ABSTRACT

A comprehensive model that delineates the interrelationships among social control, learning process and
production innovation in international joint ventures is absent. This study aims to fill this void. Unlike previous
research, this study investigates the role of social control, in facilitating learning process and production innovation
in China. In our framework, we argued that learning process mediated the impact of social control on production
innovation. In order to test the feasibility of this framework, we conducted an empirical study. This study
employed a survey instrument, which contained data collected from 300 organizations international joint ventures
in South China. A total of 96 usable responses were analyzed. The results indicate that social control has a positive
impact on learning processes and production innovation. Learning process partial mediate the influence of social
control on production innovation. The implications of the study are provided, and future research is suggested.

The ability to apply knowledge to practice is fundamental in creating competent and highly skilled practitioners.
Nurses bring a spectrum of experiences and qualities to training which include diverse learning styles.
Organizations must recognize this and facilitate training courses that aim to accommodate individual learning
preferences. Learning styles are particular to an individual, and these are thought to allow that person to learn
best. Everyone has some particular preferred method of interacting with and processing information. One of the
most widely known learning theories is the visual auditory kinesthetic (VAK) learning style model of Dunn et al
(1984).

This study aims to highlight different types of learning process and the importance of recognizing individual
learning styles, with the purpose of influencing future training in the organization in which the study was
conducted.

INTRODUCTION

DEFINATION OF TERMS

LEARNING

learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental
influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and
world views (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning
takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute.

LEARNING THEORY

learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping
us understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according
to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples
of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The
theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding
solutions.
METHOD OF LEARNING

There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories
fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable
aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And
constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or
concepts.

Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of people
like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these investigators are their underlying
assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true.[original
research?]
 First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And
third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and
reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining
the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning:

1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's
Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper
stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab
coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat.
Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments,
Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs
were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound
of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling.

2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory
of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word
‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either
in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable
if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are
determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in
measurable changes in behavior.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct
instruction have emerged from this model.[1]

Cognitivism
earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist. He
criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists
proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated
into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach:
(1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays
an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes
of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to
educators working under the cognitive theory. The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the
locus of control over the learning activity: the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment
that behaviorists emphasize.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were
established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to
emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive
load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional
design.[citation needed]
 Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition,
intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age.

Constructivism
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or
concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves
constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very
personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied
in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism).
Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity
about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a
culture by more skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active
learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a
student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.[citation needed]The teacher acts as a facilitator who
encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve
realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning,
experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.

[edit]Informal and post-modern theories

Informal theories of education may attempt to break down the learning process in pursuit of practicality [citation
needed]
. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall
idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Critics [citation needed] believe that trying to
teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks...

Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning [citation needed]. Some[who?] argue that learning is primarily self-
regulated, and that the ideal learning situation is one dissimilar to the modern classroom[citation needed]
. Critics
[citation needed]
argue that students learning in isolation fail .

[edit]Other learning theories

Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes than general learning theories.
For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn.

Connectivism is a recent theory of Networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections.

Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in learning.

[edit]Criticism

Criticism of learning theories that underlie traditional educational practices claims there is no need for such a
theory. The attempt to comprehend the process of learning through theory construction has created more
problems than it has solved. It further claims that in order to make up for the feeling of inadequacy in
confronting a process that we don't really comprehend, we label something "learning" and measure it. Then
we're comfortable, because at least then we have the feeling that we have a grasp on the problem. We don't
really follow the process, but in lieu of a profound understanding of what's going on, we find something and
say, "Let's declare that to be learning, by consensus." This is basically what the entire educational system the
world over has done: quantify learning by breaking it up into measurable pieces-—curricula, courses, hours,
tests, and grades. The assumption is that psychologically one knows enough about the mind to identify
aptitudes: the accepted (knowledge-based) conception of learning identifies four assumptions of the accepted
view of learning: that (some) one knows what ought to be learned by people, why it ought to be learned, how it
ought to be learned, and by whom each thing ought to be learned. Together these assumptions are the lenses
through which people have been socialized in our culture to judge whether learning is occurring or not; and a
further assumption is that once one knows aptitudes, one also knows how to track a person so he will in fact
reach the goal that is being set out for him. The whole approach is the ultimate in pedagogical and
psychological technology. The only trouble is that it is humanly absurd. In this society, such a process is
exceptionally subtle, because it involves an authoritarian approach within a free culture. By employing a variety
of ruses the system produces a process which allows it to inhibit personal freedom without really feeling that
this is what is going on. The person doesn't feel that something arbitrary is being done to him—which is in fact
what is happening.

