This article was downloaded by: On: 19 January 2010 Access details: Access Details: Free Access

Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 3741 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713694199

An Overview: Tourism Non-governmental Organizations and Poverty Reduction in

Developing Countries
Kathleen Kennedy a; D'Arcy Dornan a a Department of Geography, Central Connecticut State University, New
Britain, CT, USA

To cite this Article Kennedy, Kathleen and Dornan, D'Arcy(2009) 'An Overview: Tourism Non-
governmental Organizations and Poverty Reduction in Developing Countries', Asia Pacific Journal of
Tourism Research, 14: 2, 183 — 200
To link to this Article: DOI:
10.1080/10941660902847237 URL:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941660902
847237
 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-
distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or
up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The
publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused
arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

An Overview: Tourism Non-governmental Organizations and

Poverty Reduction in Developing Countries

Kathleen Kennedy and D’Arcy Dornan�

Department of Geography, Central Connecticut State University, 1615 Stanley Street , New Britain, CT 06050,
USA

This article illustrates how select non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are using tourism as a
development tool for poverty reduction. These tourism-oriented NGOs are becoming increasingly
relevant as an alternative and legitimate source of development aid to many developing countries,
since the turn of the 21st century. Many NGOs based in the developed world, in their quest to meet the
United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals, are partnering with developing world NGOs and
communities to help create locally initiated solutions to poverty.
These partnerships ensure community involvement and more direct benefits to communities, while
creating sustainable solutions that preserve their culture and environment. Although there are several
distinct types of tourism NGO providing both financial and non-financial benefits to poor and
indigenous communities, this article focuses on three2 educational and advocacy organizations,
“voluntourism” organizations and tour company foundations2that have made substantial contributions
to poverty reduction through sustainable tourism. Is this an effective means of providing communities
with socially and environmentally responsible tourism in developing countries in Africa, Asia and
Central and South America? This article suggests that it is; however, the lack of uniform standards for
measuring the success of these organizations complicates efforts to ascertain the exact levels of
poverty reduction.

Key words: non-governmental organizations, poverty alleviation, sustainable tourism, developing

countries

Introduction world and become a force for poverty reduction and aid
in the development process
Tourism, the world’s largest industry, has the in developing economies, while being respect
ability to harness its power in the developed ful to the customs, cultures and environments

�Email: dornandaj@ccsu.edu
ISSN 1094-1665 print/ISSN 1741-6507 online/09/020183–18 # 2009 Asia Pacific Tourism Association DOI:
10.1080/10941660902847237
of the local communities. In recent decades there
have been increasing efforts, by both developed and
developing countries, to foster development and
reduce poverty. Tourism has become such a growth
industry (Walker, 2006), providing a source of
overseas investment, job creation, demand for local
goods and services (food, hotels, souvenirs, etc.) as
well as a stimulus for community and regional
development. Most importantly, it generates a supply
of needed revenue and foreign exchange as a
commodity with the consumer (tourist) traveling to
the source country (Dickenson et al., 1996).
After World War I, the first official relief non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) emerged, born
out of the historical practice of voluntarism, such as
“Save the Children Fund” and the Catholic Church-
based “Caritas”. The phrase “non-governmental
organization” came into use with the establishment
of the United Nations in 1945 with provisions in the
United Nations Charter, as a consultative role for
organizations that are neither governments nor
member states. After World War II, such
organizations gained strength and multiplied,
concentrating on war-torn Europe. In the 1950s and
1960s, voluntary organizations in the USA and
Europe began to concentrate around development
issues, directing their attention to the Third World,
with the objectives of modernization theory, health
issues and poverty alleviation.
According to the World Association of Non-
governmental Organizations (WANGO), an NGO is
considered to be any not-for-profit organization that
is not established by a governmental entity or
intergovernmental agreement, and which is
organized on a local, national, sub-regional,
regional, or international level. During the 1980s,
NGOs emerged as major actors on the international
development scene. It was not until the second part
of that decade that the development community at
large, individual experts and financial agencies
rediscovered NGOs as a new institutional source of
development, even though they, for many years, had
already been quietly laboring in the field of poverty
alleviation.
Currently, there are tens of thousands of NGOs in
the USA and Europe (also known as “Northern
NGOs”) working in the developing world. Rich and
complex in their diversity, the motivation of their
founders is clear: a commitment to develop and
nurture, without personal profit, a privately run
program producing important benefits (Fisher, 1998,
p. x). Since the early 1970s more than a 100,000
NGOs have been founded in Asia, Africa and Latin
America by people from all walks of life, from
peasant women to professors, squatters, students,
fisher folk and unemployed intellectuals (Fisher,
1998, p. xi). The contributions by NGOs are
generally looked upon as an “alternative” source of
development as they break from the Western
concept, or mainstream model of progress.
A non-governmental organization, in the
contextoftourism, is defined by the United Nations
as any formal association that neither is a
government nor hopes to replace a government or its
officials. It is funded from voluntary contributions
and is not involved in for-profit activity. NGOs must
support the goals of the United Nations or other
governmental agencies that recognize them (Jafari,
2000, p. 414). The development of NGOs represent a
global trend, diverse in range, and part of a wide
network with some of the more prevalent types
involved in tourism development.
NGOs are typically characterized by their
innovation and flexibility as they challenge the
narrow scope and top-down style of decision-making
about human needs, rather than merely the identity
or ideology of decision-makers (Drabek, 1987, p. 3).
In their quest to narrow the gap between developed
and developing countries, they hold several roles in
addition to sustainable systems of development:
. They look to education as a means to train advocate the formulation of official
those in poverty for future sustenance. . They
policies that support the efforts of develop
ing countries. . They strive to ensure the accurate image
portrayal and representation of the residents
they serve. . They conduct research and fundraising. . New waves of NGOs are focused on long-
term economic and social development of
developing countries, and want to attack
the root problems of poverty rather than
treat its symptoms.

