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Author: Quoc A Nguyen, MD, Associate Clinical Professor, Director, Sinus and Allergy
Center, Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, University of California, Irvine
Medical Center
Contributor Information and Disclosures
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• Overview
• Differential Diagnoses & Workup
• Treatment & Medication
• Follow-up
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• References
• Keywords
• Further Reading
Introduction
Background
Allergic rhinitis is a common health problem for which many patients do not seek appropriate
medical care. Although not a life-threatening condition in most cases, it has a substantial impact
on public health and the economy.
According to findings in a recent study, the total estimated cost of allergic rhinitis in 1994 was
between 1.2 and 1.5 billion dollars.1 The illness resulted in more than 6 million missed work
days, 2 million missed school days, and 28 million reduced-activity days. These figures are
certainly higher today because of the higher cost of new medications and the increasing
prevalence of the condition.
Boggy inferior turbinate in an allergic patient.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Boggy inferior turbinate in an allergic patient.
Pathophysiology
Because the nose is the most common port of entry for allergens, in patients with allergies, signs
and symptoms of allergic rhinitis, not surprisingly, are the most common complaints.
Four types of hypersensitivity responses exist, as initially classified by Gell and Coombs and
later modified by Shearer and Huston. Individuals with allergic rhinitis are thought to have type I
reactions.
Further exposures result in the bridging of 2 adjacent IgE molecules, leading to the release of
preformed mediators from mast cell granules. These mediators (ie, histamine, leukotrienes,
kinins) cause early-phase symptoms such as sneezing, rhinorrhea, and congestion. Late-phase
reactions begin 2-4 hours later and are caused by newly arrived inflammatory cells. Mediators
released by these cells prolong the earlier reactions and lead to chronic inflammation.
Frequency
United States
Approximately 39 million Americans are reported to have allergic rhinitis. From various studies,
17-25% of the population in the United States are estimated to have the condition.
Mortality/Morbidity
Sex
Males and females tend to be affected by allergic rhinitis in fairly equal proportions.
Age
Clinical
History
• Allergy history
o For the clinician who treats patients with allergic rhinitis, nothing is
more crucial than the allergy history. It is important not only in
identifying an allergy but also in guiding the treatment plan.
o Although history taking begins at the initial encounter, it should not be
completed at a single sitting, and it should be continued during
subsequent visits, as needed.
o Details about the presenting symptoms (eg, onset, fluctuation,
severity) should be obtained. In addition, the interviewer should note
any recent changes in the patient's life (eg, at home, in the workplace,
in leisure activities, in diet).
• Family history
o Children of individuals with allergies have been shown to have a higher
incidence of allergies than that of other children.
o If both parents have allergies, their child has a 50% chance of having
the same problem.
• Past medical history
o In children, a history of recurrent otitis media, upper respiratory tract
infection, asthma, chronic rashes, and formula intolerance are
suggestive of allergies.
o Other pertinent medical problems (eg, asthma, aspirin
hypersensitivity) and the use of medications (eg, beta-blockers,
tranquilizers) that could interfere with the treatment for allergies
should be evaluated.
o Inquire about the results of previous allergy tests and treatment.
Physical
• Face
o Patients with allergic rhinitis frequently grimace and twitch their face,
in general, and nose, in particular, because of itchy mucus
membranes.
o Chronic mouth breathing secondary to nasal congestion can result in
the typical adenoid facies.
• Eyes
o Patients may have injected conjunctiva; increased lacrimation; and
long, silky eyelashes.
o Dennie-Morgan lines (creases in the lower eyelid skin) and allergic
shiners (dark discoloration below the lower eyelids) caused by venous
stasis may be present.
• Ears
o Ears are frequently unremarkable.
o Eczematoid otitis externa and middle ear effusion may be present.
• Nose
o A transverse nasal crease may be present because of the patient's
repeated lifting of the nasal tip to relieve itching and open the nasal
airway.
o The turbinates are frequently hypertrophic and covered with a boggy
pale or bluish mucosa.
o Nasal secretions can range from clear and profuse to stringy and
mucoid.
o The presence of polyps does not necessarily indicate that the affected
individual has allergic rhinitis.
