcing scents). This is to say the least about identifying a
suspected combatant from the track. In the second type of dog, the trailing dog, this type
of tracking dog does solve the basic problem of additional speed and does use the
individual human scent as a second source of odor. This factor alone can be used to
identify the suspected combatant.
This type of dog remains so close to the track that it fails to provide any handler/team
safety factors. Consider this little tid-bit of information, you and your dog are pursuing a
suspected combatant, you and your dog are going round and round behind the suspected
combatant. The suspected combatant however, becomes tired of running but still doesn’t
want to go to be apprehended so he lays in wait for you. As you and your dog come
around the corner of a house or through some bushes the suspected combatant shoots
you. The third type of dog, the search dog, may provide some handler/team safety if you
are able to start downwind of an area that the suspected combatant is contained in. This
type of dog generally works the freshest human odor in that area and you can not follow
the suspected combatant from the scene (hence the dog must work from downwind). The
combat tracking dog should be able to use the ground scent, the individual scent and the
airborne scent. Since the combat dog is trained in all three areas or phases of tracking we
can develop a sure, reliable tracking dog that also offers us the added security of
handler/team safety. Each one of these components or aspects of the combat tracking
dogs ability provides us with the necessary speed in which to catch the suspected
combatant, as well as the ability to be sure that the track that the dog followed was indeed
that of the suspected combatants. The combat tracking dog should be able to indicate
evidence (weapons, explosives, etc) on or near the track, thereby providing additional
evidence against the suspected combatant and have the ability to detect the scent of the
suspected combatant from a far so that he (the dog) will be able to indicate to you the
suspected combatants location or at least that the suspected combatant is close. How this
all works merits a closer examination.
 CANINE BEHAVIOR / PSYCHOLOGY

INNATE DRIVES
It is a known and accepted fact that dogs have certain innate drives. The tracking dog
uses these innate drives or natural drives in order to track humans. Innate drive can be
defined simply by saying that; it is what the dog has in his heart. Much like a good
professional boxer, he either has it or he doesn’t, it is something that you are born with.

PREY DRIVE:
This is an inherent drive within most working dogs. It is the desire to chase something
that is moving away and to bite it. Prey drive may be exhibited by a dog shaking back
and forth an object that it possesses. If the prey drive is high enough it may be utilized to
initiate the tracking training. The dog must demonstrate a very high prey drive. The
desire to retrieve should be a natural desires not a taught one. It should be noted that most
dogs that have been taught to retrieve are usually later eliminated.

HUNTING DRIVE:
Hunting drive is an innate drive based on the dog's natural instinct to chase down other
animals that will be consumed as food. As the dog’s desire to chase the (food), it most
often escapes from the dog, wherein the dog must now scent. It is the innate drive found
in some dogs that compels them to run around and attempt to seek out certain items that
they have developed an association with. In foxhounds it is the fox, in beagles it is the
rabbit, etc.

RETRIEVAL / BALL DRIVE:

Both of the above innate drives are closely related and interactive with retrieval drive or
ball drive. In that in the retrieval drive both the prey drive and hunting drive are
satisfied. Now the dog must hunt down and retrieve the prey (food), before it can
be consumed.

The prey is located in three basic ways:

1) Body scent emitted by the prey (airborne skin rafts)

2) Scent left on the ground (vegetative odors/heavy skin rafts)
3) Looking in places where the prey is normally found (visual hunting)
 As the prey emits the scent it is airborne and floats along on the air currents. Still others
are secured to the ground where the prey has walked. Whereby, the dog uses a
combination of air-scent and scent from the ground. Add to this the fact that the dog will
look for the prey. This is most common in domesticated dogs as it is easier, and for the
fact that they have been conditioned to look for their food bowl not smell for it. Always
build drive and motivation in your dog.

BASIC NEEDS
A dog responds to his environment in order to satisfy physiological and psychological
needs. For tracking, the reward for the dog is finding the person at the end of the track.

FOOD:
Food must be supplied in adequate quantities to prevent hunger from interfering with
task performance. Depending on the individual dog, food reward can be extremely useful.
Although it can be useful, it is not the primary choice of rewards to use. Food must also
be used in amounts that do not make the dog gain weight. This will make the dog have
less stamina.

WATER:
Water must also be given in adequate quantities in order to satisfy thirst and be properly
hydrated. Once again the dog must not have to much as it will hinder performance.

SOCIAL NEEDS:
Dogs are must like people in that most dogs and people need to have some sort of social
contact. If the dog has been taught (socialized) to be a social animal at a young age he
will be willing to work for social approval (petting/praise). Since tracking work is very
strenuous it may not be sufficient enough to use it as a primary reward however, it may
be used as a secondary reward to help stimulate the dog into a superior performance.

ELEMINATION OF WASTE:
The dog needs to be allowed to eleminate any and all waste before the dog can
effectively perform any function or task. Ensure that you allow your dog adequate time
to eliminate any waste so that he may be able to focus totally on the task at hand and not
to become distracted, by this innate need.

