Sensors and Actuators B 145 (2010) 265–271

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Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/snb

Characterization of a fiber optic liquid refractive index sensor

Arunava Mukherjee a , Debanjan Munsi a , Vishal Saxena b , Ramaswarup Rajput a , Paramhans Tewari b ,
Vandana Singh a , Anjan Kumar Ghosh b , Joseph John b , Harshwardhan Wanare a , Pinaki Gupta-Bhaya c,∗
a
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India
c
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The intensity of light signal transmitted through an optical fiber, whose cladding over a finite length is
Received 31 July 2009 removed, is used as a sensor of refractive index of liquids, in which the fiber is immersed. The transmitted
Received in revised form light intensity is measured as a function of liquid refractive index for different lengths of the unclad
28 November 2009
section of the fiber and at each unclad length its sensitivity to change in refractive index of liquid is
Accepted 4 December 2009
monitored. The liquid refractive index studied ranges from below the refractive index of the cladding
Available online 16 December 2009
to above that of the core. A plot of normalized light intensity as a function of liquid refractive index
for a short unclad length shows a local maximum at a liquid refractive index equal to the refractive
Keywords:
Liquid refractive index sensor
index of the fiber core. This maximum becomes less prominent as length of unclad region increases and
Fiber optic refractive index sensor finally disappears. These observations are interpreted in terms of frustrated total internal reflection of
Frustrated total internal reflection light rays. Sensitivity to refractive index differential, of the sensor response, increases with increase in
FTIR refractive index of the liquid pair, below that of the fiber core. In this range of refractive index, we observe
a maximum in this sensitivity at an intermediate unclad length of the fiber. When liquid refractive index
equals core refractive index, at the rising edge of the local maximum observed in sensors of shorter unclad
length, the sensitivity maximum disappears. The sensitivity to refractive index differential diminishes
as liquid refractive index exceeds fiber core refractive index. Measurements have been performed with
five different unclad sensor lengths and a core diameter of 400 and 800 ␮m. The results for the two core
diameters show similar qualitative features.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction teristic of a partially unclad fiber as a liquid RI sensor [23]. In this

Fiber-based refractive index (RI) sensors have been widely used.
They can be very compact in size, need only a small sample volume,
can be used in remote sensing, for liquids or polymer composites
and can be adapted as chemical sensors. Optical fiber has been used
as a sensor of absorption [1–4]. Metal-coated fibers using surface
plasmon resonance [5,6] and in-fiber Bragg grating (FBG) [7,8] have
been used as highly sensitive RI sensing devices. Tapering of fiber
and stripping of the fiber cladding have been used to make opti-
cal fiber a sensitive sensor of RI [9–13]. Untapered, fully clad fibers
with thin films deposited on them have been used as RI sensors
[14,15]. A fiber stripped of cladding has been layered with adsor-
bent material deposited by sol–gel technique to make it a sensor
of chemicals that get adsorbed on the adsorbent layer and modify
its RI [16–22]. We have reported in a detailed paper the charac-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 945 2959798; fax: +91 512 2598337.
E-mail address: pinaki@iitk.ac.in (P. Gupta-Bhaya).
paper we observe that RI sensitivity of this sensor is dependent
on the cladding thickness that remains after the fiber is partially
uncladded over a fixed length and is maximum at an intermediate
unclad length. The role of cladding in RI sensing is further explicitly
demonstrated in experiments using a mode scrambler. A few other
reports also refer to the significance of the cladding of a fiber in the
context of its use as a sensor [24–30].
Brown et al. [31] in an interesting experiment use two fibers
which are perfectly aligned with an intervening liquid medium,
through which light passes from one fiber to another and whose
refractive index it senses. Theoretical analysis using Fresnel equa-
tion is given and a non-monotonic dependence of light intensity
incident in the second fiber on the distance separating the two
fiber fragments is predicted in one model. Our experiments are
inspired by Brown’s work. We however modify Brown’s experi-
mental set-up by keeping the unconnected fiber segments of Brown
connected by the unclad fiber core, vary the length of the unclad
region and investigate dependence of RI sensitivity on unclad
length.

