Master of Business Administration – MBA Semester 3

MB0034 Research Methodology - 3 Credits

BKID: B0800
Assignment Set- 1
60 Marks
Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.

Q1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types
of research, explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c)
Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research. (10 marks).

a) Exploratory Research

i) Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not
been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design,
data collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions
only with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.

ii) Briefly the examples of research methods are in the literature search,
experience survey, focus group, analysis of selected cases.

iii) Examples for literature search includes

Example 1: A TV manufacturing company feels that its market share is declining

whereas the overall television industry is doing very well.

Example 2: Due to a trade embargo imposed by a country, textiles exports are down and
hence sales of a company making garment for exports is on the decline.

The above information may be used to pinpoint the reason for declining sales.

iv) Examples for experience survey includes

Examples :

1) A group of housewives may be approached for their choice for a “ready to cook
product”.

2) A publisher might want to find out the reason for poor circulation of newspaper
introduced recently. He might meet (a) Newspaper sellers (b) Public reading room (c)
General public (d) Business community; etc.

These are experienced persons whose knowledge researcher can use.

v) Focus group examples include

In a focus group, a small number of individuals are brought together to study and talk
about some topic of interest. The discussion is co-ordinated by a moderator. The group
usually is of 8-12 persons. While selecting these persons, care has to be taken to see
that they should have a common background and have similar experiences in buying.
This is required because there should not be a conflict among the group members on
the common issues that are being discussed. During the discussion, future buying
attitudes, present buying opinion etc., are gathered

vi) Analysis of selected cases

Analysing a selected case sometimes gives an insight into the problem which is being
researched. Case histories of companies which have undergone a similar situation may
be available. These case studies are well suited to carry out exploratory research.
However, the result of investigation of case histories arc always considered suggestive,
rather than conclusive

b) Descriptive research

Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomena to describe “what exists” with respect to variables or conditions in a
situation. The methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo,
the correlation study which investigates the relationship between variables, to
developmental studies which seek to determine changes over time.

Descriptive Research Methods

1. Case Studies

Detailed analysis of a single (or limited number) of people or events. Case studies are
usually interesting because of the unusualness of the case .The major problem with
case studies is the problem of objectivity. The person who is presenting the case
usually has some theoretical orientation. It is acceptable for a theoretical orientation to
affect one’s interpretation of events. In a case study the theoretical orientation can also
lead to the selection of the facts to include in the case. It is not surprising that case
studies often seem to provide very compelling evidence for a theory. Case studies can
therefore assist psychology by illustrating how a theory could be applied to a person or
events and by assisting with the development of hypotheses for more systematic testing.

2. Observational Research

Accounts of the natural behavior of individuals or groups in some setting. Unless the
observation is unobtrusive, there may be some subject reactivity to being observed.
This often decreases with time, a process called habituation. Observers cannot usually
observe all behaviors all of the time. They may use a behavioral checklist and may also
use time sampling or event sampling procedures. It is important to assess observer bias
by the use of interobserver reliability. Observational research may also pose ethical
problems. These can arise when the behaviors being observed are not public behaviors
and when the observer joins a group in order to observe the members’ behavior –
participant observation.
3. Survey Research

Structured questions to assess peoples beliefs, attitudes, and self-reports of behavior. If

the researcher wishes to generalize the responses to a population, it is important to have
a representative sample. Surveys that rely on self-selection (respond if you are
interested) produce non-generalizable results. Surveys also provide information for co
relational research. One can correlate responses to some questions (often demographic
questions) with responses to other questions (often attitudes or reports of behavior).
Survey question must be clear and unambiguous. Even if the questions are
unambiguous and non-leading, people may display a social desirability bias and give
positive or socially acceptable and desirable answers. Survey methods include: (1) the
interview or face-to-face method which is generally viewed as the best method for
obtaining a high rate of responses but is also very costly; (2) phone surveys, which are
less expensive but have a higher non-response rate (which has probably increased with
caller ID); and (3) written or mail surveys, which are least expensive but have a very high
non-response rate. Follow-up messages can help increase the response rate.

4. Archival Research

Analysis of pre-existing data or records. Archival research often involves content

analysis, a qualitative analysis of material. For example, one would use content analysis
to determine whether there had been an increase in the frequency with which women
and minorities were mentioned in US history books between 1920 and 2000. Some
archival research is quasi-experimental.

Q 2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a)
Null and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one
tailed test d) Parametric and non parametric tests. (10 marks).

Ans. In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk null and alternative hypothesis. If
we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on
the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as
null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior, it is
alternative hypothesis. Symbolically presented as:

Null hypothesis = H0 and Alternative hypothesis = Ha

Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the
hypothesis mean (µ H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypotheses are that the
population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolical we can express
as: H0: µ= µ H0=100
If our sample results do not support these null hypotheses, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then
we are accepting Ha. For H0: µ= µ H0=100, we may consider three possible alternative
hypotheses as follows:
Alternative
Hypothesis To be read as follows

(The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not

equal to 100 i.e., it may be more or less 100)
Ha: µ≠µ H0
(The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is
greater than 100)
Ha: µ>µ H0
(The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is less
than 100)
Ha: µ< µ H0
The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is
drawn (the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypothesis from the data he
collects and testing the hypothesis from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis,
the following considerations are usually kept in view:

• Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which wishes to prove and the null
hypothesis are ones that wish to disprove. Thus a null hypothesis represents the
hypothesis we are trying to reject, the alternative hypothesis represents all other
possibilities.
• If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk,
it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is
true is α (the level of significance) which is chosen very small.
• Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state
about or approximately a certain value.
• Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis,
keeping the alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on
assumption that null hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to
different possible sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with
alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis (at times also known as
statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.

Concepts of Hypothesis Testing

Basic concepts in the context of testing of hypothesis need to be explained.

The Level of Significance

This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some
percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In
case we take the significance level at 5%, then this implies that H0 will be rejected when
the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring
if H0 is true. In other words, the 5% level of significance means that researcher is willing
to take as much as 5% risk rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true.
Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it
is true and is usually determined in advance before testing the
Decision Rule of Test of Hypothesis:
Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis H0 we make rule which is known as
decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e., accept a).
For instance, if (H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items in it)
against Ha that the lot is not good (there are many defective items in it), that we must
decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis. We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there
are none or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will
reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort of basis is known as decision rule.