THE BASIC K-9 SENSES

A dog perceives its environment through the use of its basic senses. The dog senses its
environment much differently than humans. It is only through proper training and
utilization of the combat K–9 that we are able to use their ability to fight back against the
undesired element. It is generally the lack of proper understanding and knowledge of the
canine sensing system that affects the proper training and utilization of combat canines in
this country. In the following information we will be discussing the combat tracking
dog’s capabilities and limitations. This is possibility the most important training
information to you the handler and anyone managing or supervising a canine team or
unit. It is only through your knowledge as a handler of your dog’s sensing system that
you can effectively track and or maintain handler safety. Without this knowledge, you
would be like a sitting duck during a tactical operation.
For our purposes here I will only cover three of the basic senses as these are the ones we
will be most concerned with. Definition of terms– there is no distinct difference in the
definition or the words scent and odor. However, the term scent normally refers to
humans and the term odor normally is used to refer to objects or items such as explosives.
The terms wind and air currents are again interchangeable, yet wind is commonly used to
refer to the outdoors.

OLFACTION (SMELL)
We will be working with and utilizing this basic sense the most during this course so it
will be covered in some depth. Dogs can discriminate one odor from another. They can
be trained to detect and respond to a large number of odors. Wind/air current direction
when detected by the dog is always paired with odor direction information. As well as the
different concentration levels of the odor/scent assist the dog in determining the location
of the odor. The olfactory system is composed of the nasal chambers and the sinuses,
which serve as receptor areas, and the olfactory nerves deliver the signals to the olfactory
lobe of the brain. It is in the brain that odors/scent is recognized, interpreted, and file for
memory. There are approximately 30 different theories as to how the scent/odor is
received in the nose and the information is transferred to the brain. However, of these
thirty different theories they all fall into one of two categories. The most accepted
category is based on vibration. These theories conclude that the scent particles either alter
the natural vibrations of the olfactory hairs, (nerve endings, they are sometimes called
tactical hairs) or they promote vibration of the olfactory nerve endings and cause
intracellular changes that stimulate the olfactory nerves. A portion of these theories
suggests that the scent molecules vibrating at low frequencies stimulate specific olfactory
receptors (nerves). The other category consists of chemical contact. The chemical contact
involves the solubility of the chemical in the mucous of the nose and then contact with
the olfactory cells, thereby causing chemical, physical, or electrical changes. Whichever
theory you agree with is unimportant at this point as long has you have some idea as to
how and why your dog is able to use its nose so effectively. According to William
Syrotuck in his book Scent and the Scenting Dog; almost one eighth of the dog’s brain
and over 50% of the internal nose is dedicated to olfaction, where as the human olfactory
lobs are very much smaller, and the olfactory cells is about one square inch. This is the
big difference between dogs and humans. It is estimated that humans have five million
olfactory cells, while a German Shepherd has 220 million. Comparatively speaking a
dog’s sense of smell is 100 times better than human's. A gram of butyric acid contains 7X
10(21) molecules. If the molecules were made to evenly evaporate in all rooms of a ten
story building, a person could barely be able to detect the odor in any of the rooms. If
however, the same gram of butyric acid was diluted to fill the air over Hamburg
Germany, the dog could detect it at an altitude of 300 feet.
AUDITION (HEARING)
Dogs can hear the same sounds that we can hear and those we cannot hear. Humans
hear sounds in the frequency range of 20KHz and dogs can hear up to the 40 to 45KHz
frequency ranges. Additionally, they can detect changes in tone, volume, frequency,
direction and distance much better than humans. This sense is the second largest asset
that the combat dog can use in order to assist in locating hidden suspected combatants.

VISION (SIGHT)
Although a dog cannot actually see further than the handler, but he can see more minute
movements as well. The handler may not be able to see a deer flick its ear while standing
behind a bush, but a dog can see or detect the movement. In order to understand how a
dog tracks the modern undesired element it is necessary to understand human scent and
how it is produced. This will enable the handler to more effectively assist the canine dog
in hunting down the suspected combatant (s).

RECOGNIZING BEHAVIOR

To be knowledgeable about the combat K–9s sensing system it is necessary to first

understand the dog’s ability to detect slight changes or differences of stimuli (namely
scent or odor). Following are some definitions necessary to help in the understanding of
the sensing system.

ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD (AT):

The smallest amount of a stimulus need by the dog to detect the stimulus (the smallest
amount of odor, sound, etc that can be presented to the dog and he is able to smell, hear,
etc. from the surrounding area) An Absolute Threshold is a statistical average of a
stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time. It is at this point that the dog will NOT
show any sign or change in his behavior. The AT of one dog can be different than that of
another and will also vary with the same dog due to various uncontrollable factors, i.e.,
heat, and humidity. Normally when discussing a dog we refer to the point of detection of
a stimulus that the dog has learned to detect and respond to. Any other stimuli that the
dog detects will be ignored, unless the other stimulus is very similar to the one the dog
has learned to respond to (stimulus generalization).

DIFFERENT THRESHOLD (DT):

This is the ability of the dog to detect slight changes or differences of stimuli (namely
scent/odor). The points at which the Different Thresholds occur are normally at a higher
level as compared to the Absolute Thresholds (AT). All sensing systems have the ability
to detect these differences. It is at this point in the olfactory realm that you will notice and
the dog will exhibit a change in behavior, where it is a turn of the head, a raised tail, the
ears are pushed forward, etc.

