Chapter 5

CELL DIVISION
 Cell Division -- WHY?
1. Replace dead cells
Identical new cells to replace worn out or damaged cells
2. Growth
More cells for growth
3. Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction (e.g. Binary fission, budding,
vegetative reproduction)
 Cell Division -- STAGES
1. Nuclear division
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
2. Cytoplasmic division / Cytokinesis
 2 Classification of Cells

Somatic cells Reproductive

(All body cells except cells /
gametes) gametes
Formed through Formed through
mitosis meiosis
 Ribosomes Chromosomes
in a Nucleus

Chromosome
(compacted DNA)
Nucleus

Chromatin
(extended DNA)

https://www.msu.edu/course/isb/202/ebertmay/notes/snotes/02_06_07_genes1.html
 Chromosome structure

http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/labs/mitosis.htm
 Chromosomes
Chromosomal number
The characteristic number of chromosomes present in a
particular species.
Somatic cells have 2 sets of paired chromosomes
(paternal and maternal origin). Therefore, they are
diploids (2n).
Gametes have only one set of chromosomes (unpaired).
Therefore, they are haploids (n).
Paired chromosomes which have the same structural
feature are called homologous chromosomes.
 Homologous Human Karyotype
chromosomes
Chromosome 1-22
Autosomes

Paternal
Maternal

Sex chromosomes
Karyotype:
46, XY (male)
http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/gallery/2008/oct/01/hospital.art.gina.glover
 MITOSIS
Process where nuclear division in the
parent cell results in 2 daughter cells which
are genetically identical to the parent cell.

Mitosis 2 daughter cells

Parent cell

http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/fancher/EukaryoticCell.jpg
 Cell Cycle
An ordered cycle of growth and division in the
process of forming new cells.
Divided into 2 main phases:
1. Interphase
• G1 (Gap / Growth phase 1)
• S (DNA synthesis)
• G2 (Gap / Growth phase 2)
2. Mitotic phase / M phase
• Mitosis (Nuclear division)
• Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic division)
 Cell Cycle
Interphase (90%)
Mitotic phase (10%)

http://www.bio.miami.edu/~cmallery/255/255mitos/255division.htm
 Cell Cycle

http://images2.clinicaltools.com/PageReq?id=565:1873
 Chromatin & Chromosomes
Sister chromatids

DNA
Replication

DNA Chromatin Duplicated

chromosome in
condensed state

centromere

http://www.juliantrubin.com/encyclopedia/biochemistry/chromosome_files/Chromatin_chromosome.png
DNA Replication
 Stages in Mitosis – IPMAT
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
Mitotic Phase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
Mitosis Animation

http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~bi107vc/images/anim/mitosis.gif
Animal Cell Mitosis Stages

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Plant Cell

http://www.seop.yale.edu/supplementary/supp_mitosis.html
Mitosis Animation
Cytokinesis in an animal cell
Cleavage furrow

http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1/cellcycle.html
Mitosis Animation
Cytokinesis in a plant cell
Cell plate formation

http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1/cellcycle.html
 Activity 5.4. Onion Root Tip

http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/gallery/2008/oct/01/hospital.art.gina.glover
 Activity 5.4. Onion Root Tip

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

http://www.clt.astate.edu/mhuss/toppage6.htm
Importance of controlled mitosis
Cells must be precise in passing the exact
copy of chromosomes to daughter cells
– WHY? To ensure proper functioning of an organism
Cells must divide in a controlled and orderly
manner (in the right frequency and timing).
– Throughout lifetime e.g. skin cells
– Dividing only when necessary e.g. liver cells
– Stop after they mature e.g. nerve cells
The cell cycle must be regulated by certain genes
and control proteins.
 Cancer
A genetic disease caused by uncontrolled
mitosis as a result of severe disruption of the
cell cycle control mechanism.
Tumour is an abnormal mass of cells as a result
of a cancerous cell dividing uncontrollably.
They can invade and destroy neighbouring cells.
Causes of cancer:
– Damage to DNA causing change in genes controlling
cell division
– Ionising radiation (UV ray, X-ray, Gamma rays)
– Carcinogens
Normal Cells Cancer Cells

http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/27000579
 Uncontrolled mitosis