Tourism-oriented NGOs have their own specific objectives in addition to those mentioned above. They
administer, strengthen and promote stewardship projects, and further the well-being of the host communities
they visit. They help support and empower local and indigenous communities by providing jobs, skills, home-
ownership, health care, education and credit systems through community and conservation projects; but
perhaps more importantly, they have raised questions and awareness among the developed world regarding
the plight of developing countries through their programs and publicity (Burns, 1999).
Tourism-oriented NGOs are a relatively recent social movement that seeks to enhance development efforts
and poverty reduction initiatives in developing countries. The focus of this paper is the type of tourism NGO
that believes tourism can and does provide an opportunity for poverty reduction in developing countries and
has made socially and environmentally responsible tourism their mission. Although participant numbers are
increasing, this article underlines the need for the creation and adoption of a standard monitoring and
evaluation tool to allow for cross-the-board analyses of the effectiveness of their poverty reduction efforts.

Literature Review

Although there is a shortage of literature linking the effectiveness and accomplishments of tourism-oriented
NGOs to poverty reduction in developing countries, there is an abundance of literature regarding other roles
NGOs play in developing countries. The literature review will feature private aid being sent to foreign
countries and issues faced by developing countries in tourism development and NGOs in support of tourism
development as a form of poverty reduction.
In Julie Fisher’s 1993 book, The road from Rio: Sustainable development and the nongovernmental
movement in the Third World, she discusses how the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 launched a new phase in advancing the cause of sustainable develop-
ment and how the participation of NGOs in the Third World is at the forefront of this cause. She describes
how the NGO movement challenges both the narrow scope and the top-down style of decision-making about
human needs, and how they do not wish to overthrow and replace existing governments, but rather to
challenge their inequitable and often repressive political monopoly. These NGOs have been founded by
people from all walks of life and target such issues as escalating poverty, environmental degradation and
social justice (Fisher, 1993, p. xii).
Despite all the ills people in these developing organizations, and how they fund projects. In the
countries experience, Fisher (1993, p. 1) states that it past “Northern” governments have traditionally
took the crisis of global environmental degradation responded to conditions in the Third World by aiding
to begin to move poverty and population issues to governments or through promoting the interests of
the forefront of NGO work. Fisher discusses in multinational corporations. However, the spread of
detail the various types of NGO, where they are NGOs is a turning point, as they offer a solution with
based, how they build linkages with other “bottomup” initiatives. Owing to the rapid growth of
NGOs in Asia, Africa and Latin America, additional policy objective. Another
partnerships are being created between some of the recommendation is to increase poor people’s
best and least-educated people in each society as participation in economic opportunities while
intellectuals and technically trained professionals
incorporating wider concerns of the poor into the
seek out and work with grass-roots villagers and
neighborhood groups (Fisher, 1993, p. 5). Fisher planning and decision-making process. They suggest
makes a crucial statement in assessing the NGO that pro-poor interventions should be taken at three
movement when she says that it is difficult to see levels: the destination level, the national policy level
what is actually happening. As NGOs often work in and the international level. They suggest that pro-
innovative ways that may be considered “ahead of poor tourism approaches should be incorporated into
their time” in their country, their impact, although mainstream (mass) tourism in ways that reduce
discernable, may not be visible for many years barriers to activities by the poor; it should not be
(Fisher, 1993, p. 17).
reserved just for niche markets. Finally, they
In “Pro-poor tourism: Putting poverty at the heart
strongly recommend that organizations should work
of the tourism agenda”, Ashley, Boyd and Goodwin
through partners including NGOs, as NGOs and
(2000, p. 1) examine how tourism affects the
donors can help in reducing the transaction costs of
livelihoods of the poor and how positive impacts can
changing commercial practice by way of facilitating,
be enhanced as well as the relevance of tourism to
training, organization and communication that would
the problem of poverty. They state that tourism
enable businesses (such as tour companies in the
development has not, to date, incorporated poverty
North) to use more local suppliers in their tourism
elimination objectives, but instead remains driven by
programs.
economic, environmental and cultural perspectives
at both national and international levels.
Participation by the poor in tourism, and the benefits
they gain, depends on a range of critical factors,
including the type of tourism practiced, planning
regulations, land tenure, market context, and access
to capital and training.
Ashley et al. (2001, p. 1) state that since the mid-
1980s, interest in “green” tourism, ecotourism and
community tourism has grown rapidly among
decision-makers, practitioners and advocates.
However, all of these focus on the need to ensure
that tourism does not erode the environment and
cultural base on which it depends, yet they generally
do not consider the range of impacts on the liveli-
hoods of the poor. Tourism will survive only where
there are sufficient quality products
(i.e. landscapes, wildlife, heritage sites, recreational
facilities, etc.), infrastructure and commercial
services to attract tourists. In several cases, tourism’s
impact on people’s access to natural resources or
physical infrastructure has been identified as the
most important benefit or concern.
Ashley et al. (2001, p. 6) suggest several
strategies that would enhance the impacts of tourism
on poverty in developing countries. The first
recommendation they make is to put poverty issues
on the tourism agenda by incorporating it as an
 Another article, “Building a decommodified growth experiences and economic, social and
research paradigm in tourism: The contribution of environmental sustainability for the communities
NGOs”, by Wearing, McDonald and Ponting (2005, where their activities take place. On the other hand,
p. 425), discusses how tourism, as a product, has the free market approach to tourism, unlike the work
become too commodified, and how NGO that NGOs undertake, not only depletes the
involvement offers a different way of viewing the environmental resource base, but also provides little
tourism experience. They see alternative tourism economic benefit to host communities, particularly
perspectives, including the work of NGOs, and the in developing nations, and constricts the range of
experiences they provide, as another option to experiential opportunities available to the tourist.
provide more depth in tourism research approaches. Wearing et al. (2005, p. 435) conclude that NGOs