POINT OF SATURATION (PS):

Where the dog receives a maximum amount of stimulus (odor, sound, etc.) and can no
longer receive any additional stimulus then he is said to have reached the point of
saturation. An example of this would be if you had a lady sitting in your lap wearing
perfume, and another lady walked by wearing the same perfume you could not smell the
additional perfume of the second lady. This usually deals with the concentration levels of
the stimulus. In that the dog can no longer detect an increase or decrease in the
concentration of that stimulus. A properly trained combat dog should be trained to find
the stimulus (DT) and then the next higher level and the next until they reach the source
NOT the PS in order to receive the reward, i.e., apprehension, ball, etc. If the dog reaches
the PS, a certain amount of recovery time is needed before the dog is able to detect a
smaller amount of the stimulus. The greater amount of stimulus that the dog is exposed
directly relates to the length of the recovery time before the dog can detect a smaller
amount of the stimulus. Because of the recovery time need by the dog before he can
resume scenting (effective smelling), the point of saturation is detrimental to any dog
using his nose to perform a task.
Think of the dog’s nose as if it were a sponge. When it is dry or damp it is able to pick
up or retain more liquid. And when it reaches the point of dripping because it has
absorbed too much liquid that is the point of saturation. It is only when you wring out the
sponge that it is able to absorb any more or additional liquid.

CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR:
A marked or noticeable change in the dog's actions. An absolute threshold and a
different threshold that can be seen occurring by a change in the dogs behavior (notability
a motor function) is then referred to as a Change in Behavior. It is the change in behavior
that allows us to see into the dog’s sensory world, in that we can now tell when the dog
hears, smells or sees a suspected combatant hidden from us. Another term that can be
used to define the same actions is Just Noticeable Difference (JND); this refers to the just
noticeable difference (change) in the dog’s actions.

ASPECTS OF SCENT

SCENT CONE:
The point of origin or the source of the odor (suspected combatant) is the focal point and
the scent is distributed away from that point in a cone shaped manner as the wind and air
currents carry the odor away from that point they become distributed in a wider area
further from the suspected combatant. This concept is called the scent cone because it is
shaped like a cone or funnel with the source being at the smallest end. This scent cone
contains all of the scent particles and odor being produced by the source located at the
focal point.
Strong winds will produce narrow scent cones that have a very high concentration of
odor contained within a given area (1 sq. foot). With the high levels of odor contained in
this scent cone the odor can and will often travel further. Compare this to a mild breeze
where the scent cone will be wider. Even though the source (suspected combatant) is
producing the same amount of odor, this scent cone will have a much lower concentration
level of odor in the same given area (1 sq. foot) and the odor will not be carried as far in a
breeze.

A MILD BREEZE produces a wide

scent cone, with less scent per cubic
foot
A STRONG WIND produces a
narrow scent cone, with more scent
per cubic foot

WIND
The source of the scent is located here. The
Suspecte scent/odor is dispersed and carried downwind. If
d
pp
combata
the dog receives too much scent his olfactory
senses become overloaded – point of saturation.

nt PS

DT

DT

DT

AT AT
 SCENT PICTURE
The scent emitted from the source, in this case the suspected combatant, and left on the
ground makes up the scent picture. The dog develops a "mental picture" of the
combinations of scents that he is receiving and this is referred to as the scent picture. It
can best be understood this way: when you walk into a house and smell spaghetti
cooking, you smell spaghetti. When a dog walks in he smells wheat noodles, tomatoes,
garlic, etc. Like the spaghetti, the tracking scent picture is comprised of several different
scent sources.

1) Individual Scent (skin rafts and heavy human scent)

2) Reinforcing Scents
3) Ecological Scents

Individual scent consists of body odors and secretions that are unique to a particular
person. Each person's individual scent pattern is as different to that of another person’s
that is sometimes referred to as the unseen fingerprint. Reinforcing scents are scents that
reinforce or strengthen the elements of the individual scent. They may include the type of
material that the suspected combatants shoes are made of, the shoe polish used, after-
shave lotion, perfume, mouthwash, etc. Ecological scents are the scents that come from
the earth they may include, crushed or bruised grasses, the crust of the soil being
disturbed or broken open, broken branches, crushed insects/worms, etc. A more in depth
discussion of the tracking scent picture can be presented however; since there is a
difference in the manner that tracking dogs are trained there is also a difference in what
or how they work.

HUMAN SCENT
In order to abbreviate the studies of human scent and its composition we will only cover
two areas in a basic form, skin cells and sweat (secretions). It is a known and proven
scientific fact that all humans have a unique and individual chemical composition. A
person's chemical composition is the equivalent to that of a person's fingerprint. This can
be verified by reading Scientific American, June 1972 Markers of Biological
Individuality written by Reisfeld.