• Mouth
o A high arched palate, narrow premaxilla, and receding chin may be
present secondary to long-term mouth breathing.
o The posterior oropharynx may be granular because of irritation from
persistent postnasal discharge.
Causes
For practical purposes, allergens can be divided into seasonal and perennial groups.
Differential Diagnoses
Allergic Fungal Sinusitis
Workup
Laboratory Studies
• The diagnosis of allergic rhinitis is based on the history, and tests are used
only to confirm atopy.
• Nasal cytologic studies may be needed.
o Nasal secretions are stained with hematoxylin and eosin.
o In general, the presence of eosinophils and goblet cells is suggestive of
allergy, whereas the presence of neutrophils and bacteria is
characteristic of infection.
• An elevated eosinophil count can occur in patients with asthma, nonallergic
rhinitis with eosinophilia syndrome (NARES), and parasitic infection.
Therefore, this finding is not specific to allergic rhinitis.
• Skin tests may be performed.
o Skin testing is generally considered to be the standard of allergy
workup. The classic wheal-and-flare responses result from the
interaction between the antigen and sensitized mast cells in the skin.
o In general, the acute phase starts within 2-4 minutes and reaches a
maximum in 10-20 minutes. It may be followed by a late phase 4-6
hours later. A number of factors affect the responses; these include the
following:
Volume and potency of the antigen
Reactivity of the skin
Age and race of the patient
Area of body tested
Distance between the injections and time of day of testing
Medications (eg, antihistamines and tricyclic antidepressants)
o Because of these variables, positive and negative controls must be
used to ensure the validity of the results.
o In addition, patients receiving beta-blocker therapy are at risk for
severe reactions, and the drugs should be switched to another class of
medication before testing is initiated.
o Currently, 3 types of skin tests are in use.
Prick testing is rapid and safe, and scores are graded from 0-4
according to both wheal and flare responses. However, low-
grade sensitivities can be missed. Therefore, the test is often
used as a screening tool, which is followed by intradermal
testing if necessary.
Single-dilution intradermal testing involves injecting 0.01-0.05
mL of antigen into the epidermis. The resulting wheal and flare
are measured after 10-20 minutes and graded as in prick
testing. This test can be used to detect most low-degree atopies
if a 1:500 concentration is used. However, as with prick testing,
it does not permit accurate quantitation of the sensitivity to the
antigen involved.
Progressive-dilution intradermal testing (skin endpoint titration)
involves a series of 5-fold dilutions, starting with a concentration
that is sufficiently dilute to be nonreactive. Progressively
stronger concentrations are injected until a wheal forms. The
endpoint is confirmed when the wheal with the next stronger
dilution is 2 mm larger than the previous wheal. This endpoint
indicates the relative sensitivity of the patient to the allergen
and designates the starting point for immunotherapy. This
method allows both qualitative and quantitative assessment of
sensitivity to the antigen in question.
• The IgE count may be determined.
o In contrast to total IgE, which has a poor clinical correlation, antigen-
specific IgE antibodies are important in the diagnosis of inhalant
allergy.
o Compared with skin testing, in vitro testing is more specific, and it is
not affected by skin reactivity or medications. It also has no risk of
systemic reaction and is better tolerated, because it is less traumatic.
However, in vitro testing is less sensitive than skin testing, especially
in regard to molds. Also, the results are not available immediately and
must be verified with skin testing before immunotherapy can be
started.
o The original method for obtaining an IgE count, the radioallergosorbent
test (RAST), has evolved from a radioimmunoassay to a test that
involves enzymatic or fluorometric processes (eg, enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay [ELISA]).
Fadal and Nalebuff have modified the test to increase its
sensitivity and to improve the correlation of its findings to those
obtained with the skin endpoint titration method.
Scores do not necessarily correlate with the severity of the
clinical symptoms. Although they can be used to establish the
starting dose for immunotherapy, a vial test still is required
before immunotherapy can be initiated.
Imaging Studies
Other Tests
• Many other alternative tests for allergies are available, but they have not
been fully validated yet.