Wearing et al. (2005, p. 426), in choosing the play many important roles in providing a better
work of NGOs as an alternative perspective for understanding of tourism. NGOs move beyond
tourism research, state that NGOs utilize tourist industry profits and place social, cultural and
development approaches that are inclusive of ecological value on local governments and
indigenous and/or host communities, maximize the environments. They have prioritized development
quality of tourist interaction with host communities, approaches that include community perspectives,
and involve care for nature and the environment emphasize host–visitor interaction, and stress nature
while trying to ensure fewer negative consequences and cultural conservation. They work in partnership
of human action on nature and local economies. This with local communities to empower communities to
is in contrast to the “transnational corporate work interdependently with others. As the focus of
approach”, where profits come before people and tourism-oriented NGOs is on experiences with the
decisions are made by shareholders whose natural environment, and social interaction with
overriding motives are dividends, not environmental, those in the local community, it can create a value
social and economic responsibility. By contrast, they and exchange of interest for both the participant
state that NGOs are funded by public memberships, (tourist) and the host community members. They
public and private institutions, as well as donations argue that NGOs can be regarded as the most
from philanthropic organizations looking to support effective method going forward if we want to create
the various missions the NGOs undertake, such as sustainability in the industry.
poverty alleviation, education, health and
environmental sustainability.
Wearing et al. (2005, p. 429) discuss thoroughly
the nature and methods of tourism-oriented NGOs.
They state they do not seek to exert excessive
control, power, or influence over local communities
through their knowledge and expertise. They
emphasize a non-political, non-religious and non-
profit charter, enabling participant involvement that
transcends gender, class, race, ethnicity, religious
and political affiliations. Their cultures are inclusive
and tolerant of differences and consistently support
diversity, particularly for disadvantaged minorities.
They use their limited resources to assist developing
countries, regions and local communities with
projects that lack funding and expertise, as opposed
to exploiting these countries, regions and
communities for profit and their economic
contributions. In the absence of a profit motive, their
emphasis and value of tourism is placed on personal
 In “NGOs in tourism and preservation:
Democratic accountability and sustainability in
question”, Liburd (2004) discusses the significant
role in development that tourism NGOs have played
since the 1980s. With the limitations of government
programs, they are able to fill or reduce the gap
between the “top” and “bottom” of society by
targeting some of the poorest segments in their work.
By including diverse approaches and implementing
sustainable practices of tourism and environmental
preservation in lesser developed countries, the role
of NGOs stands largely unquestioned. She states
“Undeniably, NGOs have become part of the
national and international equation in tourism
development but their involvement is not
unequivocal in scope”
(p. 105). Despite the positive conclusions from her
own Caribbean research, she underlines the fact that
more extensive comparative studies are clearly
needed of what NGOs in tourism and development
accomplish as NGO practices are subject to shifts
withinthe national and global political economy and
decisions in distant donor offices that influence NGO
operations (Liburd, 2004, p. 108).
Finnetty (2001), in his master’s thesis titled
Analyzing the roles of local non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) in sustainable tourism: A case
study in Belize, Central America, found that NGOs
have become influential development actors in the
developing world over the last two decades, and are
becoming increasingly involved in sustainable
activities. However, there has been little attention
given specifically to the analysis of how NGOs
impact sustainable development through particular
development activities such as tourism. The research
Finetty came to several general conclusions
regarding tourism NGOs in Belize from his research.
Tourism NGOs in Belize have varied, yet they have
played crucial roles as service providers within the
tourism sector where government and the business
sector are unable to service, thus making them an
alternative view of development. They may act as
managers of protected areas in the country and
therefore help to maintain and preserve the
foundation of the tourist product, which is the
country’s diverse natural ecosystem. They also act as
tourism promoters through their international net-
works of like-minded individuals and organizations.
The training and educative role of NGOs in the
results show that NGOs play a crucially important
role in Belize, not only in the tourism sector, but also
in the development of the country in general
(Finnetty, 2000, p. i).
In the area of ecologically sustainable productive
activities there is a link between NGOs and
ecotourism. NGOs are considered by many funding
agencies to be the most appropriate development
agencies to deliver sustainable development and
poverty alleviation programs while also providing a
channel for local input into development. This is in
contrast to government agencies, which were often
not able to mobilize local people and resources as
well as NGOs. Sustainable ecotourism initiatives in
the Third World, which are promoted by local NGOs
in local communities, have become the natural
outgrowths of this dual approach (Finnetty, 2000, p.
3). Finnetty’s (2000, p. 161) primary research result
indicates that the contribution of NGOs to sus-
tainable development and tourism in the area of
various environmental conservation issues was
identified as the most important component of
sustainable development efforts in Belize.
The potential of local NGOs for creativity,
responsiveness and flexibility in development
initiatives has been recognized, as well as their
“closeness” to communities, which allows for
effective delivery of products and services. The
central defining characteristics of NGOs can be
described as voluntary, independent, not-for-profit,
and not self-serving in aims and values (Finnetty,
2000, p. 41). NGOs have proliferated and become
influential at both the national and international
levels, and within developed and developing
countries (p. 43).
tourism sector is obviously important in raising the
public’s awareness of current development issues, as
well as their success in the product development area
through their development of increasingly popular
tourist products. Other important roles for tourism
NGOs in Belize is their lobbying government for
socially and environmentally sound tourism policy
decisions and their monitoring of current tourism
policy
(p. 156).
Seltzer and Spann (2004), in Travelers’
philanthropy: Helping communities build economic
assets & sustain environmental and cultural
resources in an era of globalization, introduce a new
movement that is evolving and gaining popularity
with travelers called “travelers’ philanthropy”.