SWEAT / SECRETIONS
Glands on and in the skin contribute their secretions to the environment on the skin in
the form of what we call sweat. This is a combination of true sweat, oil, mucous, and
other secretions. Pure sweat is a very basic contributor to the individual body odors.
Sweat is discharged from the skin to aid the regulation of body temperature. The average
discharge of sweat by the average person under normal conditions in a 24 hour period is
between 31 and 50 ounces with the mean average being 40.5 ounces. The sweat
discharged is greatly influenced by the overall health of the skin and
environmental factors. Sweat is produced by 2 major types of sweat glands, the eccrine
sweat glands and the apocrine sweat glands.
The eccrine glands cover the entire human body, but is found a in larger
Concentrations on the forehead, palms, soles of the feet, and arm pits. The soles of the
feet produce most of the emotional eccrine sweat followed by the forehead, forearms, and
trunk of the body, upper arms, and finally the legs. The eccrine sweat is produced mainly
for heat regulation however; spicy foods will also cause its production. Eccrine sweat is a
weak saline solution (salt), and maybe produced in large quantities, as much as several
thousand cc’s per hour. The apocrine sweat glands are located at the base of the hair
follicles on the human head, the groin area, around the nipples and the armpits. The
apocrine sweat glands production is directly related to stresses, such as the stress induced
by the fear of being apprehended. This may be where the belief that a dog can "smell
fear" comes from. In order for the dog to have this ability you would have to exhibit a
great amount of fear.
The production of apocrine sweat in adults also varies. This is probably directly related
to the level of stress exhibited by different individuals in that experiences and
environment tend to determine emotional stress levels and tolerance. Seeing a bloody
crime scene is not stressful to most seasoned combat officers, but it is often stressful to
rookies. Additionally, young children and the elderly produce very little apocrine sweat.
Much of the offensive body odor produced by people is caused by the interaction of
apocrine sweat and bacteria. Other body secretions contribute a great deal too offensive
body odor as well. The respiratory tract and the genital/urinary areas of the body also
contribute greatly to the body odor problem as well. The lungs and the rest of the
respiratory tract are constantly shedding cells. Most of these cells are exhaled but some
are coughed up by way of mucous. Bad Breath is caused by high levels of bacterial
activity going on inside the mouth. The genital/urinary areas have a very high level
bacterial population as well. The odor from these areas has a very distinct odor of their
own; this is largely due to the high levels of bacteria which thrive in the warm and moist
apocrine sweat laden areas. Bacteria thrive in areas of the human body where the
temperature is between 98.6 degrees and 113.0 degrees. Refer to The Human Apocrine
Sweat Gland in Health and Disease, by Hurley, Shelly published by C.C. Thomas in 1960
and Human Perspiration, by Kuno also published by C.C. Thomas in 1956.

Location of Major Sweat Glands:

Eccrine Sweat Glands cover

the entire body

Emotional Eccrine
Foot
Sweat
- Apocrine Sweat
SKIN CELLS

Humans are made up of cells and vapors that are individual in nature through heredity,
diet, emotion, metabolism, environment, experience, and bacterial flora (odor). It is
through these individual indicators that a dog is able to tell the sex, age, and race of the
person emitting the skin cells. Cells within the human body have a definite life span, and
the epidermis (outer layer of skin) is constantly being shed. The body odor (a single odor
not combined with other odors to make scent), is produced by bacteria consuming the
dead skin cells, and body secretions. By breaking down the different secretions into
chemicals that we know to exist in the human body there are 6,227,020,800 different
combinations of scent. As these dead skin cells are shed from the body they are called
skin rafts.
The average skin raft is 14 microns or .014 mm in size, and weigh .07 microns or .
0000000245 ounces. They are shaped similar to a corn-flake allowing them the ability to
not only float but to increase their distance from the body. This is caused by air currents
and heat, much as a sail on a boat catches the wind and propels the boat or as the rising
heat keeps a bird aloft. The skin raft many be comprised of more than one skin cell. The
human skin surface has approximately 2 billion skin cells, of which 1/30 are being
replaced at any given point in time. This means that your body is shedding
40,000 dead skin cells each and every minute. As these 40,000 skin cells are being shed
they produce scent, as they have acquired odors from the body's individual secretions.
They will continue to produce scent as long as the nutrients and moisture from the skin
cells last. As the skin rafts are being shed they are carried away from the body by a
natural current of air.

Without any air flow skin cells fall close to

the body, while skin rafts fall out and around
in a cone shape.

This natural air current is created by the body's own heat, the estimated speed of the air
current is 125 feet per minute or 1.42 mph. Heavy exercise or strenuous work combined
with the loosening of clothes will add to the velocity. Applying water and soap to the skin
will decrease the scent but will actually increase the shedding of the skin cells. Refer to
Life on Human Skin by Marples, Scientific American 1969 and The Skin by Oakland
Univ. of Washington., School of Medicine, 1971.

The average natural wind speed coming off of the

human body is 1.42 MPH. Due to the body's
production of heat and the shape of the body.

CONDITIONS EFFECTING HUMAN SCENT

The body's natural air current is the means of transportation that introduces the skin rafts
to the world. Wind, temperature, and humidity affect them. A clear example of this is that
the temperature of the human body is 98.6 degrees and this temperature can cause a flake
of dandruff (that is visible to the naked eye) to rise above your head 2 to 3 feet. How high
could a skin raft be propelled by that same temperature? If we used the same flake of
dandruff carried upward by the 98.6 temperature. Then added a cross wind of 1 mph, that
flake of dandruff would be carried approximately 100 feet away from the body.
Often inexperienced handlers will try and determine wind conditions that their dogs will
be working in, chest high above the ground. You will see some wet their fingers, watch
bushes and trees; some will even light a lighter and watch the flame flicker. While these
are good indicators of the general wind direction, they tell us nothing about what they
dog will be experiencing at his level, in the way of velocity, turbulence, updrafts or even
temperature. There was an experiment in England involving temperature and wind
conditions close to the ground. In this experiment it was discovered that during the day at
the ground the temperature was 111degrees, one inch above the ground it was 94 degrees,
at twelve inches it was 80 degrees, and at forty eight inches it was in the upper sixties.
After the sun set the ground temperature was 55 degrees, at twelve inches it was 85
degrees.
If we considered how the skin rafts weighing only .0000000245 ounces would respond
to this turbulent situation, we might have a different view as to how our dogs work scent.
Now when we add a natural cross wind, then we might begin to see where dogs begin to
pick up the scent. As the cross wind would carry the skin rafts great distances and into
many different places. The heavier skin rafts would naturally fall closer to the body and
the lighter ones would travel further away. The closer the skin rafts approach the ground
the more they are affected by the updrafts, vegetation, and other turbulence. The best way
to watch the wind conditions is by watching smoke generated at ground level. You
should set off smoke bombs in various locations and near different obstructions during
random times of the day to watch and study the effects.

