Prof. dr Sofija Petrović, prof. dr Miodrag Dimitrijević and B. Sc.

Nataša Vuković
Chair of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Department of Field and Vegetable Crops,
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad

UTILIZATION OF WHEAT GENETIC RESOURCES IN SAFETY

FOOD PRODUCTION

Abstract

The development of agriculture has led to so called intensive production. That way yield has been
remarkable enhanced, but the problem of environmental pollution and soil erosion has been opened, as
well. Anyway, intensification in food production requires suitable wheat and other varieties, bred and
selected under specific selection criteria. Spreading intensive varieties had significant loss of usable
genetic variability in consequence. In a past few decades the awareness of the importance of
environmental and biodiversity preservation, as well as, necessity of safety food production has grown
rapidly. The utilization of wheat and other genetic resources, particularly local populations and
landraces in organic agriculture is an important part of that environmentaly and safety sound
production.

Key words: wheat, biodiversity, environment, agriculture

INTRODUCTION

Cereals play an important role in a human’s diet. The wheat is one of two the most
agriculturally used crops in cereals. In Vojvodina, the flat agriculturally developed northern
part of Serbia, wheat is the most utilized crop in a sowing structure, to the point to be
considered as a strategic cultivar. In recent times wheat, as well as, other cereals has been
vastly demanded in safety food stores being considered as a diet of favorable influence to
human health (Dimitrijević and Petrović, 2006).
The most utilized wheat varieties of today belong to class of hexaploid wheat (Triticum
aestivum ssp. vulgare) having three genomes and 42 chromosomes. Hexaploid wheat had
been originated from spontaneous hybridization of diploid (14 chromosomes) and later
tetraploid (28 chromosomes) wheat with goat grass (Aegilops sp.). The steady selection
pressure of the same selection criteria in wheat breeding programs commonly led to genetic
variability narrowing. Species of Aegilops genus played a remarkable role not only in wheat
evolution, but also as a useful source for broadening genetic variability in wheat having
chromosomes and chromosomal regions homologous to wheat genetic background (Petrović
and Dimitrijević, 2006). Generally, endangered biodiversity, namely wild relatives,
landraces, local populations etc., well adapted to the regional climate could be considered as
very important not only in biodiversity preservation per se, but also in utilization in
modern,intensive, as well as, organic, safety food production.