Type I & Type II Errors

In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors that
researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept H0 when it is not
true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other words, Type
I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted & Type II error
means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is donated
by α (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error is donated by
β(beta).
Decision

Accept H0 Reject H0
Correct decision Type I error (α error)
H0 (true)
Type II error (β error) Correct decision
Ho (false)
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the
level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there
are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I
error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the
maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01.
But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of
committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced
simultaneously. There is a trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide the
appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both
types of errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals
that should have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a chance that an
entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a
situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an
entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a
situation one should prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for
type I error in one’s testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of
hypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between
Type I & Type II error.

Two Tailed Test & One Tailed Test

In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be
clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean
is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the population.
Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0: µ= µ H0 and Ha: µ≠µ H0 which may µ>µ H0 or
µ<µ H0. If significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied, the probability of
the rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0.025) and that of
the acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates
significantly from µ, in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are
situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be
used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean in either lower than or
higher than some hypothesized value

Q 3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship and correlation, with an

example of each. What are the possible reasons for a correlation between two
variables? ( 10 marks).

Ans. Correlation Analysis

Economic and business variables are related. For instance, demand and supply of a
commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls.
Demand for a commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand and price are
inversely related or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity when
its price rises. Supply of the commodity decreases when its price falls. We say supply
and price are directly related or positively co-related. Thus, correlation indicates the
relationship between two such variables in which changes in the value of one variable is
accompanies with a change in the value of other variable.
According to L.R. Connor, “if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that movements
in the one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the other(s) they are
said to be correlated”.
W.I. King defined “Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there
exists some casual connection”.
The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of relationship
between two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which studies the
relationship between two variables. If two variables are said to be correlated, change in
the value of one variable result in a corresponding change in the value of other variable.
Heights and weights of a group of people, age of husbands and wives etc., are
examples of bi-variant data that change together.
Correlation and Causation
Although, the term correlation is used in the sense of mutual dependence of two or more
variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause and effect relation. Even a high
degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a cause and
effect relationship between them. Correlation between two variables can be due to
following reasons:-
I. Cause and effect relationship: Heat and temperature are cause and effect
variable. Heat is the cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the
temperature.
II. Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For instance,
price of rice and price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may not be any
cause and effect relation between price of rice and price of sugar.
III. Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is
either a cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases
when price rise due to increased demand.
IV. The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show
correlation between wages and productivity. That is, higher wage leading to
 lower productivity. In real life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to
chance.
V. There might be a situation of nonsense or spurious correlation between two
variables. For instance, relationship between number of divorces and television
exports may be correlated. There cannot be any relationship between divorce
and exports of television.
The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship and it
does not necessarily signify a cause and effect relationship between the variables.

Q 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique.
What are the characteristics of a good sample?(10 marks).

Ans. The decision process of sampling is complicated one. The researcher has to first
identify the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance the conflicting factors.
The various criteria governing the choice of the sampling technique:
1. Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to
generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an
appropriate probability sampling method must be selected. The choice of a
particular type of probability sampling depends on the geographical area of the
survey and the size and the nature of the population under study.
2. Measurability: The application of statistical inference theory requires
computation of the sampling error from the sample itself. Probability samples
only allow such computation. Hence, where the research objective requires
statistical inference, the sample should be drawn by applying simple random
sampling method or stratified random sampling method, depending on whether
the population is homogenous or heterogeneous.
3. Degree of Precision: Should the results of the survey be very precise, or even
rough results could serve the purpose? The desired level of precision as one of
the criteria of sampling method selection. Where a high degree of precision of
results is desired, probability sampling should be used. Where even crude results
would serve the purpose (E.g., marketing surveys, readership surveys etc) any
convenient non-random sampling like quota sampling would be enough.
4. Information about Population: How much information is available about the
population to be studied? Where no list of population and no information about its
nature are available, it is difficult to apply a probability sampling method. Then
exploratory study with non-probability sampling may be made to gain a better
idea of population. After gaining sufficient knowledge about the population
through the exploratory study, appropriate probability sampling design may be
adopted.
5. The Nature of the Population: In terms of the variables to be studied, is the
population homogenous or heterogeneous? In the case of a homogenous
population, even a simple random sampling will give a representative sample. If
the population is heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate.
6. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population: If the area
covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is quite large,
multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the area and the size of
the population are small, single stage probability sampling methods could be
used.
 7. Financial resources: If the available finance is limited, it may become
necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling
or even quota sampling as a compromise. However, if the objectives of the study
and the desired level of precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget,
there is no alternative than to give up the proposed survey. Where the finance is
not a constraint, a researcher can choose the most appropriate method of
sampling that fits the research objective and the nature of population.
8. Time Limitation: The time limit within which the research project should be
completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a compromise, it
may become necessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple
random sampling instead of stratified sampling/sampling with probability
proportional to size; multi-stage cluster sampling instead of single-stage sampling
of elements. Of course, the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent.
9. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method. It
means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. A sample is
economical if the precision per unit cost is high or the cost per unit of variance is
low.
The above criteria frequently conflict and the researcher must balance and blend them to
obtain to obtain a good sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of
the sampling theory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a
compromise between idealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable methods
instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques

Characteristics of a Good Sample

The characteristics of a good sample are described below:
• Representativeness: a sample must be representative of the population.
Probability sampling technique yield representative sample.
• Accuracy: accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the
sample. An accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population.
• Precision: the sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by
standard error.
• Size: a good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.