0925-4005/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.snb.2009.12.009
266 A. Mukherjee et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 145 (2010) 265–271
Fig. 1. Schematic experimental arrangement.
2. Methods
2.1. Measurement system
The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. A laser beam
( = 633 nm) from Melles-Griot (25LHP-213230) Helium Neon
Laser is chopped by a Stanford Research System (SR540) optical
chopper. The chopped light beam falls on a beam splitter (Melles
Griot) which splits the beam into a reference and a sample beam.
The two beams emerge in perpendicular directions. The sample
beam passes through a sensor fiber, with the fiber unclad to dif-
ferent extents, immersed in the fluid of interest. The beam falls
on two separate matched photo-detectors (Hamamatsu) whose
output currents are converted into proportional voltages. The pho-
todiode is appropriately biased to minimize noise. The two voltages
are then fed into two separate Stanford Research System (SR 830)
Lock-in-Amplifiers. The ratio of their outputs is calculated in a per-
sonal computer that is interfaced to the Lock-in-Amplifiers in a
Labview environment. The system is verified to be linear within
a certain range of light intensity in which we perform experiments.
A typical measurement lasts for about 15 min. Total number of data
points over which averaging is done is 20/min. The standard error
of mean, too small to be visible on any of the figures we show and
is fractions of a percent in all cases.
2.2. Fiber specification
The plastic clad silica fiber (JTLFH) was procured from M/s Poly-
micro Technologies, USA; Fiber diameter: 430,830, core diameter:
400, 800 ␮m, maximum error for both diameters: +5, −10 ␮m for
400 ␮m fiber and ±10 ␮m for 800 ␮m fiber. Numerical Aperture
(NA): 0.37 ± 0.02. Refractive index of fiber core at 630 nm is 1.457.
Refractive index of cladding calculated using core RI and N.A. is
∼1.40.
2.3. Fiber uncladding
Optical fiber is unclad in the sensing region to make it an effec-
tive refractive index sensor. The plastic buffer jacket covering the
fiber is removed by a razor. The plastic clad silica fiber was unclad
by immersing it in 98% concentrated sulfuric acid for ∼50 h so that
no cladding is left behind on the fiber length exposed to sulphuric
acid. The degree of uncladding is monitored by measurement of
its thickness in an optical microscope with digital read-out facil-
ity. An image processing algorithm is used for edge detection. The
thickness is then measured by counting the number of pixels along
the diameter. The counting error is two pixels, one at each end,
resulting in an error of 1.5 ␮m in a 400 ␮m fiber and 3 ␮m in an
800 ␮m fiber. The inhomogeneity of fiber etching along the fiber
length introduces a further imprecision of ∼1% in the mean value
of the diameter. The larger error by a factor of 2 in an 800 ␮m fiber
arises from the fact that magnification of 20 used in smaller diam-
eter fibers takes the magnified image out of the range of the PC. As
a result a magnification of 10 is used. The ratio of the diameter of
the fully clad fiber whose thickness is manufacturer specified and
the unclad fiber is used to calculate the degree of uncladding. The
uncertainty in manufacture specified fiber diameters (Section 2.2)
is the maximum uncertainty over large fiber lengths. Our expe-
rience is that this uncertainty over small fiber lengths does not
significantly increase the uncertainty in the unclad fiber diameter.
The fiber diameter we measure is 400 ␮m and 800 ␮m within error
margin cited above, i.e., all of cladding is etched out by Sulphuric
acid treatment. We have verified further that the experimental fea-
tures of interest in this paper remain the same if we expose the
fiber to sulphuric acid for 30 h instead of 50 h; the measured fiber
diameter is the same within error in both cases. Uncladding to dif-
ferent lengths is achieved using glass tumblers of different lengths
in which the fiber is exposed to Sulphuric acid. The unclad length of
the fiber is measured by weighing it in a microbalance and using the
manufacturer specified core and cladding density. Unclad length so
determined is within 1 mm of the tumbler length. Schematic dia-
gram of an optical fiber whose sensing region is stripped of cladding
is given in Fig. 2.