Travelers’ philanthropy is a new source of
international development assistance that includes
partnerships among civic-minded travelers, leaders
in destination communities, and owners of forward-
looking travel businesses. Together they formulate
innovative programs that encourage tourists to give
time, talent and financial resources to help local
communities develop and protect their economic,
cultural and environmental assets at their
destinations. It also reduces some of the inequities
resulting from globalization.
The travelers’ philanthropy movement is benefiting
from trends in travel, charitable giving and
globalization. It can be a significant force for social
good and a potent new strategy for donors interested
in advancing social justice, economic development,
biodiversity, and environmental protection, cultural
preservation, volunteerism and philanthropy. Seltzer
and Spann (2004, p. 4) state that, according to the
United Nations World Tourism Organization,
international tourism has increased substantially
since 1950, and is expected to continue to grow at an
3. To promote emergent ideas on development, and
to develop and support sustainable development.
Chen and Holleran (2004, p. 3) conclude that NGOs
focused on tourism serve as experts and advocates
for tourism development and that many local
communities and governments count on their
expertise in order to enhance the development of
sustainable destinations. The authors found that
because tourism-oriented NGOs share their
knowledge and experiences with different
stakeholders in order to promote sustainable
development, their contribution and influence to the
tourism industry cannot be neglected.
In his editorial, “Tourism NGOs”, for a special
edition of Tourism Recreation Research providing
the first overview of tourism NGOs from a single
source, Peter Burns (1999, p. 2) states that few
people doubt the impact of NGOs as one of the
fastest growing and most significant forces in the
field of development in the lesser developed
countries. Since the cold war, there has been a
greater division of the world and, as a result, a need
for third-sector organizations (non-government and
non-commercial) to act as catalysts for social
alarming rate. Travelers, they state, are changing in
ways that potentially favor global economic
development and preservation aims, as more tourists
are now traveling to destinations in the developing
world. In addition, when choosing travel, travelers
are now looking for new and different experiences in
combination with socially and environmentally
responsible travel.
Meng-Mei Chen and James Holleran (2004), in
Tourism focused NGOs: An outline content analysis,
address the growing use of the internet by NGOs as
a tool to increase visibility, membership and funding.
In their study of the online content of popular NGO
websites, they analyze the NGOs involved in
tourism and their relationships with other tourism
stakeholders. Their findings indicate that the major
activities of NGOs are:
To support sustainable resource use and initiate
environmental actions to conserve the environment
while tourism is developing.
To act as a watchdog to monitor the industry,
government and policy.
change.
According to Burns, NGOs have played a role in
developing and monitoring tourism for at least the
last two decades, and their range of work is
enormous. NGOs, according to Burns, are involved
in “participative development” and their approaches
can be summarized as monitoring and attempting to
counteract the activities of large corporations or
government development agencies as well as being
innovative, exemplified by grassroots development,
where the beneficiary is the society at the poorest
levels. Burns believes there is a need for further
research, especially the search for suitable
theoretical perspectives based on empirical work, as
there are many questions that are still outstanding.
Some of these issues involve identifying
communities that are at risk or threatened, whether
the goals of NGOs, sustainable development and
national needs are compatible, the realities of
partnerships between locals, government planners
and NGOs, interpreting the views of locals because
they often differ from outsiders of the community,
and the chances of local e´lites exploiting their own
people.
Practical Implications
In Going global: Transforming relief and
development NGOs, Lindenberg and Bryant (2001)
discuss the implications of globalization for the
goals, programs, processes, and staff of international
relief and development NGOs. They state that
societies everywhere are increasingly turning to
NGOs for leadership and assistance on issues that
were once addressed or are yet to be addressed by
governments. Globalization has changed both the
roles that states and NGOs play as well as the
context in which they do their work.
Another area of interest that Lindenberg and Bryant
(2001, p. 11) discuss is the magnet that private
citizens have provided by way of their substantial
donations to international NGOs to help them
respond to the complex humanitarian causes,
resources for development programs such as micro-
enterprise lending, education for girls, and
reproductive health. Although overall private giving
in the USA has remained stable since the 1960s,
from 1994 to 2001 the portion of total giving
designated for international purposes doubled from 1
to 2%. Lindenberg and Bryant point out that
inexpensive global communications and technology
such as faxing, e-mail and the internet have made it
easier for members of the emerging NGO sector to
communicate and enable NGO networks to develop
more rapidly than in the past.
The practical implications for tourism NGOs,
therefore, are clear: governments have decreased
development investment dollars and are also
considered less effective and efficient. Therefore, it
is the NGOs that have dedicated themselves to
fulfilling this role and performing this work more
effectively, owing to the fact that they do not utilize
the top-down bureaucratic method of development
aid.
Methodology/Objectives
This study examined the effectiveness of tourism-
oriented NGOs at reducing poverty in developing
countries. The previous section of this article
illustrates the growing presence and importance of
specific tourism-oriented NGOs that believe tourism
may be used as a tool for poverty alleviation and
Lindenberg and Bryant (2001, p. 3) state that since
the 1960s a profound shift has taken place in the
roles of the public, private and non-profit sectors as
the global nonprofit sector has emerged. As a result
of fiscal crisis, the cold war, privatization and other
issues that left many unfilled community needs, the
scope and capacity of national governments has
declined, while the expansion of the private sector
has continued. As a result, a new more global non-
profit sector (including NGOs) has begun to fill the
vacuum left by nation-states in international relief
and development activities. Their growth took off in
the 1970s and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s.
community development, as well as their specific
involvement in these initiatives in developing
countries in Africa, Asia, and Central and South
America.
The methodology for this study consisted of two
types of research. The first type is a thorough
background research on the topics of tourism in
developing countries, culturally and environmentally
responsible tourism, nongovernmental organizations,
fair trade in tourism, and trends in philanthropy and