WIND

There are several factors that you should consider when you attempt to consider the
effects of temperature and wind on skin rafts. First is the ground temperature (dirt, grass,
concrete, wooden floors, etc.,) and their heating and cooling rate as compared to the air.
Air of course being lighter, responds much quicker to the temperature. During an area
search in the early morning hours the sun strikes the ridges sooner than the valleys
between hills. This will cause the scent to travel upward from the valleys and
depressions. Thereby making it more practical that you first work your dog along the
high points in an attempt to pick up scent. In the evening hours when the sun is high in
the sky the sun’s rays are more focused in the valleys and depressions, thereby causing
the wind to shift toward the valley and depressions. With the shift in the wind the skin
rafts will shift direction along with it, making valleys and depressions more productive
areas to work. This reversal process normally occurs around 3 to 4 p.m., depending on
the region.

Effects of Temperature

During an area search in the early morning hours the sun strikes the higher points sooner
than it will the lower points. This creates an updraft from the low area.

During an area search in the afternoon and evening hours, the ground is cooling in the
higher points sooner than lower ground. This creates a down draft in the lower area.

Inside a building, examine the building materials used in its construction. Block and
concrete walls and floors will radiate more temperature (cooler or warmer) than wooden
walls and floors. Rooms that contain a lot of windows will be warmer and will cause the
scent to rise faster.

The ground temperature also affects the updraft of skin rafts due to the fact that heat
rises. The warmer the ground temperature the more updraft that will be produced.

98 DEGREES AT 6 FEET (normal height used to measure temp.)

72 deg 78 deg 84 deg 87 deg 101 deg

18” grass 6” grass 4” grass Dirt Pavement
 During cooler days with a high humidity there will be a vapor barrier 2 to 3 feet above
the ground and the scent (skin rafts will have a hard time breaking through. High
humidity causes the skin rafts to become surrounded by a layer of moist vapor which will
prolong their life span, whereby allowing them to travel further. It is during conditions
like these that floating scent is called airborne scent. It becomes trapped in the moist
vapor lock 2 to 3 feet above the ground and being contained within the moist vapor vessel
will travel further in the air currents and live longer. Refer to The Secret Cloud that
Surrounds Us, by Doyle in Family Health 1970 and Thermobiology, by Rose in
Academic Press 1967.
Heat will have a distinct effect on the life span of the skin rafts. Skin rafts can only
produce scent when the bacteria is alive and consuming the dead skin cells. Remember
the bacteria must have a moist environment in which to live along with a food source.
Scent ceases to exist when the skin cells become dried out, causing the environment that
the bacteria needs, to be destroyed, or the food source is depleted by its self. If the skin
rafts become frozen they will also stop producing scent at that time. They will however,
begin to start producing scent once they become thawed out.
Wind and air currents will greatly affect where your dog will be able to locate viable
amounts of scent.

EXAMPLES OF HOW WIND EFFECTS SKIN RAFTS

The arrows indicate the track direction. The
flow of the skin rafts is indicated by the
shaded areas. *Note the skin rafts are blown
downwind and along the track.
You will notice that the skin rafts
(scent) are blown downwind.
When the wind blows against the
track at an angle this may present
problems for the dog in working
turns that turn into or against the
wind.

With a crosswind the skin rafts are

blown across and downwind of the
actual tracks. Special attention
should be given to acute angles and
back tracks.
Notice how the skin rafts (scent)
are blown downwind. When the
wind blows against the track at an
angle this may present problems for
the dog in working turns which are
into or against the wind.

As the skin rafts are disbursed away from the body they will strike various objects such
as bushes, buildings, hill tops, etc., as they strike these objects they are compelled to do
go either over, around, under, or through the object. If the object they strike is not very
dense they may be able to pass through it to a certain degree. Any time the scent cone
strikes an object there will be an effect on it, it may be split into several smaller scent
cones, it may forced into a smaller area thereby causing the concentration level to
increase, etc. Depending on the shape of the object (aerodynamics) a swirling effect or an
area that contains no scent may be produced behind the object, this would be on the
downwind side of the object. In the case of a large solid object there will be a dead area
down wind, this is merely an area down wind that contains no scent but has scent in the
area around it. A low laying hill will cause a swirling effect; you will also have a swirling
effect in the corners of rooms where two walls meet, where the walls and ceiling meet,
where the floor and walls meet. Outside you can count on having a swirl when you have
two or more air currents (winds) collide from two or more different angles, these swirls
will be just behind the collision area and to the sides.

TYPES OF SCENTS
Ecological Scent
As stated before the ecological or ground scent is produced when something or
someone disturbs the ground and those things on the ground. There are two
factors that come into play in a very short time after the ground is disturbed, in
this case by people. These two factors are:

1) The release of vegetative fluids

2) Bacterial decomposition of plant cells and the soil

These occur at virtually the same time and at the same place. The vegetative fluids and
the decomposition are produced where the foot strikes the ground. However, the odors
produced do not continue for the same length of time, nor are they of the same intensity
and each has its own chemical consistency.