2.4. Solution preparation
In this experiment 15 different liquid media with known RI
have been used: distilled water, 5%, 12%, 18% and 24% sucrose solu-
tion, 44%, 60%, 76%, 80%, 84%, 88%, 96% (mass of solute divided by
mass of solution, expressed as percent) 100% glycerol solution, pure
dimethyl sulfoxide and pure nitrobenzene. Fewer liquids from this
list have been used in experiments on 800 ␮m core diameter fiber.
RI of aqueous glycerol solutions of intermediate concentration used
for finer scanning on RI axis around the maxima we observe was
calculated by linear interpolation. RI of these liquids is obtained
from CRC Handbook of Chemical and Engineering Data [32]. The RI
data are reported at  = 589 nm.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of an optical fiber sensor of refractive index whose
sensing region is stripped of cladding. Light propagates in X-direction. Cladding is
stripped in Z-direction.
 A. Mukherjee et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 145 (2010) 265–271
Fig. 3. Plot of intensity ratio (R) as a function of liquid refractive index (RI, n) with
fibers of two different core diameters (400 and 800 ␮m core radius) of two different
unclad lengths ((a) 1.5 cm and (b) 8.0 cm). Feature to note is the presence of maxima
in (a) and its absence in (b).
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Sensor response to RI change
Let Isig denote the output intensity from the unclad fiber
immersed in the liquid under test and let Iref be the intensity of
the reference beam. The experimental indicator of the value of the
RI of the liquid under test is the ratio R = Isig /Iref .
3.2. Local maxima and minima in sensor response
Fig. 3 shows typical experimental data of R as a function of
liquid RI for two specified unclad length of the sensor fiber with
core diameter 400 and 800 ␮m. The cladding of these fibers was
fully removed by treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid. A
monotonic negative slope, which increases as the liquid RI exceeds
cladding RI (Section 3.4) is observed over a large range of liquid
RI below core RI in these plots irrespective of unclad length. These
features have been reported earlier [15,23]. However, a remarkable
new feature is the presence of a local maximum at a liquid RI equal
to core RI (1.457) within error, for smaller unclad lengths (1.5, 3.0
and 4.5 cm). This feature is present for both core diameters. Fig. 3(a)
shows data at 1.5 cm unclad length. This local maximum disappears
267
at higher (6.0 and 8.0 cm) unclad lengths. Fig. 3(b) shows data at
8.0 cm unclad length. In Fig. 4 we show R as a function of liquid
RI for both core diameters in the range where these local maxima
are observed at smaller unclad lengths. The maximum in each case
has been reproduced several times. The maximum is sharper for
an unclad length of 1.5 cm as compared to that of 3.0 and 4.5 cm
for both fiber core diameters. In each of these three maxima for
400 ␮m fiber core, the height of the falling edge of the intensity
ratio profile is 0.11, while those of the rising edge is 0.11 in 1.5 cm
unclad length and ∼0.029 (these numbers are in arbitrary units) in
the other two.
Experimental data on intensity ratio for a given fiber diame-
ter and a given unclad length are verified to be free from possible
differences in fiber alignment that may result from change in test
liquid. The fiber is held rigidly on both ends by stable mechanical
support. The intensity ratio for a given core diameter and different
unclad lengths are made free from possible alignment differences
by adjusting them to same intensity ratio in air. If the core diame-
ter is different then perfectly equivalent alignment in air will also
not give same intensity ratio. The relative locations of the plots for
400 and 800 ␮m core diameter fibers in Fig. 3(a) and (b), therefore
do not have any physical significance and are adjusted merely for
clarity of the figures.
In addition to the presence of the above-mentioned maxima, the
plots for 400 ␮m core diameter fiber (Figs. 3 and 4) show a mini-
mum at a liquid RI equal to core RI and a switchover from negative
to positive slope as the liquid RI exceeds RI of the fiber core. This
feature has been reported by Cusano et al. [15] who use a fully
clad single mode fiber to monitor RI of polymer-based composites
deposited on the fiber. They make measurements with liquid sam-
ples for purposes of calibration. The quantity that monitors the RI of
the liquid is the intensity of reflected light at the liquid–fiber inter-
face. They observe, just as we do, a negative slope in the range of
liquid RI below the fiber RI (∼1.37–1.48) and a positive slope when
RI of test liquid exceeds that of fiber. An earlier report from our
group [23] that used the experimental arrangement described in
this paper, also noted this switchover. That report was less detailed
and the fibers and the process of uncladding were not as well char-
acterized.
