Professional Documents
Culture Documents
197±219, 2000
Ó 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
www.elsevier.com/locate/worlddev 0305-750X/00/$ - see front matter
PII: S0305-750X(99)00131-X
FRANCES STEWART
University of Oxford, UK
and
ALEJANDRO RAMIREZ *
United Nations Development Program, New York, USA
Summary. Ð The connections between economic growth (EG) and human development (HD) form
two chains. Crosscountry regressions show a signi®cant relationship in both directions, with public
expenditures on health and education, notably female, especially important in the chain from EG to
HD; and the investment rate and income distribution signi®cant in the HD to EG chain. This gives
rise to virtuous or vicious cycles, with good or bad performance on HD and EG reinforcing each
other. Evidence over time has strong sequencing implications: countries initially favoring economic
growth lapse into the vicious category, while those with good HD and poor EG sometimes move
into the virtuous category. Where choice is necessary human development should be given
sequencing priority. Ó 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Key words Ð human development, economic growth, income distribution, poverty, health,
education
crosscountry evidence on these links. Section 4 tion of income and its change over time. 6 The
develops a typology of country cases, some way in which growth translates into income
representing the mutual enhancement of HD distribution and poverty reduction depends on
and EG and some demonstrating asymmetric the nature of the growth processÐin particular,
performance. The ®nal section investigates the the extent to which it is based on the generation
movement of countries from one category to of employment and on increasing rural
another and re¯ects on the implications for incomes, e.g., if the output mix is labor inten-
policy. sive and rural incomes rise rapidly income
distribution is more likely to improve and
poverty reduction to occur than if growth is
2. THE TWO CHAINS urban biased and capital intensive. 7
Expenditure on HD-related items is strongly
We view HD as the central objective of aected by the rate of poverty reduction. Not
human activity and economic growth as surprisingly, if poor households receive extra
potentially a very important instrument for income, they increase their food expenditure and
advancing it. At the same time, achievements in calorie consumption signi®cantly. 8 Empirical
HD themselves can make a critical contribution evidenceÐfor example, for Bolivia, Brazil,
to economic growth. There are thus two Chile, C^ ote d'Ivoire, Ghana, India, Indonesia,
distinct causal chains to be examined: one runs Pakistan, Philippines, Malaysia, Nicaragua and
from EG to HD, as the resources from national PeruÐalso indicates the positive eects of
income are allocated to activities contributing family income change on child schooling. 9 For
to HD; the other runs from HD to EG, indi- example, a crosscountry study of the determi-
cating how, in addition to being an end in itself, nants of secondary education found that more
HD helps increase national income. The two egalitarian countries had higher secondary
chains are pictured in Figure 1. enrollment rates. 10 One estimate suggests that if
the distribution of income in Brazil were as equal
(a) Chain A: from EG to HD as Malaysia's, school enrollments among poor
children would be 40% higher. 11 While the
GNP contributes to HD mainly through evidence on the relations between income and
household and government activity; civil soci- health is less extensive, studies in Brazil, Chile,
ety, e.g., through community organizations and C^ote d'Ivoire and Nicaragua suggest that
other nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), household income also has a signi®cant eect on
also plays a role. The same level of GNP can the demand for health, 12 some showing a much
lead to very dierent performance on HD higher relative response for low than for high-
according to the allocation of GNP among and income households. 13
within these institutions and variations in their Where women control cash income, it
behavior. appears that expenditure patterns are geared
Households' propensity to spend their after- relatively more toward HD inputs, such as food
tax income on items which contribute most and education. For example, among Gambian
directly to the promotion of HD in poor coun- households, the larger the proportion of food
tries, e.g., food, potable water, education and under womenÕs control the larger household
health, varies, depending on such factors as the calorie consumption. 14 Similarly, in the Phil-
level and distribution of income across house- ippines it has been shown that consumption of
holds as well as on who controls the allocation calories and proteins increases with the share of
of expenditure within households. In general, income accruing directly to women. 15 In the
poor households spend a higher proportion of C^ote d'Ivoire, an increase in womenÕs share of
their incomes on HD items than those with cash income was associated with signi®cantly
higher incomes, and similar results ¯ow from higher spending on food and reduced spending
greater female control over household income. on alcohol and cigarettes. 16
When levels of poverty in a country are high, Turning to the government, the allocation of
either because per capita income is low or badly resources to improving HD is a function of
distributed, the expenditure of many house- total public sector expenditure, of how much of
holds on HD is bound to be low. While evi- this ¯ows to the HD sectors, and of the way in
dence 5 indicates that, in general, poverty is which it is allocated within these sectors. This
reduced with economic growth, the extent of can be expressed in the form of three ratios: 17
the reduction varies greatly with the distribu- the public expenditure ratio, de®ned as the
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 199
proportion of GNP spent by the various levels across countries in each of these ratios, which
of government; the HD-allocation ratio, means that the same level of GNP may be
de®ned as the proportion of total government associated with very dierent levels of govern-
expenditure going to the HD-sectors; and, ment spending on HD priorities. 18
®nally, the HD priority ratio, de®ned as the The underlying determinants of these three
proportion of total HD-sector expenditure ratios are complex, but include the following: (i)
going to ``priority areas.'' Within the HD-sec- the tax capacity of the system; (ii) the strength
tors, some expenditures are clearly much more of the demand for military expenditure and for
productive in terms of achieving advances in other non-HD priorities of the government; (iii)
HD than others; for example, basic education, the varying interplay between bureaucratic
especially at an early stage of development, is forces, vested interests and popular pressures. It
generally recognized to have a larger impact on should be noted that all three ratios are aected
HD than tertiary education. But the precise by the extent of decentralization of government:
de®nition of what constitutes a ``priority area'' country evidence suggests that real decentral-
will inevitably vary according to a country's ization, i.e. devolution, tends to increase the
stage of development, rendering this third ratio total revenue available; it often raises the HD-
more arbitrary and dicult to measure than the allocation ratio; and it almost always improves
other two. There are very large variations the HD-priority ratios. 19
200 WORLD DEVELOPMENT
clothing and engineering industries in Sri much more emphasized in the development
Lanka, to cite just one example, showed that literature.