Vegetative Fluids
Vegetative fluids are the fluids released from the plant life that has been damaged by
someone stepping on them or breaking their branches as they passed by. These fluids
produce an odor that is unique to that particular plant or grass. The odors produced are
vaporous in nature thereby, the odors are short lived. We know that the odors are released
almost immediately, the intensity of the odors rise quickly, and they diminish in a very
short time period.

Vegetative Odors
The released fluids and the dead/dying plant cells are prone to the bacteria in and on the
soil. In this I mean that the length of time that the odor is produced is subject to the
amount of bacteria that it comes in contact with on the ground. The amount of bacteria
found on the soil will depend on two conditions: the temperature, and the moisture level
as with all types of bacteria.
Vegetative odor will normally peak in intensity approximately 15 minutes after being
released. From 30 minutes to 1 hour they diminish greatly, but they start to intensify
drastically at 1 1/2 hours. The amount of vegetative odor begins maximum production in
the 2 hour range and doesn't start to diminish until 8 hours from when the process began.
In the beginning stages of decomposition of the plant protein, oxygen is needed for
decomposition to take place. In the latter stages of decomposition or putrification of the
plant cells, no oxygen is needed by the bacteria. Ammonia is produced by the
decomposition, which in turn is converted to nitrogen compounds. It is these strong
chemicals that actually intensify the odor.
Although discussions have been presented concerning human scent and vegetative
odors produced by someone walking on them, a discussion of non–vegetative surfaces
need to be examined as well.

SURFACE EFFECTS

Non–Vegetative Surfaces
Hard surface tracking produces its own unique problems and situations. Since we
know that in this day and age of paved roads the chances are that our suspected
combatants will most likely cross at least one paved road. For this reason we must also
examine hard surface tracking, and how these surfaces affect the dog.
Hard surfaces such as asphalt and concrete do not support bacterial growth and
development. As our suspected combatants cross these surfaces they will continue to
drop and disburse skin rafts. But because there is nothing for the skin rafts to cling to they
are disbursed differently than if they were dropped on or in grass, bushes, etc.
Additionally, because there is nothing present to shade them or provide them moisture
they are very short lived.
When these hard surfaces are hot and dry, they may have even lost their vapor barrier,
which may cause the skin rafts to die before they strike the ground. However, you have to
remember that everything may be present except for moisture. If there is dew present or a
light misting rain, then the cells and bacteria will become rehydrated. Once or if this
occurs then the scent will start being produced again. The process of being dehydrated
and re-hydrated can continue for quite some time as long as they are not exposed to
ultraviolet rays (or at least until the food source is depleted). This decay rate of the skin
rafts and vegetative odors are relative to the temperature and humidity. Some broken or
rough surfaces will support the life of the bacteria for some time. Refer to Life of
Bacteria, by Thimann published by MacMillian.
The most productive areas on hard surfaces such as streets (roads with curbs) and roads
are the fringe areas. A fringe area is the area where the street or road meets the
surrounding land surfaces. In short this means the areas that contain the curbing and area
where the grass begins. Although the curbing is also a hard surface a wind blowing along
the track will push and hold the skin rafts in this area. The same is true of where the grass
begins with the addition of two factors: shade and moisture. These are two things that the
bacteria need in order to remain alive long enough to consume the skin cells. When your
dog is presented with the problem of working a track that parallels or crosses a road,
work him in the fringe areas. Other productive areas would be almost any shaded areas
such as alongside of buildings in alleys and around any object that would most likely trap
scent.
Although snow is not a major concern here in the southeastern U.S. I will address it just
in case. By the fact that snow is cold the bacterial rate or activity rate is greatly slowed
down. This means that there will be less scent available on snow covered ground as
compared to bare ground. There is a significant difference in the temperature between the
body and the snow; this will increase the body’s air current. This in turn will cause the
skin rafts to be disbursed further from the body. There are essentially three types of snow
and each has a different effect on scent.
1) Dry/Loose Snow – Has a lot of gaps which allow the vapor and the skin rafts
to escape and rise to the surface.
2) Packed Snow - Will normally only the vapor to escape thereby reducing the
amount of available scent.
3) Wet Snow - Has a tendency to turn the vapor into a solution which is then
absorbed into the snow itself.

When the track has been laid on bare ground and then covered by snow it may be
difficult for your dog to follow unless he has had proficiency training doing so. A more
productive solution would be (if possible) to wait until the snow starts to melt during the
mid-afternoon. The melting snow will produce water, which will help to enhance the
scent. A track that has become frozen will not contain any available scent. The ice
surrounds the skin rafts and bacteria, locking them inside. Frozen objects of almost any
nature will not produce any scent or odor. However, the scent of the track will reappear
when the ice begins to thaw.