3.3. Sensitivity maximum at intermediate unclad length
Fig. 5(a)–(e) shows RI sensitivity (ratio of R and n (n is RI)) as
a function of unclad length using a fiber with core diameter 400 ␮m
for five different liquid pairs chosen from different regions of liquid
refractive indices that we study: Fig. 5(a): liquid pair RI < cladding
RI; Fig. 5(b): liquid pair RI > cladding RI, but considerably smaller
than core RI; Fig. 5(c): liquid pair RI ∼ core RI, where the local max-
imum is observed at shorter unclad length, this figure displays data
in the rising edge of the maximum; Fig. 5(d): liquid pair RI ∼ core
RI, this figure is in the falling edge of the maximum; Fig. 5(e): liquid
pair RI > core RI, beyond the minimum in the plot of intensity ratio
as a function of liquid RI. The feature of interest in these figures
is (i) presence of a maximum at an intermediate unclad length of
4.5 cm (Fig. 5(a) and (b)); (ii) disappearance of the maximum in the
plot with the liquid pair in the rising edge of the local maximum
(Fig. 5(c)); (iii) reappearance of a maximum at a higher liquid RI
(Fig. 5(d) and (e)), where the maximum is less prominent in both
figures and its location is shifted to an unclad length of 3.0 cm in
Fig. 5(e). The disappearance of the maximum at an intermediate
unclad length in Fig. 5(c) results from the presence of the local
maximum which is most prominent at the shortest unclad length
of 1.5 cm.
An examination of the numerical values of R/n given on
the y-axis in each of Fig. 5(a)–(e), further shows that RI sensitivity
increases at each of the five unclad lengths in going from Fig. 5(a)
268 A. Mukherjee et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 145 (2010) 265–271
Fig. 4. Plot of intensity ratio (R) with fibers of different unclad lengths (core diameters of the two fibers are 400 and 800 ␮m) as a function of liquid refractive index in the
region where the maxima of interest are observed at smaller unclad length. The value of the unclad length is indicated on each figure. x-Axis of each figure indicates liquid
refractive index. y-Axis indicates intensity ratio in arbitrary units (see text).
and (b) (range on y-axis: 0–0.6 and 3.65–3.85, respectively), further
increases in Fig. 5(c) and (d) (range on y-axis: −6 to 10 and 14–20,
respectively) where we are on the two edges of the local maximum
observed for smaller unclad lengths, and then in Fig. 5(e) as we
go past the point where nliquid ∼ ncore the sensitivity becomes very
small (range on y-axis:1.6–2.0). The absolute values of R are depen-
dent on the alignment of the fiber, but, as already stated, we have
taken care in correcting for different alignments by adjusting the
alignment to equalize the intensity ratio to the same value in air.
The values of R/n in Fig. 5(a)–(e) are then on equal footing.
We have performed experiments, corresponding to those
reported above, in our laboratory on fiber sensors whose cladding
have not been fully removed, but have been unclad to differ-
ent thickness values. The results show a systematic dependence
of experimental results on cladding thickness for a given unclad
length. The maximum sensitivity at an intermediate unclad length
is also observed. These results will be reported in a separate com-
munication.
3.4. Interpretation of results
Energy loss from light propagating in a partially cladding-
stripped fiber with shorter unclad lengths in the range of unclad
lengths we study show, in the local maxima we observe with
nliquid ∼ ncore for shorter unclad lengths, a non-monotonic depen-
dence on liquid RI. The dependence is monotonic at larger unclad
lengths, where the local maxima disappear. This is an interesting
experimental result. We are not aware of a similar report in the
literature.
A monotonic dependence on liquid RI (<core RI) with a more
rapid rate of energy loss as liquid RI exceeds cladding RI is a result
of an increase in the extent of evanescent field in the liquid under
test. As liquid RI approaches core RI, this increase is accompanied
by the effect of frustrated total internal reflection, as discussed
below. A non-monotonic dependence of transmitted light inten-
sity on liquid RI is then superimposed on the monotonic profile. As
liquid RI exceeds core RI, total internal reflection does not take place
and evanescent wave no longer participates in the sensing mech-
anism. A minimum in transmitted light intensity at nliquid = ncore is
observed because, then light rays do not sense any optical inhomo-
geneity at the core–liquid interface.