the skill and education levels of workers and From a macro-perspective, the ``new growth
entrepreneurs were positively related to the rate theories'' aim to endogenize technical progress
of technical change of the ®rm. 34 Education by incorporating some of these same eects,
alone, of course, cannot transform an econ- emphasizing education as well as learning and
omy. The quantity and quality of investment, research and development (R&D). According
domestic and foreign, together with the overall to Lucas (1988), for example, the higher the
policy environment, form other important level of education of the workforce the higher
determinants of economic performance. Yet the the overall productivity of capital because the
level of human development has a bearing on more educated are more likely to innovate, and
these factors too. The quality of policy-making thus aect everyone's productivity. In other
and of investment decisions is likely to be models a similar externality is generated as the
in¯uenced by the education of both policy- increased education of individuals raises not
makers and managers; moreover, the volume of only their own productivity but also that of
both domestic and foreign investment will others with whom they interact, so that total
probably be larger when a system's human productivity increases as the average level of
capital supply is more plentiful. education rises. 42 A complementary view is
Improved health and nutrition have been that technical progress depends on the level of
shown to have direct eects on labor produc- R&D in an economy. By investing labor and
tivity, especially among poorer individuals. 35 capital in R&D a ®rm is able to improve not
A range of labor productivity gains has been only its own pro®tability but also the produc-
observed associated with calorie increases in tivity of the ®rms which consume its output.
poor countries, 36 including studies of farmers Again, education plays a key role, both in
in Sierra Leone, sugar cane workers in Guate- contributing to R&D and via interactive
mala, and road construction workers in learning. 43 A number of empirical studies have
Kenya. 37 In these cases productivity enhance- shown the positive eect of education on
ment appears to follow fairly immediately as economic growth at a macro level, with its size
current intakes of calories or micro-nutrients varying according to the measure of education
are increased. In other cases the eects are and the particular macro growth model adop-
medium-run (as re¯ected in weight) or long-run ted. 44
(as re¯ected in height), based on evidence from The impact of education on the nature and
Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and the growth of exports, which, in turn, aect the
Philippines. 38 A longitudinal study of a sample aggregate growth rate, is another way in which
of children in Chile concluded that providing human development in¯uences macro perfor-
nutritional supplements to children to prevent mance. The education and skills of a devel-
malnutrition would generate bene®ts six to oping country's labor force in¯uence the
eight times the cost of the intervention in terms nature of its factor endowment and conse-
of additional productivity. 39 A similar study of quently the composition of its trade. It has
Cali, Colombia found that a health and nutri- been argued that even ``unskilled'' workers in
tion program increased the lifetime earnings of a modern factory normally need the literacy,
individuals to from 2.5 to 8.9 times those of an numeracy and discipline which are acquired in
illiterate worker. 40 primary and lower secondary school. 45
It is dicult to capture the eects of ill-health Theoretical models incorporating skills and
(other than malnutrition) as there are few learning as important determinants of
accurate estimates of the incidence of illness. comparative advantage have led to modi®ca-
But studies in both Ghana and C^ ote d'Ivoire tions of the simple two factor Heckscher±
show the negative impact of morbidity, with Ohlin model, helping to explain the Leontief
men who reported that their activities had been Paradox and the dramatic success in the
curtailed by illness having lower hourly wage manufactured export growth of some devel-
rates, reduced hours of work and a smaller oping countries, notably those of East Asia. 46
probability of being in the labor force. 41 In Investigations have shown a signi®cant posi-
some contexts the evidence even indicates tive correlation between the growth of manu-
larger productivity eects arising from health factured exports and the growth of GDP,
and nutrition than from formal schooling, although serious identi®cation problems
although the impact of education has been remain. 47
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 203
There is also a positive feedback from institutional framework. As pointed out earlier,
improved education to greater income equality both domestic investment and direct foreign
which, in turn, is likely to favor higher rates of investment are in¯uenced by a country's HD
growth. As education becomes more broadly levelÐparticularly the education and skill levels
based, low-income people are better able to of the workforce. 53 But dierences in
seek out economic opportunities. For example, economic growth across societies are again not
a study of the relation between schooling, only due to the level of inputs but also by how
income inequality and poverty in 18 countries eectively they are used and for what purpose.