Methods of Sampling
Sampling techniques or methods may be classified into two generic types:
Probability or Random Sampling
Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as random
sampling. It provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each population element.
It is used when generalization is the objective of study, and a greater degree of accuracy
of estimation of population parameters is required. The cost and time required is high
hence the benefit derived from it should justify the costs.
The following are the types of probability sampling:
i. Simple Random Sampling: This sampling technique gives each element an equal
and independent chance of being selected. An equal chance means equal probability of
selection. An independent chance means that the draw of one element will not affect the
chances of other elements being selected. The procedure of drawing a simple random
sample consists of enumeration of all elements in the population.
1. Preparation of a List of all elements, giving them numbers in serial order 1, 2, B,
and so on, and
 2. Drawing sample numbers by using (a) lottery method, (b) a table of random
numbers or (c) a computer.
Suitability: This type of sampling is suited for a small homogeneous population.
Advantages: The advantage of this is that it is one of the easiest methods, all the
elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected, simple to
understand, does not require prior knowledge of the true composition of the population.
Disadvantages: It is often impractical because of non-availability of population list or of
difficulty in enumerating the population, does not ensure proportionate representation
and it may be expensive in time and money. The amount of sampling error associated
with any sample drawn can easily be computed. But it is greater than that in other
probability samples of the same size, because it is less precise than other methods.
ii. Stratified Random Sampling: This is an improved type of random or probability
sampling. In this method, the population is sub-divided into homogenous groups or
strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn. E.g., university students may be
divided on the basis of discipline, and each discipline group may again be divided into
juniors and seniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a sample’s statistical
efficiency, providing adequate data for analyzing the various sub-populations and
applying different methods to different strata. The stratified random sampling is
appropriate for a large heterogeneous population. Stratification process involves three
major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number of strata and strata
sample sizes.
Stratified random sampling may be classified into:
a) Proportionate stratified sampling: This sampling involves drawing a sample from
each stratum in proportion to the latter’s share in the total population. It gives proper
representation to each stratum and its statistical efficiency is generally higher. This
method is therefore very popular. E.g., if the Management Faculty of a University
consists of the following specialization groups:

Specialization stream No. of students Proportion of each stream

Production 40 0.4
Finance 20 0.2
Marketing 30 0.3
Rural development 10 0.1
100 1.0

The research wants to draw an overall sample of 30. Then the strata sample sizes would
be:

Strata Sample size

Production 30 x 0.4 12
Finance 30 x 0.2 6
Marketing 30 x 0.3 9
Rural development 30 x 0.1 3
30

Advantages: Stratified random sampling enhances the representativeness to each

sample, gives higher statistical efficiency, easy to carry out, and gives a self-weighing
sample.
Disadvantages: A prior knowledge of the composition of the population and the
distribution of the population, it is very expensive in time and money and identification of
the strata may lead to classification of errors.
b) Disproportionate stratified random sampling: This method does not give
proportionate representation to strata. It necessarily involves giving over-representation
to some strata and under-representation to others. The desirability of disproportionate
sampling is usually determined by three factors, viz, (a) the sizes of strata, (b) internal
variances among strata, and (c) sampling costs.
Suitability: This method is used when the population contains some small but
important subgroups, when certain groups are quite heterogeneous, while others are
homogeneous and when it is expected that there will be appreciable differences in the
response rates of the subgroups in the population.
Advantages: The advantages of this type is it is less time consuming and facilitates
giving appropriate weighing to particular groups which are small but more important.
Disadvantages: The disadvantage is that it does not give each stratum proportionate
representation, requires prior knowledge of composition of the population, is subject to
classification errors and its practical feasibility is doubtful.
iii. Systematic Random Sampling: This method of sampling is an alternative to
random selection. It consists of taking kth item in the population after a random start with
an item form 1 to k. It is also known as fixed interval method. E.g., 1st, 11th, 21st ………
Strictly speaking, this method of sampling is not a probability sampling. It possesses
characteristics of randomness and some non-probability traits.
Suitability: Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as
students in a class, houses in a street, telephone directory etc.
Advantages: The advantages are it is simpler than random sampling, easy to use,
easy to instruct, requires less time, it’s cheaper, easier to check, sample is spread
evenly over the population, and it is statistically more efficient.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages are it ignores all elements between two
th
k elements selected, each element does not have equal chance of being selected, and
this method sometimes gives a biased sample.
Cluster Sampling
It means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements. Each
such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected
sampling unit, a sample of population elements is drawn by either simple random
selection or stratified random selection. Where the population elements are scattered
over a wide area and a list of population elements is not readily available, the use of
simple or stratified random sampling method would be too expensive and time-
consuming. In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted. The cluster sampling
process involves: identify clusters, examine the nature of clusters, and determine the
number of stages.
Suitability: The application of cluster sampling is extensive in farm management
surveys, socio-economic surveys, rural credit surveys, demographic studies, ecological
studies, public opinion polls, and large scale surveys of political and social behaviour,
attitude surveys and so on.
Advantages: The advantages of this method is it is easier and more convenient, cost of
this is much less, promotes the convenience of field work as it could be done in compact
places, it does not require more time, units of study can be readily substituted for other
units and it is more flexible.
Disadvantages: The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of
the resulting sample. The sampling error in this method of sampling is greater and the
adjacent units of study tend to have more similar characteristics than do units distantly
apart.
Area sampling
This is an important form of cluster sampling. In larger field surveys cluster consisting of
specific geographical areas like districts, talluks, villages or blocks in a city are randomly
drawn. As the geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases, their
sampling is called area sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part
of cluster sampling.
Multi-stage and sub-sampling
In multi-stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The
population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so
forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the
subsequent stage. First, a sample of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from
each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling
units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population
elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage. It is
appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider geographical area and no
frame or list is available for sampling. It is also useful when a survey has to be made
within a limited time and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the procedure of
estimating sampling error and cost advantage is complicated.
Sub-sampling is a part of multi-stage sampling process. In a multi-stage sampling, the
sampling in second and subsequent stage frames is called sub-sampling. Sub-sampling
balances the two conflicting effects of clustering i.e., cost and sampling errors.
Random Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size
The procedure of selecting clusters with probability Proportional to size (PPS) is widely
used. If one primary cluster has twice as large a population as another, it is give twice
the chance of being selected. If the same number of persons is then selected from each
of the selected clusters, the overall probability of any person will be the same. Thus PPS
is a better method for securing a representative sample of population elements in multi-
stage cluster sampling.
Advantages: The advantages are clusters of various sizes get proportionate
representation, PPS leads to greater precision than would a simple random sample of
clusters and a constant sampling fraction at the second stage, equal-sized samples from
each selected primary cluster are convenient for field work.
Disadvantages: PPS cannot be used if the sizes of the primary sampling clusters are
not known.
Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling
Double sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger
sample that provided information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is
extended to more than two phases of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling.
This is also known as sequential sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample
in phases. Double sampling or multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a
dilemma posed by undesirable extremes. “The statistics based on the sample of ‘n’ can
be improved by using ancillary information from a wide base: but this is too costly to
obtain from the entire population of N elements. Instead, information is obtained from a
larger preliminary sample nL which includes the final sample n.

Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling

It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from
a population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique
and each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated
sampling can be used with any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified, single or
multi-stage or single or multiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating
the sampling error. It is practical. The replicated samples can throw light on variable non-
sampling errors. But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be
employed.
Non-probability or Non Random Sampling
Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of
probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection to each population
element.
Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and
low cost.
Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each
population unit. The selection probability sample may not be a representative one. The
selection probability is unknown. It suffers from sampling bias which will distort results.
The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative
due to non-availability of a list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing
the findings to the population, when the costs required for probability sampling may be
too large, when probability sampling required more time, but the time constraints and the
time limit for completing the study do not permit it. It may be classified into:

Convenience or Accidental Sampling

It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’ fashion E.g., interviewing people
whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units
are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher may select students in his class. This method
is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher
meets accidentally are included in the sample.
Suitability: Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for simple
purposes such as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of
interest.
Advantage: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of population and it
does not require any statistical expertise.
Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of researcher’s
subjectivity, it is the least reliable sampling method and the findings cannot be
generalized.
Purposive (or judgment) sampling
This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-
determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling. This involves selection of
cases which we judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on
the judgement of the researcher or some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross
section of a population. The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample
depends on the subjective judgement of the researcher.
Suitability: This is used when what is important is the typicality and specific relevance
of the sampling units to the study and not their overall representativeness to the
population.
Advantage: It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion of relevant
elements in the sample.
Disadvantage: It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the
representativeness, requires more prior extensive information and does not lend itself for
using inferential statistics.
Quota sampling
This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible
sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a method of stratified
sampling in which the selection within strata is non-random. It is this Non-random
element that constitutes its greatest weakness.
Suitability: It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and readership
surveys which do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some crude results.
Advantage: It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of population, and field
work can easily be organized.
Disadvantage: It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if field work is
difficult, and subject to a higher degree of classification.
Snow-ball sampling
This is the colourful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of a special
population by using an initial set of its members as informants. This sampling technique
may also be used in socio-metric studies.
Suitability: It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a formal
organization, and diffusion of information among professional of various kinds.
Advantage: It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available.
Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of probability
statistical methods. It is difficult to apply when the population is large. It does not ensure
the inclusion of all the elements in the list.

Q 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary
and primary sources to gather the required information. (10 marks).

Ans. The search for answers to research questions is called collection of data. Data are
facts, and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and
analyses. The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into
(a) Data pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organization and (c) Data
pertaining to territorial areas.
Primary Sources of Data
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
that have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher
on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer
behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first
hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing,
mailing etc.
Advantage of Primary Data
• It is original source of data
• It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.
• It flexible to the advantage of researcher.
• Extensive research study is based of primary data
Disadvantage of Primary Data
1. Primary data is expensive to obtain
2. It is time consuming
3. It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled.
4. It is difficult to administer.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this
case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research
needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the
collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social
science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have
to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete,
primary data have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social
anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies
of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies,
opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys,
knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business
management studies etc.
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’ while a
method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the
method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are
(a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation,
(e) simulation and (f) projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail
in the subsequent sections in the later chapters.

Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled
statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their
studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies,
Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency
and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to
Co-operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National
sample survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international
organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial
journals newspapers etc.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also
unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers
maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records,
personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.
Features of Secondary Sources
Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have
certain common characteristics.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection
and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by
others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher
using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

Use of Secondary Data

The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific
information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example,
the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the
country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc., may
be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the
evaluation of performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of
research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared
with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be
tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so
on.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research
project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies,
Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical
studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports
of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public
Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies.

Advantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources have some advantages:
I. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once
their source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is
just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from
the source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities.
II. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered
without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the
researcher’s space and time reach.
III. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific
generalizations can be made.
IV. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.
V. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings
bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical
support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary
data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.
VI. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our
specific needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data
may be different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may
also be different.
VII. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their
accuracy we need to know how the data were collected.
VIII. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they
appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example,
population census data are published tow or three years later after
compilation, and no new figures will be available for another ten years.
IX. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be
available to all social scientists. Even if the location of the source is
known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity. For example,
most of the unpublished official records and compilations are located in
the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of researchers
based in far off places.
Evaluation of Secondary Data
When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate
them before deciding to use them.
1. Data Pertinence

The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available

secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions
should be considered.

• What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent ?
• What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they
conform to the requirements of our research?
• What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this
coverage fit the needs of our research?
On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the
research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible
may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable
available data.
2. Data Quality
If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next
step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy,
reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary
data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they
were collected. What is the authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well
recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use
trained and well qualified investigators? The answers to these questions determine the
degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to
the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which
has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the cautionary ands
other comments that were made in the original source.
3. Data Completeness
The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on
the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the
methodology sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method
appropriate? Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and
adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should
also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the
data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to promote the
organization’s own interest? How the study was conducted? These are important clues.
The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and
sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary
data for the researcher’s study.
Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain
reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study, define the research problem and
the objectives or questions to be answered by the study.
Ans:- Generally, there is a significant relationship between the race or ethnic group and the
language medium of the newspapers. Generally, Kannada newspapers are mostly read by the
kannadigas respondents, Tamil newspapers by the tamilians etc. However, there is no significant
relationship in the readership of Eng newspapers whereby they are read by all the ethnic groups.
Title: Reader’s habits and interests in Bangalore
Research Problem: To ascertain the reader habits and interests and to increase news paper
circulation in Bangalore City
Objectives or questions to be answered:
1. Have you read an entire book in the last 12 months?
a. Yes.
b. No.