MAN NATURAL MANNER IS TO UNNATURALLY PRESS PLANT

In the history of wheat breeding the turn over point happened in 1868. That year, in
Scotland, in the field of wheat population Victoria, Shirreff selected subpopulation named
Squarehead. At the end of XIX century emerging Dutch wheat breeding combining wheat
from British isle with local populations obtained variety Spijk from combination
Squarehead x Zeeuwse Witte, and later on variety Wilhelmina from cross Spijk x
Squarehead. The vast number of modern European wheat varieties originated out from these
crosses. British selection and Dutch wheat breeding from mid XIX to the beginning of XX
century laid foundation for modern wheat breeding. The consequences were the varieties
adapted tomodern agricultural production concept, and biodiversity erosion.
Varieties adapted to modern agricultural production concept. At the beginning of XX
century the agricultural production shifted its concept from self-sufficiency to market
oriented production. That was the period of introducing not only bred wheat varieties, but
also corn hybrids. At that time first seed companies were formed. Regardless of whether the
moving force had been “to feed hungry”, or simply “the profit”, the relations and
requirements in agriculture started to change. Consequently, two goals in wheat breading
have been shaped – high yield and stability.
High yield. The first requirement of the market oriented production is a high yield.
For that goal it was necessary to bred varieties capable for overproduction. Luxurious seed
production is not natural way of behaving for any plant, wheat included. Natural behaving is
economical seed production in a way of using available natural resources and environmental
conditions. Man could not change environmental conditions concerning weather, but could
intervene in a part of environmental conditions related to soil and available resources to a
plant. That is called intensification in agricultural production, and through so called “green
revolution” has led to intensive agriculture of today. Agriculture highly mechanized,
depending on energy and chemicals, in many cases under irrigation that greatly influenced
global damage of the environment. On the other hand, the requirement of unnatural behavior
such is luxurious seed production, made change of the wheat phenotype as a necessity. The
relations between sink (generative part of the plant, namely spike) and source (vegetative
part) became selection criteria in wheat breading. The reduction of height from over 100cm,
to 60-80cm was the result improving the translocation of assimilative from vegetative to
generative part of the wheat plant, and enhancing the yield. That was not the only change in
wheat phenotype, but was a cardinal one. As the result new “intensive” or high yielding
wheat varieties has become more and more different that their ancestors (wild relatives,
local populations and landraces) and highly dependent on man.
Stability. The yield has to be not only high, but also to keep that level through
seasons, as smooth as possible. To achieve that, the important goal of wheat breeding has
been to diminish genotype by environment interaction. That is another unnatural reaction
man requires from plant in agriculture to satisfy his needs. Common reaction of plant, and
most of the organisms living free in natural surrounding is quite opposite – higher GE
interaction that let better adaptability. The natural behavior is adaptation to variant
environmental conditions in order to reproduce and to pass genetic information to the next
generation. Every organism in nature, plants included, has one and only goal – to make
progeny. For plants it means – seed. When environmental conditions are favorable,
reproduction is better, when conditions are at minimum level, plant tends not only to survive
but also to reproduce at minimum. Passing hereditary information is the most important task
in the Universe. But that rational and understandable natural behavior is against man’s
economical interest. Consequently, requirements for “domestic plants” in agriculture,
namely cultivars are high and stable yield, in the other words GE interaction as small as
possible. To achieve that, small GE interaction ought to be selection criteria in breeding, and
agricultural production ought to be as “intensive” as possible. Paradigm for that are
genetically modified organisms.
Biodiversity erodion. According to FAO, seventy five percent of original plant species
has been irreversibly lost since 1900, in a consequence of agricultural intensification. That
loss is not only in genetic variability, but also in knowledge and experience that followed all
these lost species. To paraphrase Moony (2001), our generation is the first in the history of
the World facing the fact that loss of knowledge is greater than obtainment. In a wheat
production einkorn, emmer wheat, landraces and local populations retreated in front of
intensive varieties selected in breeding programs. Wheat populations well adapted to local
environmental conditions with small requirements gave not high but economical yield
having in mind input/output ratio. The withdrawal of these populations was gradual and
unequal. In flat areas, suitable for agricultural production, landraces and local populations
were extinct till the Second World War (Dimitrijević and Petrović, 2004). In mountain
regions of the Balkans, landraces and local wheat populations of different species (einkorn,
emmer, T. turgidum, T. durum, T. vulgare) existed until mid 70’s of XX century, and last
traces were found by the authors at the beginning of this Millennium (Dimitrijević, and
Petrović, 2003; Petrović, and Dimitrijević, 2003).