of Latin America in the 1980s found that one- One important in¯uence is the incentives set by
quarter of the variation in workers' incomes economic policy. Another derives from people's
was accounted for by variations in schooling motives and behavior patterns.
attainment; it concludes that ``clearly education Income distribution again appears to be
is the variable with the strongest impact on important in Chain B, as it was in Chain A.
income equality.'' 48 Another study suggested Recent empirical evidence suggests that the
that a 1% increase in the labor force with at distribution of assets and income has an eect
least secondary education would increase the on economic growth, with a more equal
share of income of the bottom 40 and 60% by distribution favoring higher rates of growth. 54
between 6 and 15% respectively. 49 An investi- Among the explanations put forward for this,
gation of the determinants of income distribu- one is derived from the relationships in Chain
tion in 36 countries found secondary A, i.e., that a more equal distribution of income
enrollment rates to be signi®cant. 50 implies better nutrition and a stronger demand
Finally, education may aect per capita for education and hence raises labor produc-
income growth via its impact on the denomi- tivity. Others derive from political economy
nator, i.e. population growth. For example, a considerations and relate to Chain B, e.g., that
study of 14 African countries for the mid-1980s an unequal distribution of income may be
showed a negative correlation between female associated with greater political and economic
schooling and fertility in almost all countries, instability, more likely to interrupt economic
with primary education having a negative progress. 55
impact in about half the countries and no In summary, the connection between HD
signi®cant eects in the other half, while and GNP, represented by Chain B, is likely to
secondary education invariably reduced fertil- be stronger:
ity. 51 The three success countries in terms of B.iÐthe higher the investment rate;
reduced fertility, Kenya, Botswana and Zimba- B.iiÐthe more equal the distribution of in-
bwe, had the highest levels of female schooling come;
as well as the lowest child mortality rates. 52 B.iiiÐthe more appropriate the economic
As in Chain A, the strength of the various policy setting.
links in Chain B varies considerably and there Because of diculties in de®ning and measur-
is no automatic connection between an ing hypothesis B.iii we shall con®ne our tests to
improved level of HD and increases in per B.i and B.ii.
capita GNP. It is not enough to create a larger
pool of educated people; there must also be
opportunities for them to be productively 3. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
employed or it might simply increase the
number of educated unemployed. Relevant to The discussion above led us to a set of
the demand-side are the savings and investment hypotheses about the links between HD and
rates, technology choice and the overall policy EG for both causal chainsÐfrom EG to HD
setting. (Chain A) and from HD to EG (Chain B),
Although high rates of saving and investment some of which we test with crosscountry
by themselves, as shown by past East European regressions for 1960±92. Our sample consists of
experience, do not guarantee high levels of 35 to 76 developing countries, according to the
sustained growth, normally a positive rela- availability of data for particular variables. We
tionship between investment and growth generally use lags of the original variables as
prevails, with its strength depending on such instruments to reduce the simultaneity bias that
factors as the policy environment, the quantity would have resulted from applying ordinary
and quality of human resources, the availability least squares (OLS). Lagged values are
of technology choices and the ¯exibility of the reasonable candidates as instruments since the
204 WORLD DEVELOPMENT
correlation between the residuals in the two ment of life expectancy. We attribute this to the
periods analyzed is not substantial. impact on household behavior of female
income, knowledge and control within the
(a) Chain A household. Moreover, it should be noted that
when this variable is added, social expenditure
For Chain A the variable chosen as a proxy becomes less signi®cant, which suggests that
for achievement in human development was life much of the impact of social expenditure
expectancy shortfall reduction, 1970±92, from a appears to occur through its eect on female
maximum of 85 years. 56 education. According to equations (4), (5) and
The explanatory variables selected were: (6), a 1% increase in the female primary gross
Ðlagged GDP per capita growth rate (for enrollment rate is estimated to reduce the life
1960±70) as a measure of overall EG; expectancy shortfall by 0.1%.
Ðsocial expenditure (de®ned as public The income distribution variables run coun-
expenditure on education and health) as a ter to our expectations, i.e. a more equal
percentage of GDP for the whole period distribution does not seem to advance human
(1970±92), as well as lagged (1970±80). The development.
hypothesis advanced earlier was that HD Both the African and Latin American
improvement would depend in part on the dummies are negative and signi®cant through-
proportion of GDP devoted to social expen- out, as we might have expected, given that the
diture; priority social expenditure data were comparator is highly successful East Asia. In
viewed as somewhat too arbitrary for each case the coecient is quite small. The
deployment here; regional dummies include a number of region-
Ðseveral measures of income distribution, speci®c features, including the level of per
i.e. income share of the bottom 20% or capita income.