2. How much time do you spend reading web pages each day?

a. I don’t read web pages.

b. Less than two hours.
c. Two to four hours.
d. Five or more hours.

3. Where do you read? Check all that apply.

a. In school.
b. On the bus.
c. In a car or truck.
d. In bed.
e. At the computer.
f. In the bathroom.
g. In the kitchen or family room.
h. At the library.

4. Have you ever pretended that you read a book when you hadn’t?
a. Yes.
b. No.

5. Why do you usually read a book?

a. Because I think I should.
b. Because it was assigned to me.
c. Because I am interested in the topic or author.
d. I don’t read books.

6. Have you ever pretended that you read a web page when you hadn’t?

a. Yes.
b. No.

7. What is the last book that you read? If you haven’t read a book, write “Not Applicable.”
a. Yes.
 b. No.

8. Is being able to read is important?

a. Yes. b. no

Master of Business Administration – MBA Semester 3rd core

MB0034 Research Methodology - 3 Credits
BKID: B0800
Assignment Set- 2
60 Marks

Q 1. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of

distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study.

Ans:-There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They
are:
(1) Personal delivery:
(2) Attaching questionnaire to a product
(3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine, and
(4) News stand insets
1) Personal delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to the
potential respondents, with a request to complete them at their convenience. After a day or two,
the completed questionnaires can be collected from them. Often referred to as the self-
administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview and the
mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in person and the respondents
may return the completed questionnaires through mail.

2) Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test marketing a product may attach a

questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm. A gift
or a discount coupon usually rewards the respondent.
3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine: The questionnaire with the
instructions for completion may be advertised on a page of a magazine or in a section of
newspapers. The potential respondent completes it, tears it out and mails it to the advertiser. For
example, the committee of Banks Customer Services used this method for collecting information
from the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for large-scale
studies on topics of common interest.
4) News stand insets: This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self
addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a newspaper or
magazine.
The significance of questionnaire method is that it affords great facilities in collecting data from
large, diverse, and widely scattered groups of people. It is used in gathering objective,
quantitative data as well as for securing information of a qualitative nature. In some studies,
questionnaire is the sole research tool utilised but it is more often used in conjunction with other
methods of investigations. In questionnaire technique, great reliance is placed on the
respondent’s verbal report for data on the stimuli or experiences which is exposed as also for
data on his behavior.
Advantages of Questionnaires
The advantages of mail surveys are:

• They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same through out
the country, irrespective of distance.
• They can cover extensive geographical areas.
 • Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are
difficult to reach in any other way.
• The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their convenience.
• Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal interviews.
• Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewer’s bias, as there is no personal contact
between the respondents and the investigator.
• Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail
questionnaire.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires
The disadvantages of mail surveys are:

1. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of
literacy is very low.
2. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be a
representative one.

Distinction between schedules and questionnaires

Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent whereas schedules are carried by the investigator
himself. Questionnaires can be filled by the respondent only if he is able to understand the
language in which it is written and he is supposed to be a literate. This problem can be overcome
in case of schedule since the investigator himself carries the schedules and the respondent’s
response is accordingly taken. A questionnaire is filled by the respondent himself whereas the
schedule is filled by the investigator.

Q 2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and
dispersion?

Ans:- Measures of Central tendency:

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the
numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population.
The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below: m=
ΣX
N
Where ΣX is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the number of
numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=
20
5
=4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from
the population.

The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown
by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number
of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=
ΣX
N
=
634
31
 =20.4516
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23
22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20
19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15
14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Table 1: Number of touchdown passes
Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometric mean), it is by far
the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is
the arithmetic mean, the geometric mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the
arithmetic mean.

Median
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of
a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. For the data in the
table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals
20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the
16th score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile.

Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously
in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.
Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3
You 3 3 3
John's 3 4 2
Maria's 3 4 2
Shareecia's 3 4 2
Luther's 3 5 1
Table 2: Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4.
Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class.
Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and
therefore in the upper half of the distribution.

Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the
middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of
numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 2,
4, 7, 12 is
4+7
2
=5.5.

Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown
passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number
of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals,
the frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion
of continuous variables). Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a
grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped
frequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest
frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650).
Range Frequency
500-600 3
600-700 6
700-800 5
800-900 5
 Range Frequency
500-600 3
900-1000 0
1000-1100 1
Table 3: Grouped frequency distribution

Measures of Dispersion: A measure of statistical dispersion is a real number that is zero if all
the data are identical, and increases as the data becomes more diverse. It cannot be less than
zero.
Most measures of dispersion have the same scale as the quantity being measured. In other
words, if the measurements have units, such as metres or seconds, the measure of dispersion
has the same units. Such measures of dispersion include:

• Standard deviation
• Interquartile range
• Range
• Mean difference
• Median absolute deviation
• Average absolute deviation (or simply called average deviation)
• Distance standard deviation

These are frequently used (together with scale factors) as estimators of scale parameters, in
which capacity they are called estimates of scale.
All the above measures of statistical dispersion have the useful property that they are location-
invariant, as well as linear in scale. So if a random variable X has a dispersion of SX then a linear
transformation Y = aX + b for real a and b should have dispersion SY = |a|SX.
Other measures of dispersion are dimensionless (scale-free). In other words, they have no
units even if the variable itself has units. These include:

• Coefficient of variation
• Quartile coefficient of dispersion
• Relative mean difference, equal to twice the Gini coefficient

There are other measures of dispersion:

• Variance (the square of the standard deviation) — location-invariant but not linear in
scale.
• Variance-to-mean ratio — mostly used for count data when the term coefficient of
dispersion is used and when this ratio is dimensionless, as count data are themselves
dimensionless: otherwise this is not scale-free.

Some measures of dispersion have specialized purposes, among them the Allan variance and
the Hadamard variance.
For categorical variables, it is less common to measure dispersion by a single number. See
qualitative variation. One measure that does so is the discrete entropy.

Sources of statistical dispersion

In the physical sciences, such variability may result only from random measurement errors:
instrument measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible. One may assume
that the quantity being measured is unchanging and stable, and that the variation between
measurements is due to observational error.
In the biological sciences, this assumption is false: the variation observed might be intrinsic to the
phenomenon: distinct members of a population differ greatly. This is also seen in the arena of
manufactured products; even there, the meticulous scientist finds variation.The simple model of a
stable quantity is preferred when it is tenable. Each phenomenon must be examined to see if it
warrants such a simplification.