GENETIC VARIABILITY OF CEREALS IN BALKAN REGION

In order to trace useful genetic variability in wheat and cereals in our region, a brief
reminiscence is given. According to archeological remains found in Danube basin, wheat
was grown in that area, as early as, prehistoric period. Einkorn (T. monococcum) and emmer
(T. dicocum) wheat that were found belonged to Neolithic and Bronze Age. The first
remains of cultivated bread wheat (T. aestivum) were discovered in Knossos (Crete), and its
oldness was estimated to 7th Millennium B.C. Later on, during great moving of nations,
emmer wheat was vastly grown by natives and newcomers who overtook domestic wheat
populations or brought wheat stocks from Asia with them (Kassai, 1988). There are written
evidence in Turkish official documents of wheat and cereals growing at Balkans during their
ruling. Till the end of XVII century the mixed wheat population (awn and awnless) had been
grown, as well as, rye. Spring wheat populations were commonly sown as a compensation
for badly succeeded winter wheat. In Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia and Romania at the end of
XIX century were grown: common, soft wheat (T. vulgare) of two types – white grain, with
white endosperm, or red grain and awnless spike, with reddish endosperm, so called
Flanders wheat, Banat’s wheat with red, small grains, than Triticum polonicum, so called
English wheat (T. turgidum), T. spelta, einkorn (T. monococcum) and emmer wheat (T.
dicoccum) (Russi, 1887). The events in wheat breeding occurred at the beginning of XX
century, had their impact in Balkan region, as well. Consequently, the most of modern wheat
varieties at Balkans and in Serbia initially originated from the cross Squarehead x Zeeuwse
Witte (Dimitrijević, 1987). The important role played local variety Banatka obtained as long
term selected population that started at the end of XIX century. Banatka was well adapted to
local climate, resistant to low, and high temperatures and soil and air drought. According to
recollection of interviewed old farmers in Banat, Vojvodina, it was low yielding genotype,
but with very good quality of flour and bread. Until 30’s of XX century the leading wheat
varieties in agricultural production were: Rumska crvenka, Banatska crvenka, Banatska
brkulja, Leganj, Hatvanska šišulja, Prolifik, Sekač, U-1 (Korićeva šišulja), with average
yield of 1 - 1.2t/ha, hectoliter 78-80kg, stem height up to 120cm, spike length about 8cm,
and 46-48 grains per spike. Rumska crvenka has been selected at Pejačića estate near the
town of Ruma (Srem, Vojvodina) and was sowed in humid areas of Bačka and Srem. It was
tall genotype, susceptible to lodging, 3 to 4 days later than Banatka, but with better
resistance to abscission of grains. Rumska crvenka had redish spike, medium seed, and 1000
grain weight of about 38g. Prolifik had good resistance to low temperatures and was well
adapted to humid growth conditions, but with somewhat greater abscission of grains. Beside
wheat, white and yellow oat (beljski ovas), winter barley and rye were grown (Archive of
City of Novi Sad).
 Up to the Second World War, einkorn and emmer wheat were still grown, but the
introduction of varieties Dakota and Bankut 1205 could be observed, as well. Those two
bred varieties were tall up to 140cm, susceptible to lodging. Bankut 1205 was susceptible to
stem and leaf rust, but with good bread making quality. This Hungarian variety was vastly
grown in Vojvodina, especially at larger estates, and stayed in wide agricultural production
up to 60’s of the last century. Dakota is American introduction, particularly well accepted in
Banat in 50’s. This variety was quite phenotypically uniform, with white, spindled, awned
spike, and bluish glume. Dakota was mid-early, possessing very good resistance to drought
and low temperatures. Grain was medium, with 1000 grain weight of 35g, and somewhat
inferior bread making quality (Mišić, 1988). Hungarian wheat varieties and ecotypes,
famous Vienna cakes and cookies were made off, were used as an initial parental material in
wheat breeding programs formed after the Second World War in former Yugoslavia (Kassai,
1988). Up to the end of 50’s local population of spring and winter wheat (Triticum vulgare)
were grown in East Serbia named Starinka, Ranka, Belija, Jedrenka, Vidovača, Gru dje
primovar (Dimitrijević i Petrović, 2006). In the mountain regions of Rtanj, Miroč and Stara
planina, at that time were notified and collected small populations of emmer wheat, founded
beside populations of T. durum and T. vulgare. These populations were named Krupnik and
Limac, and were grown in villages of Babušnica, Miroč and Vrbovac (Miladinović, 1961).
Serbian facultative variety Novosadska 1439/3 and winter variety Novosadska 1446 have
had notable role in yield enhancement in Vojvodina, during 60’s. Novosadska 1439/3, from
