SPECIES ecological preferences.

Morphological Species Concept - If it looks Behavioral isolation: Individuals of different

different, it is a different species species may meet, but one does not recognize any
Cohesion - Defined by an integrated complex of sexual cues that may be given. An individual
genes and set of adaptations chooses a member of its own species in most cases.
Biological Species Concept- Reproductively Mechanical isolation:Copulation may be
isolated groups of organisms attempted but transfer of sperm does not take place.
Recognition - If two organisms don’t recognize The individuals may be incompatible due to size or
one another as potential mates, they are different morphology.
species Gametic incompatibility: Sperm transfer takes
Ecological - If they do not occupy the same niche, place, but the egg is not fertilized.
they are not the same species Zygotic mortality: The egg is fertilized, but the
Evolutionary Species Concept- If they share the zygote does not develop.
same common ancestor and niche, they are related Hybrid inviability: Hybrid embryo forms, but is
and may be the same species not viable.
The evolutionary divergence of a single species Hybrid sterility: Hybrid is viable, but the resulting
into two has never been directly observed in nature, adult is sterile.
primarily because speciation can take a long time toHybrid breakdown: First generation (F1) hybrids
occur. are viable and fertile, but further hybrid generations
Ernst Mayr-- evolutionary biologist (F2 and backcrosses) are inviable or sterile.
Microevolution - Changes in allele frequency over CLASSIFICATION
time (Population genetics) Theophrastus-father of botany
Macroevolution - Accumulation of novel genetic recognized gross morphology
changes in a population until it becomes a new Dioscorides-First herbal garden
species 600 descriptions
Gradualism-slow changes Herbalists-rudiments of natural classification
Punctuated Equilibrium-sudden changes herbs are more imporatant
Allopatric Speciation - Speciation that does not Caesalpino-departed from herbalists' ideas
occur in the same place. First two populations are classified 1500 species-functional significance
separated, then they change and become different John Ray-first british flora
species.Allopatric speciation occurs when definition of species; complicated classification
geographic isolation creates a reproductive barrier Carl Von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(an extrinsic mechanism). -Founder of modern taxonomy
Sympatric Speciation - Speciation in the same Contribution to synthesize all the literature,
place. Species arise within the same population systems of classification and plants
due to something other than a physical reproductive Species Plantarum (1753)
barrier.Sympatric speciation occurs when a Catalogued all known plants
reproductive barrier is created by something other Hierarchic classification
than geographic isolation (intrinsic mechanisms). Binomial Nomenclature
ISOLATING MECHANISMS Base of modern Systematics
Temporal isolation: Individuals do not mate Post Linnaean
because they are active at different times. This may Lamarck (1744-1829)
be different times of the day or different seasons. - Difference in characters experts use vs.
The species mating periods may not match up. what is convenient
Individuals do not encounter one another during De Jussieu (1748-1836)
either their mating periods, or at all. “Natural” system with genus within families
Ecological isolation: Individuals only mate in their Bentham and Hooker (ca. 1880-1900)
preferred habitat. They do not encounter Incorporation into greater detail and world-wide
individuals of other species with different in scope
 Size of taxonomic groups (greater than 200 3.Development
members) 4.Biochemistry and Genetics
Alfred Wallace-Reproductive Isolation 5.DNA restriction pattern
“wallace effect” Plesiomorphy-primitive characters
first to Charles Darwin Apomorphy-advanced characters
Schools of Thought in Systematic Botany Monophyletic-single ancestor
Phenetics-Numerical Taxonomy Paraphyletic-one ancestor and other taxa of it have
Overall similarity infers relationship; characters other ancestor
evolve at equal rates; convergence and parallel Polyphyletic-taxa coming from two or more
similarities will be canceled out by the number of different groups
homologies. Alpha taxonomy: science of finding, describing,
Phenetic Systems naming and categorising organisms, thus leading to
• More characters the better the recognition of proposed taxonomic groups (=
• All characters are equal taxa).
• Overall similarity due to similarity of Taxonomic Analogy-different structure same
parts function
• Distinct taxa recognized because of Homology-same structure same function
correlation in traits Ancestral Homology-primitive no changes
• Phylogenetic inferences can be Derived Homology-new character derived
made
• Taxonomy an empirical science
• Classification based on phenetic
similarities
Synthetics-Evolutionary systematics
Overall similarity, degree of difference, and sister-
group relationships must be used to infer
relationship and generate classification; covariation
of homologies will be more prevalent than
covariation of convergences and parallelisms..