corporate social responsibility. The second part con-
sisted of a series of semistructured interviews
conducted with a set of non-governmental
organizations that operate within the realm of
tourism. The goal of the research was to highlight
the effectiveness and impacts of the tourism NGOs
at sustainable and responsible tourism in developing
countries in Africa, Asia, and Central and South
America. The research questions that guided this
study were:
What are some of the most effective and influential
types of tourism NGO in the developed world
(working in developing countries), and what goals
and methods are they utilizing to help alleviate
poverty?
What are the significant impacts of tourism NGOs
operating in Africa, Asia, and Central and South
America?
Are partnerships between tourism NGOs in the
developed world and locals in developing countries
an effective and viable method to achieve the goal of
poverty reduction?
Semistructured interviews of 12 distinct NGOs
(chosen from among various types of NGO) were
carried out. This was in response to the wide range
of NGOs that are working in varied projects and
programs, and the fact that several NGOs work in
different methods and capacities. The semistructured
interviews were conducted by telephone with key
decision-makers at the tourism-oriented NGOs.
Three types of NGO that perform activities and
initiatives towards poverty reduction in developing
countries are featured. There are four organizations
within each of the three distinct types of tourism
NGO, thus totaling 12 interviews.
 The interview questions sought information on the variety of service projects in developing countries
organizations with reference to their missions and such as community development and building,
goals, how they choose the countries and teaching English, children’s programs, health care
communities abroad in which they operate initiatives, women’s empowerment and
programs, what types of partnership they create with environmental conservation.
locals, how long-term and sustainable they consider . Tour companies with their own “not for profit”
their programs to be, whether they have been foundations: Organizations that seek to increase
successful at alleviating poverty in the developing the quality of life in the communities they visit on
countries they work in, Africa, Asia, and Central and tours by investing donations received from
South America, and how they monitor and measure participating tourists who want to give back to the
their success. The following list reveals the types of places they have traveled to.
tourism NGO featured in the study (for the specific
organizations interviewed, see the Appendix).
Table 1 represents the organizations interviewed by
type. The subsequent analysis provides an
. Tourism-oriented educational and campaigning NGOs: examination as to the effectiveness of each of the
Organizations that have the mission of working in three types of NGO, as well as the group
an educational, promotional, campaigning, or collectively. The goal of the study, as stated
advocacy capacity on behalf of developing previously, was to ascertain
countries, to ensure that any tourism that is Table 1 Organizations Interviewed by Type
developed there is done in a socially, culturally,
and environmentally responsible and sustainable
manner.
Source: Kennedy (2008).
. “Voluntourism” organizations: NGOs that offer a
whether the programs and activities of the tourism- environment in the host destination.
oriented NGOs do, in fact, contribute to reducing
poverty in the developing countries in Africa, Asia, The education and advocacy NGOs researched for
and Central and South America where they operate.
this article contribute to a broad spectrum of work
Analysis of Research
directed towards sustainable and responsible
tourism. Most of the NGOs, The International
Education and Advocacy NGOs
Non-profit Ecotourism Society (TIES), the International
Tour Companies with Institute for Peace through Tourism (IIPT) and the
TheEducation/Advocacy
first group of NGOs interviewed use activities
Center for Ecotourism and Sustainable Development
Voluntourism
such as education and advocacy of sustainable
(CESD), may be considered effective in their role of
Foundations
tourism as a means to alleviate poverty. These NGOs
poverty alleviation in the developing countries in
areThe Ecotourism
actively engagedSociety
in training, promotion,
Global Volunteers which they work, as they provide community-based
publicity, and raising global awareness of
Intrepid Travel/The Intrepid programs, training sessions and workshops, outreach
sustainable and responsible forms of tourism
and promotional services, research,
development that:
Tourism NGOs and Poverty Reduction 193
Foundation
. protect and preserve the culture and heritage
International Institute for advisory and consulting services, and certification
of the destinations visited; . improve the lives of
Cross Cultural Solutions and standards for sustainable tourism and
people in host
Wildland desti
Adventures/Travelers ecotourism. The organizations are very flexible as
nations visited; . work towards poverty alleviation;
they work not only in partnership with local
. foster a sense of respect, responsibility and
communities and NGOs, but also in conjunction
cross-cultural learning for travelers visiting
with governments, tourism business and tourists
other countries as well as their hosts; . preserve
towards the goal of sustainable tourism. All four
and conserve biodiversity and the
organizations focus on long-term goals that can be
sustained, and offer training and support for the
communities when or if the project ends.
Although some of the organizations, such as
Sustainable Tourism International (STI), TIES and
CESD, have ecotourism and the environment as their
primary focus, they are also concerned with socio-
cultural sustainability in the communities in which
they work. Both TIES and CESD believe that
ecotourism can be used as a tool for poverty
alleviation. Although IIPT does not focus on
ecotourism per se, it is definitely focused on poverty
alleviation as it is part of its mission statement.
Unlike the other three organizations, which are
extremely focused on poverty reduction in the
developing countries in which they operate, STI is
clearly more focused on environmental conservation
and climate change as the dominant goals. There
was very little mention of activities undertaken for
poverty alleviation, or confirmation of poverty
alleviation as one of its specific goals, from the
interview, an online content analysis of its website,
or its publications. Although it looks to preserve
culture and heritage, it is clear that its predominant
focus is the environment and carbon offsets, as well
as ecotourism certification centered on the
environment, rather than peoples and cultures.
Despite the fact that all four organizations report
that the demand for their programs and services has
been significant in the past 5 years, and funding for
their initiatives continue, it is difficult to measure
their rate of success at poverty alleviation
objectively because there are no standards in place
for doing so. Unlike the other two types of NGO
researched in the study that actually bring tourists to
developing countries through projects and programs,
these organizations do not operate tourism programs
or tours, so it is difficult to ascertain the direct
impacts that result from their advocacy, educational