Q 3. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Explain how the research
design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and
diagnostic studies.
Ans:- Characteristics of a Good Research Design

1. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction.

2. It reduces wastage of time and cost.
3. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization.
4. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the
study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and
insight into the study deepens.
5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants.
6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits

Different Research Designs

Research design in case of exploratory research studies
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose
of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on
the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies
must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem
under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which
fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally,
the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about:

1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method
of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis
stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis
for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis
suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the
work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been
formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis
from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one’s area of
interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He
should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different
research contexts to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of
creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be
looked into by the researcher.
2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with
the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such
a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully
selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The
respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher
must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the
interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to
raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered.
Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few
hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be
 discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the
respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at
the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience
survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis. This, survey may as well provide information
about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
3. Analyses of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience
to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of
the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if nay,
may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach
may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of
the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the
main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
Now, what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut
answer to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances
are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of ‘insight-stimulating’
cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study
of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals
from different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or
have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of
hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which
merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlined
above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so
that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and
come to the notice of the researcher.

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, where as diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The
studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are the example of diagnostic
research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of
facts and characteristics concerning individual, group of situation are all examples of descriptive
research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view
of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements
and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as
in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he
wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies,
the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough
provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability. With due concern for the
economical completion of the research study, the design in such studies must be rigid and not
flexible and must focus attention on the following:

1. Formulating the objective of the study

2. Designing the methods of data collection
3. Selecting the sample
4. Collecting the data
5. Processing and analyzing the data
6. Reporting the findings.

In a descriptive / diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision
to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may not
provide the desired information. Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the
data are to be obtained. While designing data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards against
bias and unreliability must be ensured. Which ever method is selected, questions must be well
examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must be instructed not to express their own
opinion; observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour.
More often than not, sample has to be designed. Usually, one or more forms of probability
sampling or what is often described as random sampling, are used. To obtain data, free from
errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely the
staff of field workers as they collect and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure that
the data collecting staffs performs their duty honestly and without prejudice. The data collected
must be processed and analyzed. This includes steps like coding the interview replies,
observations, etc., tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations.
Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of communicating the
findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner.

Q 4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific
examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research.
Ans:- Case Study as a Method of Business Research
In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex
set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to
unravel the complexities. For instance, an in-depth study of a firm’s top sales people and
comparison with the worst sales people might reveal characteristics common to stellar
performers. The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity and willingness to
deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry, might prove more
productive

A case is written description of a business related problem or situation and often contains
organizational and financial data specific to the situation or problem. This may also have external
data and facts about social, economic or other micro economic circumstances impinging upon
that business situation. Case offers student highest possible realism in management study (as
compared to experimentation or hands-on projects in engineering or science) as it brings before
student real situation and facts surrounding it. How things actually happen in business.

Example to illustrate above points:

Let us consider example of a currently popular topic of real estate business in India that is
undergoing complex situation of demand recession, high costs and public criticism. A company
XYZ Developer is faced with the situation of 3 projects under various stages of completion. In the
nearing-completion project out of the three with a cost of Rs 20 lacs per flat, only 25% flats could
be booked so far while other two projects have attracted only 10% bookings, each. The two
remaining projects are scheduled for completion in 2012 and 2013 respectively, subject to cash
flow availability as projected in previous year i.e. 2008 for next 5 years. There are 40 similar
projects competing in market, which are at various stages of execution with average booking
status of 40%. Obviously the XYZ Company is lagging behind the industry average. The company
has raised debt from financial institutes @ 14% floating rate PA and the repayment plan is
enclosed with this write up. All the three projects have considerably slowed down and may affect
the possession schedule of even the booked customers. Company is finding it difficult to carry on
construction work and make repayments as per schedule. There are several options for Company
to follow.

The HODs of various functions like marketing, finance and land acquisition have obviously
different objectives and conflicting goals. The Board of Directors have called for an elaborate
meeting of all concerned to evolve a plan of action which may include several possibilities
including drastic rebates in the prices. Should it be done or not and in what mode and over what
time frame could be one major decision problem. The real estate industry outlook over short term
of next 1-3 years is not clear with Union general elections due after 4 months. The financial year
is closing after two months.

The complexity of above situation is very clear and the limited information available in the case as
well as in real business situation especially on macro-economic front as far as real estate industry
is concerned. Any decision to slash prices may severely affect the profitability of the company
and may not yield expected outcomes. These outcomes desired are yet to be defined in the
proposed meeting. Hence we can seer that a number of factors have to be evaluated, various
options have to be listed and defined and their financial consequences and the effect on company
reputation and goodwill also have to be factored in. The company's future projects may also get
affected. The main point is when company can expect a turn around of demand situation and how
company can control costs. Forecasting of both price and demand factors is a difficult proposition
in current macro-environmental situation. What solutions can the Financial and Marketing heads
offer and what the Project managers have to say?

Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or
interviewing would be more appropriate.( 10 marks).

Ans:- Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic

viewing of a specific phenomenon on its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data
for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study.

The prerequisites of observation consist of:

• Observations must be done under conditions, which will permit accurate results. The
observer must be in vantage point to see clearly the objects to be observed. The
distance and the light must be satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in
good working conditions and operated by skilled persons.

• Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the cases.

• Recording should be accurate and complete.

• The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain number
of cases can be observered again by another observer/another set of mechanical
devices as the case may be. If it is feasible two separate observers and set of
instruments may be used in all or some of the original observations. The results could
then be compared to determine their accuracy and completeness.

Advantages of observation
• The main virtue of observation is its directness it makes it possible to study behavior as it
occurs. The researcher needs to ask people about their behavior and interactions he can
simply watch what they do and say.

• Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in
their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researched
situation for instance in interview the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There
is no such artificiality in observational studies especially when the observed persons are
not aware of their being observed.

