Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The impedance relay measures the system current and Figure 1: Basic network illustrating ratios
voltage, applies basic assumptions and attempts to accurately
detect and react on a power system fault condition. The At any particular location in a balanced power system network
assumptions include: (no fault connected), with the network cut in half at this
location, the Thevenin equivalents can be obtained in both
directions. This is referred to as forward and reverse Thevenin
• zero fault resistance,
equivalent directions (thereby also introducing directionality to
• perfect earth fault compensation the SWIR ratio).
• perfect replica measurements of voltages and currents
• perfect applied impedance relay characteristic, all of If we obtain the Thevenin equivalent impedance values in each
which do not necessarily hold in a practical power system. direction (forward and reverse at the location specified), using
symmetrical component impedance values (positive-, negative-
It is necessary that the faulted and healthy characteristics and zero-sequence impedance circuits respectively), and
accurate. If incorrect, the healthy phase impedance dividing the forward over reverse Thevenin equivalent values,
we obtain the Impedance Ratio SWIR.
2
• Positive sequence
SWIR comprises of three different ratios namely, positive-,
negative- and zero sequence impedance ratios. • Loop impedance plane
where I N = I A + I B + IC
In a balanced system, no neutral current will flow and the Note that the magnitudes of the impedance measurements are
measured impedance becomes a simple ratio of V/I [3]. Slight comparable and relatively “close” to each other.
variations exist in different relays for the earth fault
compensation factor and its implementation. The aim is to b) Symmetrical component currents not equal
improve the positive sequence impedance measurement under
different conditions. Typically variations in impedance If we make the assumption I1=I2 and vary I0 while measuring
measurements from the generic formula tend to improve the impedance
faulted phase measurement but may degrade the healthy phase
measurement performance (refer to case study). For this condition, we find that IW is equal to IB, which in
effect means that the measurement ZWB will always be infinite.
I1=I2
B. NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology is understood as the complete network in
geographical terms (including symmetrical impedance values,
phase shift components, generation sources, shunt paths, etc.). Zw (Io< I1) Zrw
Zb (Io< I1)
Zbr
To study the effect of network topology in impedance
Zr
measurements of a protection relay, a reverse approach was
Z(im )
• At the relay location, determine the forward Thevenin Venus-Georgedale line z+={0.00933,0.05820
impedance (both the }
positive sequence equivalent impedance, Z(F+).
same) zo={0.06236,0.20447}
• Determine SWIR and SIR at the relay location and in the
forward direction. z+={0.00138,0.01151
A. Georgedale- }
• Determine SNIR+ at the relay location. Klaarwater line zo={0.01178,0.0408}
• From the impedance protection relay settings, determine impedance
the value of Kn (earth fault compensation factor, normally Klaarwater Source z+={0.00783,0.01634
in the range between 0.6 and 1.3). impedance }
• From the graph, start on the x-axis utilising the determined zo={0.00299,0.02038}
SWIR or SIR and read from the appropriate Kn curve the 100 MVA base and 275kV system voltage used as reference (base on per unit values)
associated y-axis value or “Rx”.
• Use this y-axis value “Rx” and determine the maximum
resistive reach recommended. • For our particular network, SWIR+ is equal to 0.41.
• Earth fault compensation factor set on the relay was
V. CASE STUDY Kn=0.9
For this case study, the developed guidelines are applied. • The system ratios SNIRF and SNIRR are 2.5 and 3.5
During a single phase to earth reverse fault on the Venus- respectively (select the average between SNIRF and
Georgedale feeder, approximately 10% from Georgedale, the SNIRR, thus select SNIR+=3 as it is more appropriate).
Georgedale, Klaarwater protection relay operated in zone 1 for • Comparison with the meshed network guideline (with
the reverse fault. The positive sequence impedance plane plot SNIR+=3) we can see that Rx = 0.55.
as shown in Figure 4, indicates that the healthy phase • The recommended resistive reach can be derived as
measurement Zbg (as seen by the impedance relay) caused the follow:
incorrect operation.
R(reach)< Rx * Z(F+)
< 0.55*(0.018+0.011) per unit
Venus Georgedale Klaarwater
< 0.55*0.029 per unit
< 0.016 per unit
<0.016*756.3 Ω (pos. seq.)
< 12 Ω (pos. seq.)
R-g Fault Relay
If a safety margin of 20% is added, the positive sequence
Figure 4: Georgedale, Klaarwater 275kV network impedance reach recommended is 9.6 ohm (positive
sequence).
20.0
VI. CONCLUSION
15.0
VII. REFERENCES
[1] E. Stokes-Waller, “Automated Protection Performance Analysis from
Digital Fault Recordings on the Eskom Transmission System”, Cigre
Fourth International Southern African Conference, 2001
[2] E. Stokes-Waller and P. Keller, “Power Network And Protection
Performance Analysis On The Eskom Transmission System Based On
Digital Fault Records”, Southern African Power System Protection
Conference, 1998
[3] Directional Element Design and Evaluation, Jeff Roberts and Armando
Guzman, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories Inc., SEL Webpage,
1994,1995
VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
Raj Naidoo received the Bachelor’s degree from the University of Natal,
Durban, South Africa, in 1995, the Master’s degree from the University of
Witwatersrand, Gauteng, South Africa, in 2000, and is currently pursuing a
Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering at the University of Cape Town, South
Africa. From June 1997 to May 2002 he was with ESKOM. His interests
include Power System Stability and Power Quality. He is currently a Senior
Lecturer at the University of Pretoria.
IX. APPENDIX A
MESHED-NETWORK (SNIR+ = 3)
1
Kn=0.5
0.9
0.8
Kn=0.7
0.7
resistive reach as multiples of Z(F+)
Maximum positive sequence
0.6
Kn=0.9
0.5
Rx
Kn=1.1
Kn=1.3 Kn=0.5
0.4
Kn=1.5
Kn=0.7
0.3
Kn=0.9
Kn=1.1
0.2
Kn=1.3
Kn=1.5
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Abs (SWIR+)
X.
Note: Maximum positive sequence resistance reach (at angle 30 degrees) is presented using generic
formula
7
RADIAL NETWORK
4.5
Kn=0.5
4
3.5
Maximum positive sequence resistive reach
3
Kn=0.7
as multiple of Z(F+)
2.5
Kn=0.9
Rx
2
Kn=1.1
Kn=1.3
1.5
Kn=1.5
Kn=0.5
1
Kn=0.7
Kn=0.9
Kn=1.1
0.5 Kn=1.3
Kn=1.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
SNIR+
XI.
Note: Maximum positive sequence resistance reach (at angle 30 degrees) is presented using generic
formula