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particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but,
theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as
well. human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may
be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize
pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to
less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.
In Other Words
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The Incentive Theory of Motivation
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Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation: Stems from the work environment external to the
task and it is usually applied by someone other than the person being
motivated.
In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him
or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is
often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat
others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.
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Self-control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of
emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a
more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests),
yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School
of Management Professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides
an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to
pursue a particular goal.
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Rule #1 Set a major goal, but follows a path. The path has mini
goals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini
goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.
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instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-education we will find, if
not create, opportunity to find success beyond our wildest dreams.
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We collect Primary data by questionnaires by observing human behavior
interest. We collect Secondary data from Internet, Newspaper, and
Books.
We conduct a survey to get or find the Motivation position in firms & and
employee conflicts against employer, or management.
We extracted from possessive survey is that the majority of people
demotivated because of lack of reward system and other opportunities.
We tried to find out the de motivation factor, what is the reason.
We find that employee want reward system, they want to completely full
fill their needs,Our survey result shows that we can easily solve this
problem due to follow of some special technique to managing human
behavior.
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Our standard employee motivation surveys are comprehensively designed
to identify and isolate key independent and dependent variables.
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Employee satisfaction surveys are inexpensive, yet will generate results
that are worth many times your small investment. If you choose to do
your employee satisfaction survey online, you'll receive real-time results
in as little a few minutes upon implementation. Employee satisfaction
surveys can assess just about anything that relates to the work
environment, including:
Overall satisfaction
Management/employee relations
Corporate culture
Career development
Compensation
Benefits
Recognition and rewards
Working conditions
Training
Staffing levels
Safety concerns
Policies and procedures
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Need Theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by
Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation,[2]
which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans'
innate curiosity.
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Maslow’s Theory
SELF
SELF
ACTUALIZATION
ACTUALIZATION
SELF
SELF ESTEEM
ESTEEM
SOCIAL
SOCIAL
SECURITY
SECURITY
SAFETY
SAFETY
PHSIOLOGICAL
PHSIOLOGICAL
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Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with
the exception of sex), the human body simply cannot continue to
function.
• Breathing
• Homeostasis
• Water
• Sleep
• Food
• Excretion
• Sex
Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs
take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with
people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and
inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar
rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such
things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for
protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts,
insurance policies, and the like.
For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well
satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are
people outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. If
frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle
to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily
concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and
seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.
• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
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Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of
human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy
involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:
• Friendship
• Intimacy
• Having a supportive and communicative family
Esteem
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Aesthetic needs
Self-Transcendence
Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the
hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-
transcendence"[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware
of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level
of Being… to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience”
(serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) …
and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with
illuminations or insights. Analysis of reality or cognitions which changed
their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps occasionally, perhaps
as a usual thing."
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Five simple strategies to motivate your listeners.
One of the most important elements of leadership is the ability to motivate
people. Without motivation, even the most skilled team of seasoned
professionals is unlikely to achieve great things. A highly motivated group of
talented people, on the other hand, can move mountains.
While it’s true that motivating people involves more than just changing the
way you speak, there are some simple guidelines you can follow to help build
team motivation with only your words and your voice:
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Frederick Herzberg has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory.
His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory.
He devised his theory on the question: “What do people want from their
jobs?” He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they
felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he
received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.
HYGIENE FACTORS
Conditions
Pay
Status
Security
Company policies
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
Achievement
Recognition
Growth/Advancement
Interest in the job
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Two Factor Theory
(Also known as Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory) was
developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist who found that job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction acted independently of each other.
Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace
that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause
dissatisfaction
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and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase
satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work
itself — the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming
responsibility, and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand,
management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the
job environment— policies, procedures, supervision, and working
conditions If management is equally concerned with both (as is usually
the case), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.
The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants
& engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing
importance in the business world. The subjects were asked to relate times
when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any
previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of
events giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.
The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that
led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work,
responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they
contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis-satisfiers
(company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job
satisfaction.
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Two Factor Theory distinguishes between:
Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and
others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the
motivation-hygiene theory. Their work, however, has been criticized on
methodological grounds. Nevertheless, Herzberg and his associates have
rendered a valuable service to science and to management through their
efforts to apply scientific methods to understanding complex motivational
problems at work and have stimulated others to continue the search.
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Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and
developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of
Management in the 1960s that have been used in human resource
management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and
organizational development. They describe two very different attitudes
toward workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed
either one or the other approach. He also thought that the key to
connecting self-actualization with work is determined by the managerial
trust of subordinates.
Theory X
Under the assumptions of theory X:
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions
are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors
and display little ambition.
In this theory, which many managers practice, management assumes employees are
inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They inherently dislike work.
Because of this, workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of
controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at
each and every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition
without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they
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can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational goals are to be met, theory X
managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employee's compliance.
Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive
atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in
blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for
themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's interest in
the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without
questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the
blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to
work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to
structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management
style is it is much more likely to cause Diseconomies of Scale in large businesses.
Theory Y
In contrast under the Assumptions of Theory Y:
Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are
committed to those goals.
Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and
exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the
problems of the organization.
That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s
brainpower is only partly used.
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Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes
have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a
reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features:
proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a
situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end
state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to
learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be
moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most
people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which
assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people
want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed.
Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal
should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic
example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade.
Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.
Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people
fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating
factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify
their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why
they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.
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Expectancy theory is about choice. It explains the processes that an individual
undergoes to make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a
motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management.
"This theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to
performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and
wanted by the recipients."
Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Together
with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom suggested that the relationship
between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first
imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based
on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
Victor H. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are
valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important
behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-
performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O
expectancy).
E>P expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the
required performance level.
P>O expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will
lead to certain outcomes.
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Vroom’s model is based on three concepts:
1. Valence - Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. For
the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not
attaining it.
2. Instrumentality – Means of the first level outcome in obtaining the desired
second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to
the second level outcome.
3. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a particular action will lead
to a particular first level outcome.
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In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that
tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the
rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the
effort-performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their
capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better
performance.
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Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of
fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Equity theory
is considered as one of the justice theories, It was first developed in 1962 by John
Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that
employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the
outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of
others (Adams, 1965). The belief is that people value fair treatment in which causes
them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their
co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on
the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made by the employee for
the organization; this includes the work done by the employees and the behavior
brought by the employee as well as their skills and other useful experiences the
employee may contribute for the good of the company.
Definition of Equity
An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his
inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. Thus, all else being
equal, it would be acceptable for a more senior colleague to receive higher
compensation, since the value of his experience (an input) is higher. The way people
base their experience with satisfaction for their job is the make comparisons with
themselves to the people they work with. If an employee notices that another person is
getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have
done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuade the employee to be
dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling
underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in direct contrast with the idea of
equity theory, the idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the
quality and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were
perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization
is fair, observant, and appreciative.
Inputs
Inputs are defined as each participant’s contributions to the relational exchange and
are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. The inputs that a participant
contributes to a relationship can be either assets – entitling him/her to rewards – or
liabilities - entitling him/her to costs. The entitlement to rewards or costs ascribed to
each input vary depending on the relational setting. In industrial settings, assets such
as capital and manual labor are seen as "relevant inputs" – inputs that legitimately
entitle the contributor to rewards. In social settings, assets such as physical beauty and
kindness are generally seen as assets entitling the possessor to social rewards.
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Individual traits such as boorishness and cruelty are seen as liabilities entitling the
possessor to costs (Walster, Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Inputs typically include
any of the following:
• Time
• Effort
• Loyalty
• Hard Work
• Commitment
• Ability
• Adaptability
• Flexibility
• Tolerance
• Determination
• Enthusiasm
• Personal sacrifice
• Trust in superiors
• Support from co-workers and colleagues
• Skill
Outcomes
Outputs are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual
perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with
another. When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have
much satisfaction with their job. Outputs can be both tangible and intangible (Walster,
Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Typical outcomes include any of the following:
• Job Security
• Esteem
• Salary
• Employee benefit
• Expenses
• Recognition
• Reputation
• Responsibility
• Sense of achievement
• Praise
• Thanks
• Stimuli
Propositions
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to accept and adhere to these systems. The only way groups can induce
members to equitably behave is by making it more profitable to behave
equitably than inequitably. Thus, groups will generally reward members who
treat others equitably and generally punish (increase the cost for) members
who treat others inequitably.
3. When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships,
they become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more
distress individuals feel. According to equity theory, both the person who gets
“too much” and the person who gets “too little” feel distressed. The person
who gets too much may feel guilt or shame. The person who gets too little
may feel angry or humiliated.
4. Individuals who perceive that they are in an inequitable relationship attempt to
eliminate their distress by restoring equity. The greater the inequity, the more
distress people feel and the more they try to restore equity. (Walster,
Traupmann and Walster, 1978)
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Reinforcer: Any stimulus that, when contingent on a response, serves to increase the
rate of responding
Reinforcement theory: The main idea that reinforcers can control behavior. The
definition has two main components: Contingency, where the occurrence of the
reinforcer depends on the occurrence of the learner's response, and Rate of
Responding, where the reinforcer serves to increase the learner's rate of responding.
Schedules of Reinforcement
When the desired behavior is gained as a result of reinforcement, reinforcing again
and again becomes too time-consuming. An abrupt stoppage of the reinforcement
would cause the performance of the desired behavior to weaken. Therefore, a gradual
thinning of reinforcement is necessary. Schedules of reinforcement are the rules for
how a reinforcer is presented following a behavior. They can be defined in terms of
time (interval) or number of responses (ratio).
Fixed interval
Reinforces behaviors at a specific time (ex. Every 5 minutes). One reinforcer would
be delivered if at least one correct response was made during the time interval. The
reinforced can become aware of the time length and, knowing he has to perform just
once, will wait for the time limit to run out before beginning his next task.
Example: Rewarded at the end of every class period for good behavior
Fixed ratio
Reinforces behaviors after a specific number of responses (ex. Every 5th response).
The key here is to seek the right amount of work given the reward schedule. Normally
a ratio schedule produces consistent work.
Variable interval
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Variable ratio
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We would like to conclude on a special note regarding very keen and
sharp completive environment in which Motivation is placed in Pakistan.
We conclude that employee motivation is a most sensitive factor in
management, employee wants satisfaction, and reward opportunity, but
major problem is that there is a conflict between employer & employee
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Mobile Networking in Pakistan now should move to improving the
top priority of market.
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Q11) Personal Information
Name: ____________
Sex: ______________
Age: _____________
Qualification: ____________
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