• Observations in more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate
meaningfully e.g. studies of children, tribal animals, birds etc.
 • Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of
behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior
through observation. The validity of what men of position and authority say can be
verified by observing what they actually do.

• Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only
observation can be providing an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation
between union and management representatives.

• Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their
conduct than questioning.

• It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning.

• Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate
data and also of making continuous observations over longer periods.

Interviews are a crucial part of the recruitment process for all Organisations. Their purpose is to
give the interviewer(s) a chance to assess your suitability for the role and for you to demonstrate
your abilities and personality. As this is a two-way process, it is also a good opportunity for you to
ask questions and to make sure the organisation and position are right for you.

Interview format
Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance what
format the interview will take.
• Competency/criteria based interviews - These are structured to reflect the
competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a particular job, which will
usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The interviewer is looking for
evidence of your skills and may ask such things as: ‘Give an example of a time you
worked as part of a team to achieve a common goal.’

The organisation determines the selection criteria based on the roles they are recruiting
for and then, in an interview, examines whether or not you have evidence of possessing
these.
• Technical interviews - If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical
knowledge, it is likely that you will be asked technical questions or has a separate
technical interview. Questions may focus on your final year project or on real or
hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove yourself, but also to
admit to what you do not know and stress that you are keen to learn. Do not worry if you
do not know the exact answer - interviewers are interested in your thought process and
logic.
• Academic interviews - These are used for further study or research positions.
Questions are likely to center on your academic history to date.
• Structured interviews - The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks all the
candidates the same questions.
• Formal/informal interviews - Some interviews may be very formal, while others will feel
more like an informal chat about you and your interests. Be aware that you are still being
assessed, however informal the discussion may seem.
• Portfolio based interviews - If the role is within the arts, media or communications
industries, you may be asked to bring a portfolio of your work to the interview, and to
have an in-depth discussion about the pieces you have chosen to include.
• Senior/case study interviews - These ranges from straightforward scenario questions
(e.g. ‘What would you do in a situation where…?’) to the detailed analysis of a
 hypothetical business problem. You will be evaluated on your analysis of the problem,
how you identify the key issues, how you pursue a particular line of thinking and whether
you can develop and present an appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of interview

The Screening Interview
Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification
requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates.
(This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume center for help.)
Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have honed
skills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position. Remember-
they does not need to know whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether you are not
a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps in your
employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will want to know
from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.
Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:

• Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications.

• Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the screener as
verifying your qualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your winning
personality for the person making hiring decisions!
• Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving
specifics by replying, "I would be willing to consider your best offer."
• If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital
information sitting next to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you
sleeping or vacuuming the floor, you will be able to switch gears quickly.

The Informational Interview

On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational
interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers
who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Job seekers
ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current
or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. Employers
that like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are
often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel
flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During an
informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one
another better without reference to a specific job opening.

This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:

• Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company.
• Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be comfortable
if you contact other people and use his or her name.
• Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume.
• Write a thank you note to the interviewer.

The Directive Style

In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly.
Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviews; when
interviewers ask each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare the
results. Directive interviewers rely upon their own questions and methods to tease from you what
they wish to know. You might feel like you are being steam-rolled, or you might find the
conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they have dominance
issues, although you should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your
supervisor.

Either way, remember:

• Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead.

• Do not relinquish complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does not ask you for
information that you think is important to proving your superiority as a candidate, politely
interject it.

The Meandering Style

This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the
discussion. It might begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which you can use to your
advantage. The interviewer might ask you another broad, open-ended question before falling into
silence. This interview style allows you tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that best serves
you.

The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly important when
interviewers use a non-directive approach:

• Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills, qualities and
experiences. Do not rely on the interviewer to spark your memory-jot down some notes
that you can reference throughout the interview.
• Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's seat and go
in any direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's role. If he or she becomes
more directive during the interview, adjust.
• Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape the
interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that
you run the risk of missing important information about the company and its needs.

Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain
reader habits and interests. What type of research report would be most appropriate?
Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections.(10 marks).

Ans:- There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review:

1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item a good literature review is led by your own
critical thought processes - it is not simply a catalogue of what has been written.

Once you have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each group in turn
and really think about what you want to achieve in presenting them this way. This is your
opportunity for showing that you did not take all your reading at face value, but that you
have the knowledge and skills to interpret the authors' meanings and intentions in relation
to each other, particularly if there are conflicting views or incompatible findings in a
particular area.
Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgment in the literature surrounding a
topic is a gradual process of gaining familiarity with the concepts, language, terminology
and conventions in the field. In the early stages of your research you cannot be expected
to have a fully developed appreciation of the implications of all findings.
As you get used to reading at this level of intensity within your field you will find it easier
and more purposeful to ask questions as you read:
 o What is this all about?
o Who is saying it and what authorities do they have?
o Why is it significant?
o What is its context?
o How was it reached?
o How valid is it?
o How reliable is the evidence?
o What has been gained?
o What do other authors say?
o How does it contribute?
o So what?
2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body through your reading and discussions
with your supervisor during the searching and organising phases of the cycle, you will
eventually reach a final decision as to your own topic and research design.

As you begin to group together the items you read, the direction of your literature review
will emerge with greater clarity. This is a good time to finalise your concept map, grouping
linked items, ideas and authors into firm categories as they relate more obviously to your
own study.
Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your own intentions
and conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to convey will help you
decide the most appropriate structure.
A review can take many forms; for example:

o An historical survey of theory and research in your field

o A synthesis of several paradigms
o A process of narrowing down to your own topic

It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these.
As with all academic writing, a literature review needs:

o An introduction
o A body
o A conclusion

The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be
explored.
The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections and
subsections. The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major authors in
association with their main ideas and areas of debate. The section then expands on
these ideas and authors, showing how each relates to the others, and how the debate
informs your understanding of the topic. A short conclusion at the end of each section
presents a synthesis of these linked ideas.
The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from each of
your sections and this is then used to build the framework for your own study. Later,
when you come to write the discussion chapter of your thesis, you should be able to
relate your findings in one-to-one correspondence with many of the concepts or
questions that were firmed up in the conclusion of your literature review.