Populated Areas
Tracking through populated areas is this single most demanding task a tracking dog
team will be faced with. As a result, you and your dog must receive extensive exposure to
this type of tracking requirement. Before starting this phase of training you and your dog
must be proficient in being able to locate and follow unknown tracks over various
surfaces and obstacles for a minimum distance of 3 miles and 2 hours old.
You can start this phase of training in playgrounds, around new construction sites, etc.
two to three hours after they have been occupied. People, traffic, loud noises, foreign
odors, and other domesticated animals can distract your dog. Because of these factors
you as the handler need to be competent before you begin this training phase. As with the
previous training you should start your dog on hot known tracks so that you can assist
your dog with any distractions such as cross tracks, etc. It is very important to maintain
the high level of desire and motivation in your dog. You have to show the dog that he can
work through all of the distractions and find the suspected combatant.
As with all phases of your dog’s training this especially needs to be fun and enjoyable,
completely positive in nature with as little stress added as possible. To help the dog deal
with this very complex task, start the dog on a track in a situation that he knows and
enjoys. Just outside of the contaminated area and have the track cross a small
contaminated area and resume outside of the contaminated area. Remember to build drive
and MOTIVATE your dog. Dogs are like people they excel in things that they enjoy.

Aged Tracks

Although most tracks that you will be required to work your dog on will be relatively
fresh tracks. If you are lucky, or unlucky, you and your dog will work a HOT track, but
this will be a rare event; I say unlucky from the dog's perspective. An examination of
how the age of the track affects the dog is in order. This examination will be covered in
four parts:
1) Vegetative Odor
2) Skin Rafts Carried Away from the Suspected combatant
3) Human Scent Left Near the Track
4) Combined Scents/Odors

Vegetative Odor
As previously stated the odor produced by broken vegetation and disturbed dirt first
peaks at about 15 minutes and declines at about 30 minutes, and peaks again roughly 1
1/2 to 2 hours after the track is laid. From approximately 2 hours after the track is made
the vegetative odor slowly declines until approximately 8 1/2 hours after the track was
made. At this point the vegetative odor begins a decline down to approximately 15
hours, and then levels off around 16 hours from the start.
Skin Rafts
The skin rafts produced by the suspected combatant running are carried away from the
suspected combatant, and produce an even amount of scent until 20 minutes at which
time it increases and has a peak production of scent at approximately 1 hour. This level
of scent production is maintained (this level is slightly less than the peak vegetative odor
production at 1 1/2 to 2 hour mark) until approximately 1 1/2 hours after the track was
started. The human scent production starts a slow decline until it begins to level off 8
hours after the track was started and continues this level for approximately another 8
hours.

Human Scent
There is always a certain amount of human scent (very heavy skin rafts) that remains on
or very near the actual track. As with all skin rafts they produce an even amount of scent
up to 20 minutes. However, unlike air airborne skin rafts they peak in their scent
production at approximately 8 hours and continue until after 16 hours. Therefore, the
human scent located on or very near the actual track last longer and production is higher
than the air airborne skin rafts. Human scent left on or near the track closely resembles
the production levels of vegetative odor production. Which are combined to make the dog
work closer to the actual track.

Scents/Odors
Other than the spike in vegetative odor production between 15 and 30 minutes, human
scent and skin raft generated scent is produced at a higher level than vegetative odor at
the onset. However, the highest skin raft production at about 1hour is still slightly less
than the highest vegetative odor production at 1 1/2 to 2 hours. Skin raft scent production
diminishes faster and sooner than does the vegetative odor production, which only starts
to decline again at approximately 8 ½ hours. And it is at this time approximately 8 hours
that the human scent (near the track) is at its highest production level. This relative
obscure fact in founded on the conditions of bacterial function and life span. In that we
know that in order to survive bacteria must have food, moisture, and shade. If the bacteria
have these three elements it produces odors and scent. If you remove any of the three
elements for a short time odor and scent production ceases. However, if you provide the
missing element, production of odor/scent will begin again. If you remove all three or any
one for an extended time the bacteria will die.

Man Tracking

Man tracking or visual tracking is the tracking of a quarry without the aid of a dog.
Since you and your dog work as a team, tracking should also be a team effort. You need
to learn how to assist your dog during the track. However, the most important thing that
you must always remember to do is Trust your dog!
This information is presented to help you learn how to properly assist your dog in
maintaining the integrity of the track as evidence.
 Signs are the tell-tell marks made on the ground or disturbances of vegetation made by
a person or animal. Signs are the essence of man tracking. The important factors that
influence signs and the man tracker's ability to follow the track are:

1) Terrain and the types of vegetation

2) Climate (what season is it)
3) Weather (rain, sunlight, wind, etc)
4) Age (how old is the track)
5) Tracker’s ability

There are two types of signs: ground sign and top sign. The distinction between the two
is the height of the sign. This is easily determined, is the sign above or below the knees.
Any sign below the knees is considered ground sign, and anything above is top sign.
Young plants that have been stepped on or bent over, bruised, scraped vegetation,
footprints, boot marks, broken twigs, disturbed leaves, overturned rocks, etc are all
ground signs. Ground signs are typical of things that people think of when they think of
Indians tracking the cowboys. As people walk through areas that contain underbrush of
varying heights, they must either pass through it or brush against it. These actions have a
tendency to alter the natural position of the plant life. Top signs usually appear in the way
of, broken branches and twigs, scratches on tree trunks, changes in the natural position of
vegetation (The underside of leaves are lighter than the tops).