• These include the following:
o Basophilic histamine-release test
o Cytotoxic test
o Leukocyte antibody test for related antigens
Treatment
Medical Care
The 3 basic approaches for the treatment of allergies are (1) avoidance, (2) pharmacotherapy, and
(3) immunotherapy. Treatment should start with avoidance of allergens and environmental
controls. In almost all cases, however, some pharmacotherapy is needed because the patient is
either unwilling or unable to avoid allergens and to control the occasional exacerbations of
symptoms. For patients with a severe allergy that is not responsive to environmental controls and
pharmacotherapy or for those who do not wish to use medication for a lifetime, immunotherapy
may be offered.
Surgical Care
Although allergic rhinitis is a medical condition, adjunctive surgery may be offered to alleviate
obstructive symptoms in appropriate individuals. Examples are nasal polypectomy in the patients
who have severe polyposis and various inferior turbinate reduction maneuvers in patients who
have nasal obstruction caused by turbinate hypertrophy that persists despite maximal medical
therapy.2
Consultations
Diet
Food allergies can cause nasal symptoms similar to those caused by inhalant allergies. Therefore,
a workup for possible food allergies should be considered if the patient has a history of food
reactions, if findings of the inhalant allergy evaluation are negative, and if appropriate treatments
fail to yield improvement.
Activity
• In general, patients with allergies should avoid working and playing in areas
that are known to exacerbate symptoms.
• Outdoor activities should be restricted when the inciting allergens are in
season.
• Individuals who are sensitive to pollen should stay indoors in the morning,
and patients who are allergic to molds should remain indoors in the early
evening, because the allergens are more prevalent in the air at these times.
Medication
At one time or another, most patients with allergies require pharmacologic intervention.
Many classes of medications are available; the use of each must be tailored to the individual
patient's symptoms.
Antihistamines
These medications are H1 receptor antagonists and relieve sneezing, itching, and rhinorrhea.
Adult
4 mg PO q6h
Pediatric
CNS toxicity increases with coadministration of other CNS depressants, tricyclic antidepressants,
MAOIs, and phenothiazines
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
May cause significant confusion; not for use in premature or full-term neonates
Loratadine (Claritin)
Adult
10 mg PO qd
Pediatric
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Fexofenadine (Allegra)
60 mg PO q12h or 180 mg PO qd
Pediatric
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Azelastine (Astelin)
Topical antihistamine nasal spray; competes with histamine for H1 receptor sites in the blood
vessels, GI tract, and respiratory tract.
Adult
Pediatric
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Adverse effects include local irritation and unpleasant taste; caution in hepatic or renal
dysfunction; doses >10 mg/d may cause drowsiness
Desloratadine (Clarinex)
Long-acting tricyclic histamine antagonist selective for H1 receptor. Relieves nasal congestion
and systemic effects of seasonal allergy. Is a major metabolite of loratadine, which, after
ingestion, is metabolized extensively to active metabolite 3-hydroxydesloratadine.
Adult
5 mg PO qd
Pediatric
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Olopatadine (Patanol)
Topical antihistamine ophthalmic solution.
Adult
Pediatric
None reported
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Do not use with contact lenses; not for injection; caution in hepatic or renal dysfunction, doses
>10 mg/d may cause drowsiness
Mometasone (Nasonex)
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
None reported
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Use with caution inpatients with active or quiescent tuberculosis of the respiratory tract;untreated
fungal, bacterial, systemic viral infections; or ocular herpes
Ciclesonide (Omnaris)
Corticosteroid nasal spray indicated for allergic rhinitis. Prodrug that is enzymatically
hydrolyzed to pharmacologic active metabolite C21-desisobutyryl-ciclesonide following
intranasal application. Corticosteroids have a wide range of effects on multiple cell types (eg,
mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes) and mediators (eg, histamines,
eicosanoids, leukotrienes, cytokines) involved in allergic inflammation. Each spray delivers 50
mcg.