The evanescent waves within the cladding layer associated with
the guided modes experience two discontinuities: both along the
direction of propagation, one at the beginning and the other at
the end of the unclad region. The evanescent wave entering the
unclad region encounter conditions akin to that in the well known
frustrated total internal reflection (FTIR) [33], i.e., propagating
modes in the larger core region (with RI = ncore ) are evanescent
within the thin barrier region (cladding layer with RI = ncladding )
followed by an extended region with higher RI (=nliquid ∼ ncore )
where they become propagating modes again. The guided modes
of the fiber tunnel through the barrier and become propagating
modes within the liquid-filled unclad region. These new prop-
agating modes re-enter the guiding core region by the reverse
process at the second interface of the unclad region, leading to the
enhanced transmission intensity through the fiber. As the unclad
region is made longer, fewer propagating modes are able to cou-
ple back into the fiber at the second interface. We note that only
around nliquid = ncore the direction of propagation vectors within
the core and of the new propagating modes are collinear (as is
well known in FTIR geometry) leading to efficient coupling back
into the fiber [33a ]. Hence, light couples back into the fiber most
efficiently in the regime where nliquid ∼ ncore . The peak in the plot
of I/I0 as function of RI that we observe (Figs. 3 and 4) is the
result. FTIR has recently been used in the design of a fiber-optic
RI sensor. The sensor principle is based on FTIR effect caused by
 A. Mukherjee et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 145 (2010) 265–271 269

Fig. 5. Plot of sensitivity of intensity ratio to liquid refractive index change as a function of unclad length of 400 ␮m core diameter fiber for five different liquid pairs with
refractive indices in different RI regions. The liquid pair and their refractive indices are indicated on each figure ((a)–(e)).

refractive index change of a medium surrounding an optical fiber
tip [34].
The deviation of the plot of RI sensitivity as a function of unclad
length for the liquid pair in the rising part of the local maximum
(Fig. 5(c)) from the pattern with a maximum at an intermediate
unclad length we observe for other liquid pairs studied (Fig. 5(a),
(b), (d), and (e)) owes its origin to the presence of local maxima we
interpret above in terms of FTIR. In Fig. 5(c) R/n (i) is positive at
lower unclad lengths for the liquid pair studied (ii) has the largest
positive value in the shortest unclad fiber length which has the most
prominent maximum (Fig. 4(a) and (f)) and (iii) becomes negative
at larger unclad lengths (Fig. 4(d), (e), (i), and (j)). In the other four
270 A. Mukherjee et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 145 (2010) 265–271
plots in Fig. 5, there is no change in the sign of R/n at different
unclad lengths; they are all negative. We plot the magnitudes of
R/n in each case and obtain maxima at an intermediate unclad
length.
The maxima in RI sensitivity at an intermediate unclad length
as shown in Fig. 5, arise from the dependence of the extent of
evanescent wave associated with various modes of the fiber and
their interference, on the unclad length. Quantitative interpretation
of these effects will require a more detailed theory. Partial strip-
ping of the cladding and its replacement by the liquid under test
introduces non-uniformity in the direction of light propagation (z
direction), i.e., translational invariance is no longer present. In the
mode-theoretic description of light propagation in the perturbed
fiber, one employs the complete set of bound and radiation modes
of the unperturbed translationally invariant waveguide and obtains
a set of linear coupled mode equations for the z dependence of the
modal fields. The mode coefficients in the perturbed fiber, their z
dependence and their mutual interference depend on the details
of the perturbation, namely the unclad length. These coefficients
determine the magnitude of core power and that of the power radi-
ated out, in a cladding-stripped fiber that we use [35]. A calculation
along this line on the perturbed fiber will provide a quantitative
description of the effects we observe. Defects and inhomogeneities
in waveguides are a subject of increasing research for its influence
on the propagation of both classical and quantum waves [36].
Simulation of light propagation in bent fibers and in fibers with a
varying cladding thickness using ray theory has been reported [24]
and used in interpreting cladding thickness dependent phenomena
in fiber-optic sensors of liquid RI [23].