LEARNING PROCESS AND NURSING

Staff members’ ability to learn and then apply learning to practice has a significant impact on
delivering effective clinical care. A skilled and competent workforce ensures patient safety, and
will be able to recognize and respond to clinical need more appropriately.

I believe that the knowledge and application of a range of learning theories, concepts and
approaches is the foundation for building and managing effective learning environments. An
eclectic model is therefore proposed, which combines the individual’s complex learning needs
with the organisation’s practice requirements.

In considering an adapted practice model, substantial research highlights the usefulness of work-
based mentorship and supervision as part of effective training strategies. Studies claim the one-
to-one supervisory relationship was the most important element in clinical instruction
(Saarikoski and Leino-Kilpi, 2002). Mentorship also facilitates learning opportunities, and
supervises and assesses staff in the practice setting.

Terminology frequently used to describe a mentor includes teacher, supporter, coach, facilitator,
assessor, role model and supervisor (Hughes, 2004; Chow and Suen, 2001). This is supported by
models advocating self-directed, evidence-based and problem-based learning.

It is beneficial to provide people with the skills to seek, analyse and use information effectively,
anticipating that through the use of such models they will more successfully implement theory in
practice.

Much of the available research tends to draw similar conclusions, that is, that training should not
be confined to the classroom and should include practical as well as theoretical aspects. There
should also be good supervision which promotes accountability while providing feedback in a
supportive environment (Saravana et al, 2006; Nancarrow and Mackey, 2005).

It is important to understand the theoretical foundation for describing how people learn and
perform within an organisation. If learning methods differ from teaching methods staff will never
develop a full understanding of the subject and theory can never be completely applied to
practice.

Experiential learning theory

Knowing a person’s learning style enables learning to be orientated according to their preferred
method. Kolb (1984) developed a model that provides a framework for identifying a person’s
learning style, and suggested that learning is a process as well as an outcome and that it involves
four stages (see Box 1).

BOX 1. Four stages of learning

1. Activist - Active experimentation (simulations, case study, homework)

2. Reflector - reflective observations (logs, journals, brainstorming)

3. Theorist - abstract conceptualisation (lectures)

4. Pragmatist - concrete experience (observations, application to practice)

Source: Kolb (1984)

Kolb’s theory states that the different stages are associated with distinct learning styles:

 Diverging - these people tend to prefer to watch rather than do, gathering information and
using imagination to solve problems. They like to work in groups, to listen with an open
mind and to receive feedback;

 Assimilating - the assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical approach.

People with this style prefer readings, lectures and exploring analytical models;

 Converging - such people prefer technical tasks, like to experiment with new ideas, to
simulate and work with practical applications;

 Accommodating - this type of learner is ‘hands on’ and prefers to take a practical,
experiential approach. These people prefer to work in teams to complete tasks, trying
different ways to achieve the objective.

Kolb’s theory provides a rationale for a variety of learning methods including: independent
learning; learning by doing; work-based learning; and problem-based learning. These methods
are all necessary if learning is to be consolidated and implemented in practice.

Reflective practice models

Reflection is an important tool when attempting to integrate theory with practice. Severinsson’s
(1998) study indicated that personal growth enhanced participants’ skills and ability to reflect on
clinical situations. The reflective approach, focusing on ways in which knowledge can be used in
practice, enables nurses to develop their personal knowledge and practice.

Reflective practice, therefore, offers nurses an opportunity to review their decisions and evaluate
learning to learn from past lessons and positively influence practice in the future. Watson et al
(2002) hypothesised that experiential learning is an essential aspect to reflect on and analyse
one’s own practice. Reflection is presumed to have a key role either in experiential learning or in
enabling experiential learning.

For nurses to successfully implement theory into practice, they must be able to reflect critically
on their own practice and the implications of their interventions.

Some nurses may find reflection difficult due to the self-awareness needed to critically reflect in
an analytical manner.

This is because practitioners have been socialised to see themselves as passive recipients of
knowledge rather than as critical constructors (Severinsson, 1998).

Teekman (2000) found that reflective thinking included the cognitive activities of comparing and
contrasting phenomena, recognising patterns, categorising perceptions, framing and self-
questioning to create meaning and understanding.