Adult
Pediatric
Documented hypersensitivity
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Caution when replacing systemic corticosteroids because of risk of adrenal insufficiency; may
decrease growth velocity in pediatric patients; caution with active or quiescent tuberculosis
infection or with untreated fungal, viral, or bacterial infections; rare instances of wheezing, nasal
septum perforation, cataracts, glaucoma, and increased intraocular pressure reported
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Coadministration with estrogens may decrease clearance; concurrent use with digoxin may cause
digitalis toxicity secondary to hypokalemia; phenobarbital, phenytoin, and rifampin may increase
metabolism of glucocorticoids (consider increasing maintenance dose); monitor for hypokalemia
with coadministration of diuretics
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Triamcinolone (Kenalog-40)
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Topical nasal steroid spray that inhibits bronchoconstriction mechanisms and produces direct
smooth muscle relaxation; may decrease number and activity of inflammatory cells, decreasing
airway hyper-responsiveness.
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
Pediatric
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Coadministration with ketoconazole may increase plasma levels (does not appear to be clinically
significant)
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Weight gain, increased bruising, cushingoid features, acneiform lesions, mental disturbances,
and cataracts may occur (taper medication slowly if these occur)
Topical nasal steroid spray. Has an extremely potent vasoconstrictive and anti-inflammatory
activity. Has weak HPA axis inhibitory potency when applied topically.
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
Pediatric
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
None reported
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Prolonged use, application over large surface areas, application of potent steroids, and occlusive
dressings may increase systemic absorption of corticosteroids and cause Cushing syndrome,
reversible HPA-axis suppression, hyperglycemia, and glycosuria
Mast cell stabilizer
Mast cell stabilizers inhibit mast cell degranulation and influence granulocyte chemotaxis. They
are most effective when used prophylactically, and they have an excellent safety profile.
Cromolyn (Nasalcrom)
Inhibits degranulation of sensitized mast cells after exposure to specific antigens; available over
the counter; may require several days to work.
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
Pediatric
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
None reported
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Documented hypersensitivity
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Do not use in severe renal or hepatic impairment; symptoms may reoccur when withdrawing
drug
Anticholinergic
These drugs relieve rhinorrhea but have no effect on other symptoms of allergy.
Ipratropium (Atrovent)
Chemically related to atropine; has antisecretory properties; when applied locally, inhibits
secretions from serous and seromucous glands lining the nasal mucosa; available in 0.03% and
0.06% strengths; also effective in relieving rhinorrhea from other causes (eg, cold air, gustation).
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
Pediatric
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Drugs with anticholinergic properties, such as dronabinol, may increase toxicity; albuterol may
increase effects
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Documented hypersensitivity
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Pregnancy
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals
Precautions
Not indicated for acute episodes of bronchospasm; caution in narrow-angle glaucoma, prostatic
hypertrophy, bladder neck obstruction
Decongestants
Decongestants are available in oral and topical preparations. These drugs act on alpha-adrenergic
receptors in the nasal mucosa, causing vasoconstriction that concomitantly reduces turbinate
edema and rhinorrhea.
Oxymetazoline (Afrin)
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
Pediatric
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Pregnancy
C - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may
use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Prolonged use can lead to rebound rhinitis; caution in hyperthyroidism, coronary artery and
ischemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus, increased intraocular pressure, prostatic hypertrophy;
because of increased vasoconstriction, patients with hypertension may have change in BP; do not
use topical decongestants for longer than 3-5 d
Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed)
• Dosing
• Interactions
• Contraindications
• Precautions
Adult
30 mg PO q4-6h
Pediatric
Follow-up
Further Outpatient Care
Regimen depends on the patient's symptoms and other coexisting medical problems.
Transfer
Deterrence/Prevention
See Avoidance of allergens and environmental controls for methods of deterrence and
prevention.
Complications
• Bacterial rhinosinusitis
• Exacerbation of asthma
Prognosis
Most patients with allergic rhinitis can expect an improved quality of life with appropriate
environmental control measures; pharmacotherapy; and, when necessary, immunotherapy.
Patient Education
• The clinic should have literature about allergies, and the office staff should
continually educate patients and reinforce their understanding of avoidance
and environmental control techniques.
• Patients undergoing immunotherapy should be instructed to report any
reactions from the previous injection and any changes in their health status
during each visit (eg, change in medication, new onset of upper respiratory
tract infection, worsening of asthma).
Miscellaneous
Medicolegal Pitfalls
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