wheat breeding program established in the Novi Sad Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops,
was obtained from the cross Banatka x Manitoba. This variety was with similar vegetation
period to Bankut 1205, having white spike, 1000 grain weight of 36g, and about 130cm tall.
Beside wheat varieties out of Serbian breeding programs, Italian introductions Libelulla,
San Pastore, Produtore, Abbonanza, Leonardo and Autonomia were grown. Later on Soviet
varieties with better winterhardiness were introduced, particularly Bezostaja 1. From the
mid 70’s high yielding and semi dwarf wheat varieties from national breeding programs
took over the leading position, and after a while completely replaced foreign varieties in
wide and intensive agricultural production. The remains of einkorn, and emmer wheat could
be found up to 70’s in the mountain regions of East Hertzegovina, South-East Bosnia, and
East Serbia. In Montenegro einkorn and emmer wheat were grown in Nikšićko polje,
Ljubišnja mountain (North-West Montenegro) and Skadar lake (Pavićević, 1982).
According to the field investigations of Dimitrijević, and Petrović conducted for six years in
Montenegro, einkorn and emmer wheat could be found in very remote regions at small self-
sufficient production up to 15-20 years ago. They have been replaced with modern high
yielding varieties, or the structure of agricultural production was changed (Dimitrijević, and
Petrović, 2006).
 SAFETY FOOD PRODUCTION AND ORGANIC BREEDING
The description and collection of genetic variability in wheat and broader was undergone
between the First and the Second World War in the States, Soviet Union etc. (Zeven and van
Hintum, 1991). Later on, the institutions for biodiversity preservation and studying have
been formed in agriculturally developed countries. In Serbia and Montenegro the awareness
of the importance of preserving endangered genetic variability in cereals could be denoted
in 60’s (Miladinović, 1961). At the beginning of 70’s the extensive work of Ljubo Pavićević
gave as the result not only descriptions of local populations of wheat, but also a couple of
thousands samples (Pavićević, 1973). At that time that was a pioneer’s work. But all the
importance of these visionary efforts became recognized much later.
As the agricultural production became more and more „intensive“, climaxing in GMO at
the moment, the cognizance of necessity for environmental preservation and safety food
production grew clearer and clearer. Facing soil erosion, pollution of the environment, and
finally transgenic technology – in phrase, the endangerment of the Earth – a vast part of
general public and specialist groups have tried to find an exit in ecologically justified
agricultural production, particularly in developed countries. Backing up to very basics in
agriculture, omitting chemical protection and fertilizers, GMO, clearing the soil and
environment and producing safety food, that “movement” is not only environmentally
sound, but also a stand against tendency of a rather small number of transnational
companies to overtake global food production (Jošt, 2000). Gradually developing, the safety
manner of agricultural production finally sublimated in organic agriculture. The organic way
of agricultural production has a very strict rules leaving out anything that can cause the
pollution of the environment and the product. That means almost all of the “benefits” of
intensive agriculture. Very soon it was comprehended that wheat and other cultivar varieties
created for intensive agricultural production could hardly be used in organic agriculture.
Cultivated varieties under two constant selection criteria in breeding program – high and
stable yield - were highly dependent on chemicals. Their performance in organic agriculture,
based on traditional approach to food production, appeared to be rather unsatisfactory. The
importance of wheat and other endangered genetic variability (local populations) for organic
agriculture is evident. That importance is not only in material, but also in revitalization of
experience how to handle that crops, and even the way of preparing food in an old fashion
way. The utilization of old wheat populations means to return to better adapted genotypes
for particular areas, to handle higher genotype by environment interaction, to lost “high
yield”, but commonly to gain quality. Those populations could be a good basis for creating
organic breeding in order to obtain varieties suitable for organic agriculture. But first the
selection criteria for that kind of breeding have to be defined, or we are going to be trapped
again in high and stable yield but in organic production, and one leads to another soon we
are going to have “intensive organic agriculture”.
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