and promotional work. It is possible that it may be a
case that the results cannot be measured, or they are
not visible for a longer period of time. However,
these organizations are active and striving for
sustainable and responsible environmental and social
tourism in the developing countries in which they
are working, which may eventually lead to poverty
alleviation over time.
Voluntourism Organizations assistance. Their projects require full participation
by locals in the “shared work” as they do not want to
The voluntourism organizations interviewed are all create dependency. Many of the NGOs view their
based in the USA. They all shared a common focus organizations and programs as being the catalyst for
on the practice of working alongside local people in development or poverty reduction by providing the
underprivileged communities on human and volunteers and occasional supplies for the projects.
community development projects. Their mission Three out of the four organizations interviewed
statements are focused on helping communities by are actively involved in and have special
finding local solutions to problems or needs. consultative status with the United Nations (Cross
However, another important facet of the experience Cultural Solutions, Global Volunteers and Volunteers
they provide participants as well as locals in the for Peace), and another three view their service
community is the mutual understanding, cross- projects as being a means for achieving global peace
cultural exchange and friendships that are fostered as (Volunteers for Peace, Global Citizens Network and
a result of partnering on the projects. Global Volunteers). In addition to their strengths of
All four organizations, as they work tirelessly to being able to provide the service to communities,
provide aid in the form of service to developing they also view their role as providing a cross-cultural
countries, have experienced substantial growth in exchange for understanding for both the hosts and
both the number of volunteers that are traveling with guests through respectful, daily meaningful inter-
them on service projects, and also the number of actions and relationships between people from the
projects they have been offering over the past few economically developed world and those in the less
years. They are satisfied that they are invited back to developed world who have different cultures,
the communities in which they work, as they feel ethnicities, races, languages and lifestyles.
that this invitation is an indicator as to their
effectiveness at reducing poverty in these
communities.
Although not all of the organizations establish long-
term goals with or for the communities,
sustainability is always a key initiative or mission.
As advocates of responsible and sustainable tourism,
as well as community-based tourism, all four
organizations are very diligent about ensuring that
they only participate in local community projects
that are initiated by local citizens, community
groups, or NGOs. They all believe that the locals
must be able to conduct their own development
efforts by identifying their needs, being able to
articulate them, and being able to provide the
direction, participation and leadership to the projects
that will help them out of poverty. They are strong
proponents of solutions coming directly from the
local people.
The partnerships that these four organizations create
with the local communities are very important to
their success as the local people can only be self-
reliant if they are in charge, so they will only work at
their invitation or as recommended by a local NGO.
Many of the voluntourism organizations report that
the communities are very enterprising and want
 There have been notable increases in the number They respect the locals and follow their wishes for
of voluntourism organizations operating programs, sustainability. The foundations have been very
the number of projects being offered each year, the pleased with their contributions to sustainable
number of volunteers traveling abroad to participate, development in the communities they visit, and wish
and the number of years that these organizations for long-term relationships with them. Most of the
have been operating. Yet despite the substantial organizations report that their projects and grants are
increases in these numbers, it is difficult to measure ongoing and continual.
and evaluate success, as results are not always All four of the foundations report that the demand
tangible. Although the NGOs in this group have for their projects and services has grown
reported slow, but noticeable progress, there is a significantly in the past 5 years, as evidenced by the
need for a monitoring and evaluation system to be steady increase in funds distributed by the
put in place that determines whether poverty foundations over the past 5 years. Although it is
reduction is actually occurring in these countries. difficult to determine whether poverty is reduced in
these communities, owing to a lack of measuring or
tracking standard, it may be easier for this group of
Tour Companies with Foundations NGOs to see results in this area because of their
follow-up with the grants and the fact that they travel
From the research process, there were common regularly to these communities on their itineraries
themes that emerged from the four tour companies and can verify whether the projects are completed
with their own foundations, regarding their and are meeting the needs of the communities.
involvement in poverty reduction. All four
companies have been in operation for at least 4 years
(GAP), with Wildland Adventures being in operation
for the longest (of those interviewed), at 21 years,
and who actually started their foundation the same
year the tour company was founded, in 1986. They
all started their foundations with the primary goal of
giving back to the specific communities to which
they take their passengers on tours, primarily in the
form of grants for specific projects of which the
communities are in need. These four foundations
take pride in the fact that they operate culturally and
environmentally responsible tourism with a focus on
sustain-ability. Most of them (GAP, Wildland and
Intrepid) partner with NGOs, both at their
destinations in developing countries and in the
developed world where they either seek expertise or
make donations. Grand Circle also considers
partnerships to be important, but works directly with
the local community leaders, elders, or chiefs.
The partnerships with the locals or NGOs are crucial
to the operation and success of their programs and
projects. Like the voluntourism organizations, the
foundations are aware of the locals’ needs, goals,
customs and operating methods of the communities.
Often they have already established the projects that
need assistance, and the foundations are able to help
expedite the process through the grants they issue.
Summary of Findings (Of the 12 distributed equitably among community members.
Organizations) Avoiding dependence was a key concern for many of
the organizations. If mentioned as an issue, the
Despite the fact that the three groups of NGOs organization was very focused on ensuring long-term
featured in the study vary in methods, operations and sustainability for the community by providing any
programs, their goals and missions have the common necessary training for transition to independence.
thread of pursuing socially and environmentally Although empowerment is not always a result that is