Tracking Tips and Other Related Information

Useful to the Tracking Dog Handler

#1) A slow steady rain actually enhances the scent, as does the early
morning dew, cool nights or days and high humidity.
#2) A distinctive difference in odor change (not scent) may be indicated by
your dog sneezing.
#3) Be watchful for the point of saturation (scent overload), the dog can not
effectively work the scent or any additional scent.
#4) The running suspected combatant, creates an easier track for the dog to follow and
 the suspected combatant will leave more visual sign.
#5) Age of the track, weather, terrain, and contamination all effect the scent
picture.
#6) A cold day/night prolongs the life of the scent unless the temperature drops 20
degrees or more to the point of freezing. When the temperature warms and the area
warms the scent will reappear.
#7) A track laid on frost will cause the scent to disappear and will remain
lost until the frost or ice thaws, at that time the scent will reappear.
#8) Using a long line (at least 40 feet) will enable the dog to work the scent
better and at his own pace without any handler interference.
#9) In order to maintain the dog’s ability you must conduct proficiency
training.
#10) Older tracks (aged) help keep the dog’s nose down and working closer
to the track, as an aged track contains less air airborne scent/odor.
#11) A fresh (hot) track contains large amounts of scent. This has
the effect of raising the dog’s nose and the dog will have a tendency to
work downwind of the track.
#12) Be aware of visual and audio distractions (contamination) as well as
odor contamination.
#13) Fresh human scent will saturate the area and develop a scent pool
where the suspected combatant was stopped and hiding.
#14) If you and your dog develop problems on the track, go back to running
training tracks and backup in the training process.
#15) Use hot spots to increase the motivation and drive in your dog. You can also use
scented cloth articles on the track to increase motivation.
#16) Have your tracklayer touch certain items along the track and leave you
signs. This ensures that you will know where the track is located and the signs will
build your confidence in the dog.
#17) When the track is lost due to a change in ground cover (roads, fences,
etc.) take your dog to the other side and have him circle downwind
until it is relocated.
#18) If your dog loses the track have him circle at the point where he lost
the track. THEN, have him circle downwind as the scent will be
carried to him.
#19) Do not talk too much to the dog WHILE he is working, it has the tendency to
distract him much like a nagging spouse distracts you.
#20) Running unknown tracks will help you learn to read your dog. To
know what he is doing and why.
#21) Fences, logs, roads, etc. are mental barriers, only to you, learn to work
these obstacles. Have the dog circle the area if he has lost the track and
TRUST YOUR DOG.
#21) Dogs commonly plateau about a month after you start training, so go
back and run easy known tracks during the period.
#22) Dogs are naturally flushers, they have a tendency to use their eyes first,
then their ears, and lastly their nose.
#23) Lavishly praise your dog and use an additional reward at the end of
each track. *NOTE*– if you use a bite at the end of each track the dog
will expect a bite at the end of all tracks whether it is required or not. This will also
 create problems as the dog will begin to try and use sight instead of his nose.
#24) Do not use the dog's name or talk to your dog in an excited tone of
voice while he is working it has a tendency to be a distraction to him.
#25) Watch the wind direction, be mindful of what the wind is doing, what direction it is
coming from and where it is going. Learn to trust your dog and then follow his
nose, NOT what you think – trust your dog’s nose.
#26) When you are working a track for another department, have them
provide you with additional backup; they should know the area.
#27) Remember your tactics, as the suspected combatant(s) can hear and see you long
before you can see them, especially in wooded areas.
#28) On night tracks try NOT to use your flashlight any more than is
necessary. Using it, or bells on your dog, is a tactical nightmare.
#29) Do not develop Tunnel Vision, keep watching the surrounding area for
your suspected combatant(s).
#30) From time to time allow your dog to find the tracklayer up in a tree.
#31) Carry water for you and your dog.
#32) Make as little noise as possible– use your lapel mike whenever
possible.
#33) Do not allow your backup officer to get in front of you unless, he is
going to handcuff the suspected combatant or take a tactical position.
#34) Avoid talking to your backup officer above a whisper.
#35) Check all of your equipment before starting on the track, this includes
your weapons.
#36) Be alert and expect the unexpected.

SELF TEST
The following is a self-test. It is designed to assist you in determining what areas you
need to study. All of the answers to these questions are located within this text.

1) Define scent pool?

2) What is the Point Last Seen (PLS)?

3) What is a skin raft comprised of?

4) How many major sweat glands are on the body and what are the two types?

5) Why is it important to maintain training records on tracks (actual and training) you
and your dog have conducted?

6) In order to maintain the dog’s ability to track, you must, according to CCTA, conduct
proficiency training a minimum of how many hours each week?

7) Ecological scent is…?

8) Will frost effect the scent on a track? Explain

9) What are the three elements of the scent picture?

10) How many dead skin cells are shed by the human body each minute?

11) What is the single most important drive used in training a tracking dog?

12) What should you do if your dog loses the track after crossing a road?

13) What is the most important (naturally occurring) thing you have to be aware of when
tracking?

14) List the 3 elements of the “Scent Picture” ?

15) Reading your dog is very important. What is the other thing that you MUST learn
how to do?

16) Define Different Threshold.

17) What items will effect human scent?

18) Why are older (aged) tracks easier for a dog to work that fresher tracks?

19) Skin Rafts are made up of what two things?

20) What are some things that can happen when the surface you are tracking on changes?

21) When vegetative matter (grass, etc) is crushed this causes the initial peak in odor
production, what item combines with the vegetative matter to produce the second and
final peak in scent production?

22) Human scent is one (1) aspect of the scent picture for the dog, where is this part of the
scent picture found?

23) Where would you expect to find skin rafts?