Factors facilitating or impeding the change process

The learning environment has been recognised as either encouraging or impeding a positive
learning experience for nurses. However, giving them the appropriate level of learning support
and supervision has a number of specific difficulties. For much of their time junior nurses work
without supervision from a more senior peer professional.

Mentors are unlikely to be able to provide the level of mentorship and supervision required to
have a significant impact on learning, without increasing their workload. Coffey (2004) reported
that while nursing staff welcomed involvement in training and assessment, 62% of senior nurses
were uninterested in being personally involved in training. Reasons given were mainly ‘no time’
and complaints of an ‘already heavy workload’. Some nurses also felt they were ‘not qualified to
teach’.

Nurses are not a homogeneous group and variations may occur in the following: individual
people’s emotional states (Antonacopoulou and Gabriel, 2001); motivation to learn; personality
type; prior knowledge and experience; attitude towards their role (Santos and Stuart, 2003); and
cognitive ability (Jones, 1998).

The work environment is also an important variable and may be an obstacle to implementing
learning. For example, this may be difficult if an individual feels unsupported by other team
members. Such variables could threaten patient safety and care quality and are also likely to
affect how the individual responds to any kind of learning opportunity within the organisation.
Antonacopoulou and Gabriel (2001) argued that emotion is an important factor in the learning
process. They postulated that emotion and learning are interrelated, interactive, interdependent
and something that many organisations tend to neglect. Antonacopoulou and Gabriel (2001)
reported that emotion can inhibit learning and that certain people may be anxious about all types
of adult learning. These worries may be triggered by earlier experiences of failure or by
threatening feelings of uncertainty, dependency and vulnerability.
Education in an organisation is based on the single dominant cultural factor rather than
recognising multiple cultural differences and this may also impede the change process.
Pewewardy (2002) reported that differences in learning styles may be influenced by language,
culture and heritage. They also highlighted that men and women learn differently. An
organisation that employs nurses from a variety of ethnic backgrounds must accommodate
individual learning needs. For example, people whose first language is not English may find
didactic training courses difficult to follow.

Implications

There are several ways to assess the application of theory into practice. These include: a more
empowered and motivated workforce; reduction in incidents/accidents because staff apply good
theory-based practice; improved performance standards; increased staff retention; and decreased
sickness levels. In parallel to this, outcome evaluation is concerned with establishing the
outcomes of training and development programmes. The focus may be on individuals and any
changes in their knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour, individual and/or organisational
performance or on changes in organisational culture and climate.

This is evident in the results of a study by Santos and Stuart (2003). They studied the perceived
outcomes for 165 participants of an organisational training programme. The results demonstrate
that individuals benefit from improved confidence and self-efficacy and increased enjoyment in
work, and need less supervision. Santos and Stuart (2003) also reported that if people feel there
has been investment in them, their trust in the organisation increases. This has an indirect benefit
for their work and ultimately for performance-related issues.

Well-designed and administered training programmes can be expected to lead to improvements

in nurses’ overall job performance. However, in my experience, a positive reaction to training
does not necessarily predict the learning it produces. Organisations should determine whether the
training provided was effective in improving participants’ practice, rather than simply asking
their opinion of the training.

This review has highlighted methods of closing the theory-practice gap through effective
learning. Harrison (1993) hypothesised that people have learnt something when they have
acquired new or changed knowledge, skills or attitudes that stay with them, becoming part of
regular behaviour or performance. The relatively permanent change in behaviour is brought
about by practising something they have been taught, until it has been fully absorbed. It is then
possible to state that theory has been applied to practice.

Where training has been successful it can lead to a more skilled and competent workforce, which
in turn improves clinical outcomes and patient experiences.

Santos and Stuart (2003) argued that the impact of training is linked by a cause-and-effect chain,
whereby ‘training leads to reactions, which lead to learning, which leads to changes in job
behaviour, which leads to changes in the organisation, which lead to changes in the achievement
of ultimate goals’.
Conclusion

Consideration for individual learning styles is fundamental in designing effective training

programmes. The results highlight that most staff prefer a visual learning style and increased
emphasis should be given to work-based learning rather than traditional classroom-based
didactic teaching methods.

Owing to the study’s limitations, such as the small sample size, further research would be useful
to establish practical solutions to implement work-based learning programmes, and how
individual learnsing programmes can be facilitated within organisations.