sustainable and responsible development. Although expected or factored into the planning of the
many of the organizations provide programs and projects, often it was mentioned as a result of the
projects in both the developed and the developing locals being involved in designing solutions, making
world, the results of this study feature information decisions and actively participating in the projects.
specifically on their work in developing countries in Overall, all 12 organizations are very focused on
Africa, Asia, and Central and South America. providing assistance to needy and indigenous
While laboring diligently in developing countries, communities in developing countries. Yet the
all 12 organizations report that the demand for their assistance they provide is in accordance with the
programs and services over the past 5 years has been terms of the communities in which they are working.
significant. The words “sustainable” or Although all of the organizations report that they feel
“responsible”, in some form, appeared in the mission they have been successful in achieving their goals
statement or philosophy of 10 of the 12 and missions, several of the organizations state that
organizations featured in the study. it is a slow process and they still have much more to
All organizations, except for one (STI), focus on accomplish to be satisfied with their progress.
poverty alleviation as an organizational goal. As Therefore, they are continually assessing their
discovered from both evaluation and research of accomplishments as their organizations have grown
their organization and initiatives, and the interview and their services have become more sought after.
conducted, STI is not as focused on poverty
alleviation as it is on environmental issues. The
other 11 organizations featured in the study are very
poverty reduction oriented, and work in concert with
the Millennium Goals and the ST-EP (sustainable
tourism as a tool for eliminating poverty) programs
of the United Nations.
Working in partnerships with locals or NGOs is the
key to the organizations’ operating programs, which
involve the communities while not imposing a
Western view of the appropriate way of doing
things. All the organizations reported that they, in
some method or another, consult with the locals for
their definition of development, ensuring projects are
self-initiated or NGO services are contracted for.
Owing to the methods these various NGOs employ
to assist the communities, all aid comes to the
community in the form of training, service, or
grants. There are no cash or material donations that
otherwise might have the potential to fall into the
wrong hands (i.e. corrupt government officials, or
the small wealthy class). This ensures that the local
communities will benefit and that the benefits will be
Summary and Conclusion pattern of development while offering “bottom-up”
solutions, incorporating the needs and concerns of
Tourism-oriented NGOs, which have grown the poor into the decision-making process. Working
substantially since 2000, are in the unique position through partnerships also enables these organizations
of being able to take advantage of the recent trends to operate more cost efficiently.
of globalization (technology), travel, philanthropy, There are numerous benefits to tourism-oriented
corporate social responsibility and fair trade in NGOs working towards poverty reduction. NGOs
tourism. Communities in developing countries of focus on people, unlike transnational mass tourism
Africa, Asia, and Central and South America have companies, which focus merely on profits. By their
benefited from these trends before tourists even go nature, these NGOs are committed to social causes
abroad to interact and share experiences with the and have the ability to formulate projects and
people of their host community. At the same time, mobilize the resources (whether people, supplies, or
“hands on” and authentic travel experiences are money) to complete them. As a result of the direct
becoming more prevalent as our society moves away way in which they operate with the host community,
from simply donating to a local cause, towards they ensure that the benefits created are allocated
wanting to become more involved and participate equitably to the communities, and are not leaking out
philanthropically or by providing services to others to a transnational corporation. They are generally
combined with their travel. Such life-enhancing, or inclusive of indigenous and needy communities as
transformational experiences provided to program they are able to work with the poorest rural and most
participants create a strong interest in giving time unorganized communities that otherwise might not
and/or money to benefit the communities and the receive any type of international aid, and in that
quality of life of those they visit. Despite the fact specialized sense are acting in a more effective
that the three groups of NGOs featured in the study manner at the local level than many governments.
vary in their methodologies, operations and pro-
grams, their goals and missions have the common
thread of pursuing socially and environmentally
sustainable and responsible development. With the
exception of one organization (STI), all of the NGOs
are actively working towards the goal of poverty
reduction in developing economies.
The financial support that NGOs receive allows
them to create partnerships and develop strategies
with local needy communities through projects that
empower these communities. Although there are
thousands of NGOs in both the developed and
developing world, it is evident from this study that
one successful type of partnership is that between
NGOs based in the developed world partnering with
local NGOs in a developing country. Partnerships
are a key element to this alternative form of tourism
development, thus allowing the NGOs to accomplish
more, and ensuring that the work performed is in
accordance with the terms of the people in the
communities in which they work, that they are able
to retain control of their land, customs and culture.
The tourism NGOs featured in this study show the
quality of participatory-style development in needy
communities, avoiding the “top-down” style of
 The NGOs featured in this study maximize the
quality of interaction of tourist with host community,
leading to completion of a substantial number of
improvement projects in hundreds of communities
from both monetary donations as well as service to
the communities. In addition, many communities
have learned how to use tourism as a means, a tool if
you will, for responsible development. The
organizations offer both financial and non-financial
strategies because they also change peoples’ lives
through new facilities, educational opportunities,
access to information and decision-making, jobs and,
in some cases, the ability to sell food, goods and
handicraft items.
The 12 NGOs in this study are actively creating
change, and are advocates for the communities with
whom they work, through advocacy, education, as
well as publicity. Owing to their research on behalf
of their host communities, they have become experts
in their field and are consulted for their expertise.
They have become much more active in raising the
awareness of the general public of the developed
world to the plight of those in developing countries.
As their work has exposed thousands of participants
and donors to both enriching travel opportunities and