Normal skin cells Malignant skin cells

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/labpics/lab6pics.htm
 Normal cells vs Cancerous cells
Normal cells Cancerous cells
Growth rate Controlled Uncontrolled

Cell Single organised layer Multi-layered and

organization disorganised
Cell features Cells are differentiated Cells are
and carry out undifferentiated and do
specialised functions not have specialised
functions
Nuclei and Nuclei and number of Nuclei and number of
chromosomes chromosomes are chromosomes are not
normal normal
 Application of mitosis --
TISSUE CULTURE
Cells are totipotent – have the full genetic
potential to form all parts of a mature
organism.
Tissue culture is the growth of tissues of
living organisms in a suitable and sterile
culture medium, containing nutrients and
growth hormones.
 Tissue culture - Plants

(protoplasts)
(explant)
callus

adult plants
somatic embryo plantlets

http://generalhorticulture.tamu.edu/YouthAdventureProgram/TisueCulture/explant.gif
 Application of mitosis --
CLONING
Cloning is the process of producing clones
or genetically identical copies of a cell,
tissue or organisms through asexual
reproduction.
Clones have the same genetic content and
chromosomal number as the parent
organism.
The nucleus that directs the development of
the offspring comes from a diploid cell
produced from mitosis, not through the fusion
of gametes produced by meiosis.
Cloning process (SCNT)

http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/10/70110-050-BBE15F18.jpg
Dolly -- the first cloned mammal (1996-2003)
Snuppy -- Seoul National University Puppy
Other successful cloned animals
Other successful cloned animals
What are the advantages
and disadvantages of
cloning?
http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-2-6-genetically-modified-foods-19358.html
 Advantages of cloning
1. Multiply useful genes or clones
e.g. Genetically engineered E. coli to produce bovine growth hormones
2. Clones can be produced in shorter time and larger numbers
e.g. Genetically engineered E. coli to produce human insulin
3. Transgenic crops / GM crops
• resistant to herbicides, pest, diseases, viruses
• better quality / yield (e.g. Bt cotton plant contains Bt gene)
• delayed ripening (e.g. tomatoes)
4. Control environmental pollution
Transgenic bacteria to clean up oil spills in the ocean, clean up toxic waste
dumps
 Recombinant
DNA Technology
-- Insulin production

http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/chapter2.html
 Disadvantages of cloning
1. Long term side effects
2. Biosafety issues
Impact towards environment and other living organisms in
the ecosystem
3. Do not show genetic variation
4. Gene flow of transgenic crops
Transfer of genes to other organisms (e.g. superweeds)
5. Shorter lifespan
6. Same level of resistance
 MEIOSIS
Process of 2 successive nuclear divisions that
results in the formation of four haploid gametes
which have half the number of chromosomes of
the diploid parent cell.

Meiosis occurs in the reproductive organs:

• Animals – Testes (male), Ovaries (female)
• Plants – Anthers (male) , Ovaries (female) of the flower

The cell undergoes 2 nuclear divisions BUT the DNA

of each chromosome only replicates once.
 Chromosomal no. of organisms
Diploid Haploid
chromosomal chromosomal
Species no. of somatic no. (n)
cells (2n)
Drosophila melanogaster 8 4
(Fruit fly)
Musca domestic (House fly ) 12 6
Zea mays (Corn) 20 10
Homo sapiens (Human) 46 23
Gallus domesticus (Chicken ) 78 39
Ovis aries (Sheep) 54 27
Felis domesticus (Cat) 38 19
Necessity for Haploid Gametes
 Meiosis in Gametes ** F5
Spermatogonium Oogonium
[2n=46] [2n=46]

[2n=46]
[2n=46]

Meiosis I

[n=23] [n=23]
First polar body
Meiosis II

[n=23] [n=23]
Second polar body

[n=23] [n=23]
Spermatozoa Ovum
http://faculty.fmcc.edu/mcdarby/Majors101Book/Chapter_04-Cell_Structure&Function/03-Cell_Functions.htm
 Sexual Reproduction
Involves the fusion of 2 haploid gametes
(n) (sperm + ovum) during fertilisation,
forming a diploid zygote (2n).