4. Conclusions
The characteristics of a partially unclad optical fiber liquid RI
sensor are dependent on the length of the unclad sensor region, the
RI of the core and the cladding of the fiber and that of the liquid,
particularly as the liquid RI equals the core RI, where we observe
the effects of frustrated total internal reflection.
Acknowledgements
We thank Ritesh, Abheek Dutta, Argya Banerjee, Sayak Mukher-
jee, Rishi Kumar Verma, Biman Jana, Sutapa Ghosh, Biplab Dutta,
Ajeet Dixit, T.K. Khan, R.M. Hallen Drs. Krishna Kumar and S.C.
Agarwal for support, Dr. Utpal Das for discussion and M/s Jage Chas-
mewale, Kanpur for technical assistance in polishing 800 ␮m fibers.
The paper is based on the work reported in Master’s theses of A.M.
and D.M. submitted to Physics Department at IIT Kanpur and car-
ried out in the Department of Chemistry under the supervision of
P.G-B. Financial support from Defense Research and Development
Organization, Government of India, Indian Space Research Organi-
zation, Government of India under ISRO-IIT Kanpur Program and
Ministry of Human Resource Development are gratefully acknowl-
edged. We thank Anil Kumar Verma for assistance in preparation
of the manuscript.
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Biographies
Arunava Mukherjee obtained his Master’s in Physics from IIT Kanpur (2007) and is
now a Graduate Student in Physics at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
Mumbai, India.
Debanjan Munsi obtained his Master’s in Physics from IIT Kanpur (2008) and is
now a Graduate Student in Physics at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
Mumbai, India.
Vishal Saxena obtained B.Tech. (1969) and M.Tech. (1985) degrees in Electrical
Engineering from IIT Kanpur. He is currently Principal Research Engineer in the
Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kanpur; area: Instrumentation.
Ramaswarup Rajput is a member of technical staff in IIT Kanpur.
Paramhans Tiwari is a member of technical staff in IIT Kanpur.
Vandana Singh has obtained Ph.D. degree in Physics from G.B.P. University of Agri-
culture and Technology, Pantnagar, India. She is Senior Project Scientist from Samtel
Center for Display Technology, IIT Kanpur; area: Organic Flexible Printable Electron-
ics.
Anjan Kumar Ghosh has obtained B.Tech. degree in EE from IIT, Khargpur and MS in
EE from SUNY, StonyBrook, USA. He has obtained Ph.D. degree in EE from Carnegie
Mellon University, USA. He is a member in Technical Staff, Bell Labs, Taught at
271
Iowa State University, USA; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He is a
Professor in EE Department in IIT, Kanpur. Currently he is a Professor in Depart-
ment of ECE, Oklahama University, Tulsa, USA; senior member of IEEE, area: Optical
Information Processing, Optical Communications, Photonic Sensors, Instrumenta-
tion.
Joseph John obtained his B.Sc. in Engineering from College of Engineering
Thiruvanantapuram, University of Kerala. He obtained his M.Tech. in Electrical Engi-
neering from IIT Kanpur, Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from Birmingham
University, UK. He was a Scholar of the Commonwealth fund. He is currently a
Professor in Electrical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur; area: Photonics, Instru-
mentation.
Harshawardhan Wanare obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. (Physics) from Sri Sathya Sai
Institute of Higher Learning, Ananthapur, India. He received his Ph.D. in Physics
from the University of Hyderabad, India. He worked as a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the
Washington State University, Pullman, USA and the Illinois State University, Normal,
USA. He is an Associate Professor in the Department of Physics, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kanpur. Area of Research Interest: Quantum optics, Metamaterials and
Imaging in random media.
Pinaki Gupta-Bhaya did his Natural Sciences Tripos leading to B.A. (Honors) in Cam-
bridge University, England (1967). He obtained his M.A. Degree from Cambridge,
Ph.D. in Chemistry from Columbia University, New York (1971), was a Post-Doctoral
Fellow at the Max Planck Institute für Biophysikalische Chemie, Göttingen, Germany.
He is currently a Professor of Chemistry at IIT Kanpur.