40%, 1960±92, and the ratio of income share
of the top to the bottom quintile, 1960±92; (b) Chain B
Ðfemale primary school gross enrollment
rate in 1965; this is a proxy for the change For Chain B, the dependent variable chosen
in the stock of educated females. The latter was GDP per capita growth, 1970±92.
is likely to be associated with greater female The explanatory variables selected were:
control over household expenditure, thus Ðlog GDP per capita in 1960, to test for
tending to improve the HDIF; convergence of income levels as countries
Ðregional dummies, with East Asia allo- approach high income levels;
cated a zero value. Ðinitial levels of HD, using three dierent
Table 1 summarizes the results for Chain A. measures, log life expectancy in 1962, adult
GDP per capita growth proved signi®cant and literacy 1970±72, and a combined index of
quite strong in all of the equations, with higher life expectancy and literacy for 1970
growth of per capita income leading to better (HDI*); 57
HD performance. According to equation (1), a Ðchanges in HD over time for two of the
one percentage point increase in the average measures of HD, the change in the log of life
growth rate of GDP per capita is estimated to expectancy, 1962±82; and HDI* shortfall
reduce life expectancy shortfall by more than reduction 1960±80; 58
three percentage points over the period. The Ðgross domestic investment as a % of GDP
social expenditure ratio also proved signi®- for the period as a whole (1960±92);
cantly positive in all but one case. For every Ðincome distribution, lagged, (1960±70),
percentage point increase in the average share using three alternative measures, the ratio
of GDP invested in health and education, when of the income share of the top to bottom
lagged, the life expectancy shortfall decreases quintiles, the income share of the bottom
by about 1.75 percentage points (equations (1) 40% of the population, and the income share
and (3)). of the bottom 20%;
An interesting ®nding is the mechanism Ðregional dummies, as in Chain A.
through which the social expenditure ratio The results are summarized in Table 2. Our
seems to aect human development. As measures of the initial level of human devel-
regressions (4), (5) and (6) indicate, the female opment invariably proved signi®cant, although
primary enrollment rate for 1965 has a signi®- with low coecients; i.e. the initial level of life
cant but small impact on the rate of improve- expectancy in equations (10)±(12), as well as
Table 1. Chain AÐordinary least squares regressions dependent variable: life expectancy shortfall reduction 1970±92
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
GDP/n Growth rate 1960±70 3.25 1.66 3.19 1.27 2.65 2.70 2.10 2.14 2.31
(4.09)a (3.61) (4.06) (2.56) (3.17) (3.17) (2.82) (2.52) (2.95)
Social Expenditures as a % of GDP ± 1.03 ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
1970±92 (2.84)
Social Expenditures as a % of GDP 1.73 ± 1.75 ± 1.36 1.51 1.28 1.54 1.36
1970±80 (2.37) (2.56) (1.64) (1.74) (1.91) (1.76) (1.91)
Income share of bottom 40% 1960±92 ÿ0:004 ± ± ÿ0:004 ± ÿ0:002 ± ± ±
(ÿ0.93) (ÿ1.29) (ÿ0.45)
Income share of bottom 20% 1960±92 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ÿ1:66 ÿ1:88
(ÿ1.76) (ÿ2.26)
Ratio of income share top to bottom ± ± 0.002 ± 0.002 ± 0.005 ± ±
20% 1960±92 (1.19) (1.01) (3.02)
Female primary gross enrollment rate ± ± ± 0.12 0.10 0.10 ± 0.05 ±
1965 (2.59) (1.94) (1.85) (0.71)
Latin America dummy ± ± ± ± ± ± ÿ0:08 ÿ0:08 ÿ0:07
(ÿ2.35) (ÿ1.98) (ÿ2.02)
Africa dummy ± ± ± ± ± ± ÿ0.16 ÿ0.12 ÿ0.13
(ÿ4.34) (ÿ2.49) (ÿ3.63)
South Asia dummy ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.003 0.003 0.02
(0.06) (0.50) (0.39)
Middle East dummy ± ± ± ± ± ± ÿ0:09 ÿ0:07 ÿ0:09
(ÿ1.01) (ÿ0.67) (ÿ0.97)
Intercept 0.15 0.28 0.06 0.23 0.02 1.07 0.16 0.25 0.30
(1.51) (6.09) (1.17) (3.36) (0.51) (0.68) (2.92) (2.08) (3.59)
# of observations 41 76 41 54 38 38 41 38 41
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Adj. R-squared 0.38 0.27 0.38 0.26 0.41 0.40 0.59 0.51 0.55
a
T-Statistics are given in parentheses.
*
Signi®cant at 1%.
**
Signi®cant at 5%.
***
Signi®cant at 10%.
205
206
Table 2. Chain BÐordinary least squares regressions dependent variable: average real GDP/n growth 1970±92
Variable 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Log GDP/n 1960 ÿ0.01 ± ÿ0.01 ÿ0.01 ÿ0.01 ÿ0.009 ÿ0.01 ÿ0.01
(ÿ3.01)a (ÿ3.04) (ÿ2.87) (ÿ1.87) (ÿ1.42) (ÿ2.38) (ÿ2.55)
Adult literacy rate 1970±72 ± ± ± 0.03 ± ± 0.03 0.03
(2.45) (2.19) (2.21)
Log life expectancy 1967 0.06 0.03 0.09 ± ± ± ± ±
(3.79) (2.09) (3.90)
Gross domestic investment as a % of 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.12
GDP 1960±92 (3.83) (2.72) (2.37) (1.99) (2.26) (1.06) (2.07) (2.09)
Income share of bottom 40% 1960±70 ± ± 0.001 ± 0.001 ± ± 0.001
(1.52) (1.70) (2.20)
Income share of bottom 20% 1960±70 ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.40 ±
(2.18)
WORLD DEVELOPMENT
(18)±(22) were all highly signi®cant. Adult restricted the de®nition of HD in our Chain A
literacy 1970±72 was signi®cant in equations regressions to life expectancy shortfall reduc-
(13), (16) and (17); and the HDI* for 1970 was tion which is mainly aected by public expen-
signi®cant in equations (14) and (15), all with ditures on health and education, particularly
low coecients. The change in life expectancy, female, and less by household expenditures.