Cladistics-Phylogenetics
Shared-derived characters infer sister group
relationships; classifications should exactly reflect
sister group relationships; covariation of
homologies will be more prevalent than covariation
of convergences and parallelisms.
evolutionary relationships.Cladistics is a method of
classifying species of organisms into groups called Binomial Nomenclature-Genus species common
clades, which consist only of firstly, all the name italicized-typed underlined-written
descendants of an ancestral organism and secondly, Ex. Zea Mays Corn
the ancestor itself. For example, birds, dinosaurs, KINGDOM MONERA
crocodiles, and all descendants (living or extinct) ofEvolution-bacterias are first organisms to occur
their most recent common ancestor form a clade. In and when ther started to produce oxygen that is
the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a when other organisms are formed.
single "branch" on the "tree of life", amonophyletic Cyanobacteria Division Cyanophyta
group. - Cyanobacteria ‘formerly known as’ BlueGreen
Basis of Classification Algae
1.External morphology - Cyano = blue
2.Internal anatomy - Bacteria – acknowledges that they are more
closely related to prokaryotic bacteria than Excrete mucilage – jet propulsion, gliding
eukaryotic algae Helix – fibers send waves of contraction
-Found in marine sediments and pelagic zone, Spirulina-filamentous
freshwater lakes, soils, common in lakes with high pH
-Live in extreme environments – chemically and major food for flamingo populations
temperature. commercial food source
Importance Lyngbia martensiana
1)First organisms to have 2 photosystems and to Releases chemicals causing dermatitis
produce organic material and give off O2 as a bi- Gas vesicles-for buoyancy common in algal
product. blooms
2)Many – fix or convert atmospheric nitrogen into Asexual reproduction
usable forms through Nitrogen Fixation when other Hormogonia – short piece of trichome found in
forms are unavailable. filaments. It detaches from parent filament and
Cell Walls – amino acids, sugars glides away
Pigments – chl a, phycobiliproteins Akinete – thick walled resting spore
- phycoerythrin (reddish) Function – resistant to unfavorable environmental
- phycocyanin * BlueGreen Color conditions. Appear as larger cells in the chain and
- allophycocyanin different than heterocyst. Generally lose buoyancy
Storage – glycogen Fragmentation-splitting in half
cyanophycean starch ORDER CHROOCOCCALES
Forms unicellular/colonial
Unicellular – with mucilaginous envelope Chroococcus,Gloeocapsa,Microcystis
Colonies/Aggregations – many indiv. cells ORDER PLEUROCAPSALES
covered w/in a sheath Pleurocapsa
Filaments uniserate in a single row ORDER OSCILLATORIALES
multiseriate – in several rows branching Oscillatoria,Spirulina,Lyngbya
Trichome – row of cells ORDER NOSTOCALES
Mucilaginous sheath – layer of mucilage outside Nostoc,Anabaena,Rivularia,Gloeotrichia
of the cell wall.protects cells from drying and Scytonema
involved in gliding. ORDER STIGONEMATALES
Red = acidic Stigonema,Fischerella
Blue = basic Purple and Green Sulfur Bacteria
Yellow/Brown = high salt phycobiliproteins –
Heterocyst – thick walled cell, hollow looking. -bacteriochlorophyll-yellow and red carotenoids
Larger than vegetative cells.provides the anaerobic (purple bacteria)
environment for Nitrogen fixation. -ancestral PS (only 1)
-ONLY cyanobacteria and prokaryotic bacteria can -electron donor is hydrogen sulfide, or other
FIX nitrogen. compounds like alcohols, fatty acids, and other
-Of these two only CYANOBACTERIA evolve organic compounds
OXYGEN during photosynthesis -product is sulfur
Anabaena azollae – found in rice fields -can grow in light only under anaerobic conditions
w/numerous heterocysts *oxygen represses pigment synthesis
Trichodesmium sp. – a red cyanobacterium found Thiotrix
in the Red Sea - found in habitats with large amounts of
Nostoc – binds with soil for fertilizer in India. a decaying organic material
symbiont of Anthoceros, Cycas .a photobiont in Prochlorophytes
lichens, Peltigera Chlorophyll a and b
Movement Carotenoids
No flagellae or structures to enhance movement No phycobilins
Prochloron – spherical; symbionts within sea
squirts in shallow tropical waters
Prochlorothrix – filamentous; shallow lakes in the
Netherlands
Prochlorococcus – small cocci, found in very open
oceans
Microalgal Economic Significance
-Fish food
-Waste water treatment
production of toxins, chemicals and extracts
-Human food/food additives
Cyanotoxins in cyanobacteria
Neurotoxins – block neuron transmission in
muscles (Anabaena, Oscillatoria )
Hepatotoxins – inhibit protein phosphatase, cause
liver bleeding. Found in drinking water.
(Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Nostoc )
Eg. swimmers itch - Lygnbia