3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct quoting,
paraphrasing and summarizing)
You can treat published literature like any other data, but the difference is that it is not
data you generated yourself.
When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present the results with reference
to their source, for example:

o 'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty subjects responded positively.'

When using published data, you would say:

o 'Positive responses were recorded for 80 per cent of the subjects (see table 2).'
o 'From the results shown in table 2, it appears that the majority of subjects
responded positively.'

In these examples your source of information is table 2. Had you found the same results
on page 17 of a text by Smith published in 1988, you would naturally substitute the name,
date and page number for 'table 2'. In each case it would be your voice introducing a fact
or statement that had been generated somewhere else.
You could see this process as building a wall: you select and place the 'bricks' and your
'voice' provides the ‘mortar’, which determines how strong the wall will be. In turn, this is
significant in the assessment of the merit and rigor of your work.
There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own voice:

o Direct quote
o Paraphrase
o Summary

In each method, the author's name and publication details must be associated with the
words in the text, using an approved referencing system. If you don't do this you would be
in severe breach of academic convention, and might be penalized. Your field of study has
its own referencing conventions you should investigate before writing up your results.
Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:

o 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith 1988, page 27).

If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to enclose it, and
it must be an identical copy of the original in every respect.
Overuse or simple 'listing' of quotes can substantially weaken your own argument by
silencing your critical view or voice.
Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the author's
intended meaning:

o As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be indicated by the
presence of cloud in the sky.

Paraphrasing allows you to organize the ideas expressed by the authors without being
rigidly constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the original. You retain a
degree of flexibility as to whose voice comes through most strongly.
Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by restating the
main points in your own words and in the order in which you found them. The original
writing is 'described' as if from the outside, and it is your own voice that is predominant:

o Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988) predicted the
likelihood of rain.
 o Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be expected as the
result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted the findings of Jones (1986).
4. Using appropriate language
Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are dealing with
the subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature.

Once you have established a good structure with appropriate headings for your literature
review, and once you are confident in controlling the voice in your citations, you should
find that your writing becomes more lucid and fluent because you know what you want to
say and how to say it.
The good use of language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the writing, and
on the context of the writing. You need to conform to discipline-specific requirements.
However, there may still be some points of grammar and vocabulary you would like to
improve. If you have doubts about your confidence to use the English language well, you
can help yourself in several ways:

o Ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and academics
o Look for specific language information in reference materials
o Access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be available on
your campus

Grammar tips - practical and helpful

The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful.
Which tense should I use?
Use present tense:

o For generalizations and claims:

 The sky is blue.
o To convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the time of
reading:
 I think therefore I am.
o For authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be compared on
equal terms with others:
 Smith (1988) suggests that...
o In referring to components of your own document:
 Table 2 shows...

Use present perfect tense for:

o Recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to the present:
 Several studies have attempted to...

Use simple past tense for:

o Completed events or actions:

 Smith (1988) discovered that...

Use past perfect tense for:

o Events which occurred before a specified past time:

 Prior to these findings, it had been thought that...
 Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:

o Convey degrees of doubt

 This may indicate that ... this would imply that...

Other language tips

o Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use an
intellectual tone for the sake of it, and do not rely on your reader to read your
mind!
o Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a point.
o Use compound (joined simple) sentences to write about two or more ideas which
may be linked with 'and', 'but', 'because', 'whereas' etc.
o Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas or those that
show the interaction of two or more complex elements.
o Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information more densely
than verbs.
o Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are highlighting the
'doer' or the 'done to' of the action.
o Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of complex
sentences in order to keep subject, verb and object in clear view.
o Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.

The total process

The story of research study

Introduction
I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to investigate
something in particular.
Review of literature
So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and what had
previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would fit into the big picture,
and began to realise at this stage how my study would be different from anything done previously.

Methodology
I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research question clearly in
mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known research methods (and
perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the broad decision about which research
paradigm I would work within (that is, qualitative/quantitative, critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then
I devised my research instrument to get the best out of what I was investigating. I knew I would
have to analyse the raw data, so I made sure that the instrument and my proposed method(s) of
analysis were compatible right from the start. Then I carried out the research study and recorded
all the data in a methodical way according to my intended methods of analysis. As part of the
analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my preferred form of classification) to manageable
thematic representation (tables, graphs, categories, etc). It was then that I began to realise what I
had found.
Findings/results
What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be pinned
down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from these records, but in
writing my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly significant to make sure my readers did
not miss it. For each display of results, I wrote a corresponding summary of important
observations relating only elements within my own set of results and comparing only like with like.
I was careful not to let my own interpretations intrude or voice my excitement just yet. I wanted to
state the facts - just the facts. I dealt correctly with all inferential statistical procedures, applying
tests of significance where appropriate to ensure both reliability and validity. I knew that I wanted
my results to be as watertight and squeaky clean as possible. They would carry a great deal more
credibility, strength and thereby academic 'clout' if I took no shortcuts and remained both rigorous
and scholarly.
Discussion
Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find in the results
that answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had some answers? What
about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the results correctly? Could
there have been any other factors involved? Were my findings supported or contested by the
results of similar studies? Where did that leave mine in terms of contribution to my field? Can I
actually generalise from my findings in a breakthrough of some kind, or do I simply see myself as
reinforcing existing knowledge? And so what, after all? There were some obvious limitations to
my study, which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't become over-apologetic about the
things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the fascinating byways sadly left behind. I have
my memories...
Conclusion
We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How did I
end up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few clear, succinct
sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap up with whatever
generalizations I can make, and whatever implications have arisen in my mind as a result of
doing this thing at all. The more you find out, the more questions arise. How I wonder what you
are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do we all go from here?
Three stage of research

1. Reading
2. Research design and implementation
3. Writing up the research report or thesis

Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft.

Establishing good practice

1. Keep your research question always in mind.

2. Read widely to establish a context for your research.
3. Read widely to collect information, which may relate to your topic, particularly to your
hypothesis or research question.
4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records.
5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need.
6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of mind, changes
of mind, reactions to experimental outcomes etc.
7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others.
8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other research data,
remembering to date each entry, and noting any discrepancies or unexpected
occurrences at the time you notice them.
9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you have
frameworks to fit findings into straightaway.
10. Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the start.
1Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead about the way you will
consider and store new information as it comes to light.