1962±82, was positive and signi®cant in all For Chain B, the relationship between HD and
cases but one (see equations (18)±(22)). The economic growth was stronger the higher the
change in HDI* shortfall reduction, 1960±80, investment rate and the more equally distrib-
was signi®cant in equation (23), but the initial uted the income. The regional dummies were
level of HDI* was not signi®cant. generally negative for both Africa and Latin
The domestic investment rate was always America in both chains but with small coe-
signi®cant except when the regional dummies cients. Since, on average, Africa experienced a
were included (equations (15) and (22)). The decline in GDP per capita over the period, this
lagged income distribution variables virtually indicates that the fall in per capita incomes was
all gave results with the expected sign (i.e. a not proportionately translated into a slowdown
more equal income distribution is associated or reversal in HD improvements. 59
with higher economic growth), and were almost
always signi®cantÐif with very low coe-
cientsÐexcept when the regional dummies were 4. VIRTUOUS AND VICIOUS CYCLES
included. Moreover, income distribution is AND LOP-SIDED DEVELOPMENT
apparently more strongly related to GDP
growth when changes as well as levels of human The existence of two chains linking HD and
development, however measured, are included. economic growth is thus strongly supported by
The ratio of income shares of the top to bottom both our framework, drawing on micro and
quintiles, 1960±70, showed signi®cance in macro studies in the literature, and our empir-
equations (11), (13) and (21); the share of the ical results. This means that an economy may
bottom 40% was signi®cant in equations (14), be on a mutually reinforcing upward spiral,
(17), (19), (20) and (23), but the lagged income with high levels of HD leading to high growth
distribution variable was not signi®cant in and high growth in turn further promoting HD.
equations (12), (15) and (22), although the signs Conversely, weak HD may result in low growth
were in the ``right'' direction. Regional and consequently poor progress toward HD
dummies for Latin America were signi®cantly improvement. The strength of the links in the
negative in both instances when deployed and, two chains in¯uences the extent of mutual
in one case, also for Africa. In all equations, reinforcement between HD and EG, in either
except when the regional dummies were intro- direction.
duced (equation (15)), the initial level of GDP Country performance can therefore be
per capita was signi®cant, with a negative sign, usefully classi®ed into four categories, virtuous,
indicating weak convergence, i.e. with a low vicious and two types of lop-sidedness, i.e.
coecient. lopsided with strong HD/weak growth (called
In summary, the two chains, taken as a HD-lopsided); and lopsided with weak HD/
whole, showed a signi®cantly positive eect of strong growth (EG-lopsided). In the virtuous
economic growth on HD and a signi®cantly cycle case, good HD enhances growth, which in
positive eect of HD on economic growth. turn promotes HD, and so on. In the vicious
With respect to speci®c links in each of the cycle case, poor performance on HD tends to
chains, our ®ndings broadly con®rmed the lead to poor growth performance which in turn
tested hypotheses, except for income distribu- depresses HD achievements, and so on. The
tion in Chain A. For Chain A, the higher social stronger the linkages in the two chains descri-
expenditure, the higher adult literacy, and the bed above the more pronounced the cycle of
higher the female education enrollment for a economic growth and HD, either in a positive
given level of GNP per capita, the larger the or dampening direction. Where linkages are
improvement in HD. The most surprising weak, cases of lop-sided development may
®nding, counter to our expectations, was that a occur. On the one hand, good economic growth
more equal distribution of income did not may not bring about good HD, if, for example,
improve HD performance; indeed, in some there are such weak linkages as a low social
equations the opposite result obtained. One expenditure ratio; on the other hand, good HD
explanation of this may well be that we performance may not generate good EG if
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 209
there is a dearth of complementary resources lopsided quadrant, i.e. 10 of the 13 are from
because of low investment rates. Such cases of that region. In the EG-lopsided category there
lop-sided development are unlikely to persist. are just four countriesÐEgypt, Pakistan,
Either the weak partner in the cycle eventually Mauritius and Lesotho.