poverty worldwide, in turn it has created a greater
demand for the work they do.
Although the organizations are all focused on
long-term goals of sustainability, they do not always
tend to see results immediately as it tends to take a
few years for results to be noticeable. In this study,
there are four organizations that have been in
operation only since 2002 or later, making it more
difficult to see their accomplishments. In addition,
many of the organizations that have been in
existence longer state that their work is a slow
process, and the impact of what they are doing may
not be visible for many years.
Yet despite the increasing presence and importance
of tourism NGOs, their exact effectiveness at
reducing poverty is difficult to measure. Although all
12 organizations reported they were successful in
meeting their goals and missions, there currently are
no objective or accepted methods or criteria for
measuring performance, including success or failure.
Many millions of dollars are going into host
communities all over the world through donations
and grants (as well as services rendered), which are
considered untraceable and unrecorded by any
consistent method. As no standards exist for
measurement of their impacts, it is difficult to
ascertain the exact levels of poverty reduction
achieved through their initiatives. As this is a subject
area that has not been studied extensively, more
research needs to be done as there has been little
attention paid to measuring NGO impacts in the
communities in which they work from such tourism
developments.
In conclusion, not only do most of the NGOs
featured here (with the exception of STI) work
towards poverty alleviation and community
development, but also they are a significant force for
socio-cultural and environmental preservation.
Undoubtedly, they improve the quality of life of the
communities in which they work, thus making sub-
stantial contributions to poverty reduction. While
working in the absence of a profit motive, they
provide low impact and high yield tourism focusing
on environmentally, economically, and socially
responsible and sustainable tourism where large
corporations are unable to do so. They are also free
from the bureaucracy and corruption that is prevalent
among governments. As tools for poverty reduction,
they have raised substantial funds and should be
considered an alternative and legitimate form of aid
to developing countries, particularly Africa, Asia,
and Central and South America, as featured in this
study.
References
Ashley, C., Boyd, C., & Goodwin, H. (2000). Pro-poor tourism:
Putting poverty at the heart of the agenda. ODI: Natural
Resource Perspectives, 51, 1–6.
Burns, P. (1999). Tourism NGO’s. Tourism Recreation Research,
24(2), 2.
Chen, M.-M., & Holleran, J. (2004). Tourism focused NGO’s: An
online content analysis, Paper presented at the Fourth Best
Think Tank, Sustainability and Mass Destinations: Challenges
and Possibilities, University of Southern Denmark in Esbjerg,
Denmark.
Dickenson, J., Gould, B., Clarke, C., Mather, S., Prothero, M.,
Siddle, D., Smith, C., & Thomas-Hope, E. (1996). Geography
of the Third World. New York: Routledge.
Drabek, A.G. (Ed.). (1987). Development alternatives: The
challenge for NGOs. New York: Pergamon Press.
Finnetty, S. (2001). Analyzing the roles of local nongovernmental
organizations (NGO’s) in sustainable tourism: A case study in
Belize, Central America.MA dissertation, Wilfrid Laurier
University, Canada.
Fisher, J. (1993). The road from Rio: Sustainable development
and the non-governmental movement in the Third World.
Westport, CT: Praeger.
Fisher, J. (1998). NGO’s and the political development of the
Third World. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
Jafari, J. (Ed.). (2000). Encyclopedia of tourism. London:
Routledge.
Kennedy, K. (2008). NGOs and tourism: A partnership for
poverty reduction in developing countries. Thesis, Central
Connecticut State University, Connecticut.
Liburd, J. J. (2004). NGOs in tourism and preservation
democratic accountability and sustainability in question.
Tourism Recreation Research, 29, 105.
Lindenberg, M. & Bryant, C. (2001). Going global: Transforming
relief and development NGOs. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press.
Seltzer, M., & Spann, J. (2004). Travelers philanthropy: Helping
communities build economic assets &
sustain environmental and cultural resources in an era of rapid
globalization. White paper for Center on Ecotourism and
Sustainable Development. Retrieved January 19 2007, from
http://www. ecotourismcesd.org.
Category 2: Non-profit Volunteer Abroad
Programs
Global Volunteers: Genuine community devel-
opment and service projects operating in 19
countries and 100 communities worldwide.
CrossCultural Solutions: Volunteer programs
around the world allowing you to work side-byside
with local people in the fields of health care,
education and community development.
Global Citizens Network: Volunteer programs
committed to sharing values of peace, justice,
tolerance, cross-cultural understanding and global
Walker, J. R. (2006). Introduction to hospitality. Upper Saddle
River: Pearson Education.
Wearing, S., McDonald, M., & Ponting, J. (2005). Building a
decommodified research paradigm in tourism: The contribution
of NGOs. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 13(5), 424–439.
World Association of Non-governmental Organizations
(WANGO) (2007). Retrieved September 25, 2007, from
http://www.wango.org/download/pdf/WAN
GO_Brochure_v2.pdf
Appendix: NGOs Interviewed by Type
Category 1: Education and Advocacy NGOs
The Responsible Tourism Partnership: Works in
partnerships with local communities and the tourism
industry to ensure the tourism product is developed
responsibly and for the long term.
International Institute for Peace through Tourism:
Dedicated to fostering and facilitating tourism
initiatives that contribute to international
understanding and cooperation, an improved quality
of environment, the preservation of heritage, and a
peaceful and sustainable world.
Sustainable Travel International: Supports and
promotes ecotourism, sustainable tourism, eco-tours,
responsible travel, and green travel through
education and outreach.
Center for Ecotourism and Sustainable
Development: Dedicated to empowering local tourist
destinations through smart partnerships that provide
training, programs and certification tools for
sustained social, economic and environmental
development.
cooperation in preserving indigenous cultures and
traditions and enhancing the quality of life around
the world.
Volunteers for Peace: A network of organizations
featuring volunteer opportunities in over 100
countries that help communities meet local needs
and meet some of the goals of the United Nation’s
Millennium Declaration.
Category 3: Tour Companies with Foundations
Intrepid Travel (The Intrepid Foundation):
Specializing in culturally, environmentally and
socially responsible travel to destinations around the
world.
Wildland Adventures (Travelers Conservation
Trust): Providing travel with a focus on authentic
ecotourism and adventure travel worldwide.
GAP Adventures (The Planeterra Fund): A
responsible tour operator committed to offering
sustainable, low-impact tours that benefit both
travelers and hosts in over 100 countries.
Overseas Adventure Travel/Grand Circle Travel
(Grand Circle Foundation): Offering cultural,
educational and adventure travel to six continents,
allowing an authentic experience abroad.