Therefore, the offspring inherits traits from

both parents to ensure the continuation of life.
 Human Life Cycle

[2n = 46]

Ovary
Testes (female)
[2n = 46]
(male)

[2n = 46]

Fertilisation
[n = 23]

[n = 23]
http://faculty.uca.edu/~johnc/human%20life%20cycle.bmp
 Stages in Meiosis –
IP1M1A1T1P2M2A2T2
1. Interphase
2. Prophase I
3. Metaphase I Meiosis I
Separates homologous
4. Anaphase I chromosomes
5. Telophase I
6. Prophase II
7. Metaphase II Meiosis II
8. Anaphase II Separates sister
chromatids
9. Telophase II
 Meiosis

http://www.brown.edu/Courses/BI0032/gentherp/phameio.jpg
 Prophase I – Important Event
Maternal origin
Paternal origin
Synapsis -- homologous
chromosomes come together to
form pairs of bivalents (tetrads).
Crossing over – exchange of
Chiasma segments DNA between non-sister
point of crossing over chromatids at chiasma, resulting in
new combinations of genes in a
chromosome.
NOTE: After crossing over,
chromosomes are no longer
identical to those of the parent
cell.
http://i.ehow.com/images/a04/ej/vv/why-meiosis-important-sexual-reproduction-800X800.jpg
 Meiosis Animation

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter28/animation__how_meiosis_works.html
 MEIOSIS--Website to checkout

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter28/animation__how_meiosis_works.html
 Mitosis vs Meiosis

http://byfiles.storage.msn.com/y1pCM8NuBBs3oQkRGiOYMnmPChMAFigWojk5tbopov3Pl-Ka7ssKuHaeNW4bSAxIfxaJXu-8LlYytg?PARTNER=WRITER
 Mitosis vs Meiosis

http://bio.rutgers.edu/~gb101/lab10_meiosis/meiosis_web/review/meiosis_mitosis.jpg
 Websites to checkout
Meiosis I
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/images/meiosis/me1anim.gif

Meiosis II
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/images/meiosis/me2anim.gif

Meiosis I vs Meiosis II
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/concepts2.html

Mitosis vs Meiosis
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/baby/divi_flash.html
Non-disjunction of chromosomes

http://alonsolivingenvironment.blogspot.com/2010/02/meiosis-nondisjuction.html
Disorders resulting from Non-disjunction
Examples of human disorders resulting from nondisjunction in gametes
include:
Autosomal chromosome aneuploids
Down syndrome - trisomy 21,
Edwards syndrome - trisomy 18, and
Patau syndrome - trisomy 13.
There are no viable autosomal monosomies and no other viable
autosomal trisomies; they are all embryonic lethal (i.e. cause
miscarriage in early pregnancy).
Sex chromosome aneuploids
Turner's Syndrome - monosomy X,
Triple-X syndrome - trisomy X,
Klinefelter's Syndrome - 47 XXY and
XYY Syndrome
Cancer cells often are monosomic or trisomic for certain chromosomes.This is
evidence of a nondisjunction event during mitosis in that cell's lineage.
Normal Female Karyotype

46, XX
Normal Male Karyotype

46, XY
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Edward’s Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
Edward’s Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)
Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)
Turner Syndrome (monosomy X)
Turner Syndrome (monosomy X)
(45, X)
Klinefelter’s Syndrome (47, XXY)
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
(47, XXY)
XYY Syndrome (47, XYY)
XYY Syndrome
(47, XYY)
Triple X Syndrome (Trisomy X)
(47, XXX)