acts as a brake on the other partner, leading to The important issue for policy purposes is
a vicious cycle case, or, if the linkages are how a country may move towards inclusion in
strengthened, possibly by policy change, a the virtuous cycle category. Much can be
virtuous cycle case results. learned about this by looking at the ways in
One way of classifying countries into the four which countries moved across categories over
categories is to compare their performance on time. Taking the movements of countries over
HD and EG with the average performance of the three decades 1960±70, 1970±80 and 1980±
all developing countries. Figure 2 presents this 92 (see Table 3 and Figure 3), we ®nd the
classi®cation for 1960±92 for all developing following:
countries for which data were available. The ÐOver half the countries in the vicious-cycle
vertical and horizontal grid lines represent the category in 1960±70, i.e. 18 out of 35, re-
average performance for the period, with mained in that category throughout. Most
countries weighted by their populations in of these countries were in sub-Saharan Afri-
1992. Most developing countries appear as ca, which started with very low levels of HD,
either virtuous (NE quadrant), or vicious (SW handicapping their growth potential; their
quadrant); a signi®cant number showed an low growth rates and, subsequently, the debt
HD-lopsided pattern, and very few an EG- crisis prevented them from generating the re-
lopsided one. A strong regional pattern emer- sources necessary for improvements in HD.
ges, with East Asia heavily represented in the ÐSix countries moved from vicious cycle to
virtuous cycle case (seven out of the eight cases EG-lopsided between the 1960s and the
are East or South East Asian, the eighth being 1970s, but four of them fell back to the vi-
Botswana). Of the 37 countries in the vicious cious cycle category in the 1980s. Three
cycle quadrant, 21 are from sub-Saharan moved from vicious to HD-lopsided, includ-
Africa, nine from Latin America. Latin ing Honduras, Algeria and Madagascar, and
America is also strongly represented in the HD- only Madagascar returned to the vicious
Figure 2. Classi®cation of country performance (1960±92). Note: The horizontal and vertical lines de®ning the four
quadrants represent developing country averages weighted by population.
210 WORLD DEVELOPMENT
Table 3Ðcontinued
1960±70 1970±80 1980±92
East Asia
China HD lop-sided Virtuous Virtuous
Hong Kong Virtuous Virtuous Virtuous
Indonesia HD lop-sided Virtuous Virtuous
Korea Republic Virtuous Virtuous Virtuous
Malaysia Virtuous Virtuous Virtuous
Myanmar HD lop-sided Vicious Vicious
Philippines HD lop-sided EG lop-sided Vicious
Singapore Virtuous Virtuous Virtuous
Thailand Virtuous Virtuous Virtuous
Middle East
Algeria Vicious HD lop-sided HD lop-sided
Egypt EG lop-sided EG lop-sided Vicious
Morocco Vicious EG lop-sided HD lop-sided
Turkey Virtuous HD lop-sided HD lop-sided
Figure 3. Country HD-EG quadrant changes over three decades. Note: The country movements indicate the quadrants
in which countries are placed over the three decades but not their actual location relative to the axes.
cycle category. Kenya, which moved from ÐOf the eight countries which were EG-lop-
vicious to virtuous in the 1970s, also subse- sided in 1960±70, none stayed in that cate-
quently fell back to vicious. Only two coun- gory throughout, but all moved into the
tries managed to move from the vicious to vicious category. OneÐPakistanÐreverted
virtuous category on a sustained basisÐi.e. to EG-lopsided in the 1980s. Brazil and
Sri Lanka and Botswana. Egypt enjoyed relatively fast growth during
212 WORLD DEVELOPMENT
the 1960s and 1970s (over 3% in the 1960s Our analysis suggests that it is not possible to
and about 6% in the 1970s) but did not uti- move to virtuous via EG-lopsidedness, as this
lize this opportunity to improve the levels of proved a dead end.
HD substantially. In the case of Brazil the Hence the process we need to examine more
highly unequal income distribution (with a closely is that leading to a movement from
Gini of 0.634, one of the worst in the world) vicious to HD-lopsided, from HD-lopsided to
was one reason why growth did not translate virtuous, or the very unusual case, undoubtedly
into HD improvements. In both Pakistan dicult, of taking the direct route from vicious
and Egypt, public expenditure on health to virtuous.
and education was low, partly due to heavy Our earlier review of the links in the two
expenditure on the military, while Pakistan's chains suggests that to move from vicious to
HD performance suered especially from HD-lopsided one needs to strengthen the links
discrimination against females. in Chain A, which may be achieved by adopt-
ÐOf the 13 HD-lopsided countries in the ing some of the following policies:
1960s, only Costa Rica stayed in that cate- Ðthose leading to a shift in resource alloca-
gory throughout: four moved into a virtuous tion toward education and health services,
cycleÐChile, China, Colombia and Indone- especially those serving the majority of the
sia (Colombia later falling back to HD-lop- people, as apparently occurred in Argentina
sided). In these cases, early progress in with enhanced decentralization.
human development meant that they were Ðthose generating a more equitable income
able to take advantage of policy reforms distribution (for example, through land and
for generating growth. Egalitarian income tax reform or a move toward a more
distribution also assisted the movement to- employment-intensive pattern of output).
ward a virtuous cycle. Four moved initially Algeria is an example, with land reform in
from HD-lopsided into the vicious category the 1960s and some large-scale employment
(Venezuela, Myanmar, Peru, and El Salva- programs in the 1970s. 64
dor 60Ðthe latter two moving back into Ðthose providing extensive opportunities
HD-lopsidedness in the 1980s). 61 ThreeÐ for the unemployed, for example Bolivia's
Dominican Republic, Guatemala and the Social Fund in the 1980s, which received
PhilippinesÐinitially moved to EG-lopsided substantial support from donors.
and subsequently fell back into the vicious Movement from the HD-lopsided to the
category. Among the reasons for the failure virtuous category requires strengthening the
to move into high economic growth were links in Chain B by, for example:
the debt situation, poor economic policies Ðtaking advantage of an improved HD to
and internal disturbances. Consequently, promote economic growth through policy
they were unable to maintain the rate of pro- reform;
gress in HD because of slow economic Ðincreasing the investment rate, possibly
growth. assisted from the outside;
ÐThirteen countries were in the virtuous cy- Ðimproving the distribution of income.
cle category in the 1960s; ®ve retained this Chile is an example where strong economic
position throughout; and ®ve fell back to reforms, combined with a high level of HD,
the HD-lopsided and three to the vicious accounted for improved economic growth.
category. 62 Mostly, the countries that fell Relatively good income distribution in China,
back were subject to the depressing eects along with policy reform and very high invest-
of the 1980s debt crisis on economic growth. ment rates, led to accelerated economic growth.
It is important to note that lopsidedness was In Indonesia, a similar process was heavily
a temporary condition in all cases except Costa supported by external capital ¯ows.
Rica. 63 Our most signi®cant ®nding is that, We do not wish to argue here that any
while HD-lopsidedness permitted movement particular set of policies would achieve a
towards a virtuous cycle (occurring in about a particular movement across categories; rather
third of the cases), in the case of EG-lopsided- we want to emphasize an important conclusion
ness, all the cases reverted to a vicious cycle. about the sequencing of policy change, i.e. that
Very few countries managed to go directly from HD must be strengthened before a virtuous
vicious to virtuous; but some succeeded in cycle can be attained. Policy reforms which
moving to HD-lopsided, from where it was focus only on economic growth are unlikely to
possible to move into the virtuous category. succeed. Countries in a virtuous cycle category
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 213
may well slip back into HD-lopsidedness, if, for In summary, we have demonstrated the
some reason, growth slows down, but as long existence of an iterative process between the
as HD stays high such cases have a good ultimate objectiveÐimprovements in HDÐ
chance of resuming their virtuous cycle pattern. and economic growth as a necessary but not
Whenever either or both chains appear to be sucient condition for achieving such
weak, leading to lop-sided or vicious cycles, it is improvements. Moreover, by investigating the
important to identify where the weak links are relative importance of various links connect-
and what the appropriate policies might be to ing HD and EG we have identi®ed the
strengthen such links. These policies must, direction policy might take to strengthen such
moreover, be viewed in an evolutionary links. One important conclusion concerns the
context. Even countries initially successful in desirable phasing of policy change. Economic
both HD and EG will need to change their and social policy has tended to focus priority
policies as development proceeds in order to on getting the economic fundamentals ``right''
sustain their success. In an early phase, for as a necessary precondition for economic
example, priority should be given to primary growth, while arguing that HD improvement
education and some comprehensive health must await such economic growth. Our
interventions, both from the perspective of ®ndings do not deny the importance of
improving HD and that of increasing economic economic reforms, but emphasize that a
growth. At a later stage, the roles of science and focus on HD must be included from the
technology institutions and higher education beginning of any reform program. Economic
become more important for strengthening growth itself will not be sustained unless
Chain B, while, along Chain A, hospitals preceded or accompanied by improvements in
assume a greater role than before. HD.
NOTES
1. See especially the UNDP's Human Development 8. Strauss and Thomas (1995). Of 38 studies in
Reports, starting in 1990. dierent countries one-third indicate that at least one-
half of additional income is spent in this way. See also
2. See, e.g., Sen (1984); Streeten, Burki, ul Haq, Hicks Bouis and Haddad (1992).
and Stewart (1981); Fei, Ranis and Stewart (1985).
9. E.g., Alderman, Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot
(1995, 1996a); Behrman and Wolfe (1987a,b); Birdsall
3. The ®rst UNDP Human Development Report stated
(1985); Deolalikar (1993); King and Lillard (1987).
that: ``The basic objective of development is to create an
enabling environment for people to enjoy long, healthy 10. Williamson (1993).
and creative lives'' (UNDP, 1990, p. 9), and de®ned
human development as ``a process of enlarging people's 11. Birdsall, Ross and Sabot (1995).
choices'' (p. 10).
12. Blau (1986); Harbert and Scandizzo (1982);
4. One notable exception is Adelman and Morris Thomas, Strauss and Hanriques (1990, 1991); Thomas,
(1973) who argued that educational investment should Lavy and Strauss (1992).
be given sequencing priority.
13. Gertler, Locay and Sanderson (1987).
5. E.g. Fields (1989); Deininger and Squire (1996).
14. von Braun (1988).
6. Bruno, Ravallion and Squire (1995), for example, in
a study of 20 developing countries, show that a 10% 15. Garcia (1990).
increase in average income per capita, 1984±93, was
associated with a 20% fall in the proportion of people 16. Hoddinott and Haddad (1991).
living on less than $1 a day. See also Ravallion and Datt
(1991). 17. See UNDP (1991).
7. Lipton (1977); Ranis (1979); Stewart (1977); Lipton 18. See UNDP (1991) Chapter 3, and UNDP (1996)
and Ravallion (1995). Chapter 3.
214 WORLD DEVELOPMENT
19. Decentralization of publicly provided services which do not allow for this may understate the total
recently has been introduced in a wide range of returns.
countries. Tentative conclusions about their eectiveness
are mixed, with apparent relative success in promoting 30. Boissiere, Knight and Sabot (1985); Alderman,
eciency and contributing to HD in Indonesia, Malay- Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1996b).
sia, Chile and Karnataka in India, but less so in
Argentina, Bangladesh and Brazil. Mostly, local govern- 31. Schultz (1975); Welch (1970); Rosenzweig (1995);
ments have been severely constrained in their ability to Foster and Rosenzweig (1994); Behrman, Rosenzweig
raise taxes as well as in the freedom of allocative and Vashishtha (1995).
decision-making, and full democratic devolution has
been rare. See Behrman (1995b); Prud'homme (1995);
32. Birdsall (1993).
Klugman (1995); Ranis and Stewart (1994); Tanzi
(1995).
33. Jamison and Moock (1984). A similar level of
education was estimated to increase farm productivity
20. UNDP (1996, p. 71). These calculations adopt a
by 10% or more, according to studies in India and
narrow de®nition of social priority expenditure, includ-
Pakistan (Azher, 1991; Butt, 1984; Duraisamy, 1992).
ing pre-primary and ®rst-level education plus primary
Studies in Malaysia, Ghana and Peru show that, on
health care only.
average, an extra year of schooling of a farmer is
associated with an annual increase in output of 2±5%
21. Riddell, Robinson deConinck, Muir and White (Birdsall, 1993). Examination of the early stages of
(1995). India's Green Revolution indicates that the bene®ts
from schooling arose more from conferring on farmers
22. See, e.g., the review by Strauss and Thomas (1995). the capacity for learning from their own experience or
from those of others, rather than from providing them
23. See e.g., Rosenzweig and Schultz (1982); Wolfe and with an initial information advantage (Foster & Rose-
Behrman (1987); Barrera (1990). nzweig, 1995).
25. Lavy, Strauss, Thomas, deVreyer (1995). 35. See Behrman and Deolalikar (1987) and surveys in
Behrman (1993, 1996).
26. A term used broadly to describe civil society
networksÐsee Coleman (1988); North (1990) and Helli- 36. See Cornia and Stewart (1995).
well and Putnam (1995) for the development of the
concept and some empirical evidence. Tendler and
37. Strauss (1986); Immink and Viteri (1981); Wolge-
Freedheim (1994) provide evidence.
muth, Latham, Hall and Crompton (1982).
44. E.g., Barro (1991); Barro and Lee (1993, 1994). 57. HDI* is a modi®ed version of the Human Devel-
opment Index of UNDP, including only the nonincome
45. Wood (1994); Owens and Wood (1995). components, i.e. educational attainment as measured by
a combination of adult literacy (2/3 weight), mean years
46. See Kenen (1965); Keesing (1966); Pack and of schooling (1/3 weight), and longevity as measured by
Westphal (1986); Leamer (1993). life expectancy at birth.
47. E.g. Michaely (1977); Krueger (1978); Ram (1985); 58. When changes over time were introduced, the dates
Rana (1988); Edwards (1993). of the initial level of HD were also changed, so that log
life expectancy was for 1962 and HDI* for 1960.
48. Psacharopolous, Morley, Fiszbein, Lee and Wood
(1992, p. 48). 59. One explanation is that there were important
speci®c interventions (notably immunization) that
aected HD positively throughout the world in the
49. Bourgignon and Morrisson (1990).
1970s and 1980s. In a sense these weakened the links in
Chain A by rendering HD improvements more indepen-
50. Bourgignon (1995). dent of incomes. In Africa, this would translate into a
reduced negative impact on HD of falling incomes.
51. See Birdsall, Ross and Sabot (1995); Jayaraman
(1995); Strauss and Thomas (1995); Thomas, Strauss 60. Iraq made the same move between the 1960s and
and Henriques (1991); Behrman and Wolfe (1987a). 1970s, but data are not available for the later period, when
con¯ict is likely to have damaged both HD and growth.
52. Ainsworth, Beegle and Nyamete (1995).
61. The Philippines moved from HD-lopsided to EG-
53. OECD/DAC (1995); World Bank (1995a). lopsided and then returned to HD-lopsided in the 1980s.
54. Alesina and Rodrik (1994); Alesina and Perotti 62. Lesotho moved from virtuous to vicious by way of
(1994); Persson and Tabellini (1994); Birdsall et al. EG-lopsided.
(1995).
63. One of the explanations of why Costa Rica was
55. Alesina and Rodrik (1994). able to sustain HD achievements despite low economic
growth resides in its early, strong and sustained
56. As incorporated in the Human Development commitment to HD, exempli®ed by abolition of its
IndexÐsee UNDP (1995). We also tried regressions army in 1948 and its heavy investment (at 10% of GDP)
with changes in adult literacy rates and a combined, on health and education during 1970±92.
equally weighted, measure of the two. The results were
similar but the number of observations more limited. 64. El-Ghonemy (1990).
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