The Fit Executive: Exercise and Diet Guidelines for Enhancing Performance

Author(s): Christopher P. Neck and Kenneth H. Cooper

Source: The Academy of Management Executive (1993), Vol. 14, No. 2, Executive Health (May,
2000), pp. 72-83
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4165636
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 Academy of Management Executive, 2000, Vol. 14, No. 2

The fit executive: Exercise and

diet guidelines for enhancing
performance

Christopher P. Neck and Kenneth H. Cooper

Executive Overview
Why is fitness so important? A good word to describe the job of executives today is
intense. Many demands confront them-including physical ones. The international
economic thrust of many businesses today has increased the amount of travel required by
CEOs to develop and maintain a global presence for their companies. Another major
physical demand is created by the stress related to being responsible for many people,
their welfare, and the success of the company. Endless meetings, and extremely long
working hours are par for the course for executives. We provide evidence that those
executives who enjoy optimal fitness can handle these demands more effectively and
thus perform better in their daily tasks.
While many executives do take fitness seriously, what exactly constitutes optimal
fitness behaviors is confusing. Given the numerous diet and exercise books on the
bestseller lists today, it is easy to understand why such a quandary exists. We will
attempt to provide clarity as we discuss prescriptions related to two primary components
that are key to an executive's optimal fitness level-exercise and diet.

There's no question that people who are fit
are more productive; they enjoy their work
more and accomplish more.'
-Dr. Jerome Zuckerman, exercise physiologist
Anecdotal data gathered by the first author in per-
sonal interviews and related research support the
relationship between fitness and performance.3 For
example, Michael Mangum, president of the Man-
gum Group, a construction firm, states:

The job of the executive has become more in-
tense over the last decade. A profusion of de-
mands confront them-including physical ones.
The global economic thrust of many businesses
today has increased the amount of travel re-
quired by CEOs to develop and maintain an in-
ternational presence for their companies. An-
other major physical demand is created by the
stress related to being responsible for many peo-
ple, their welfare, and the success of the com-
pany. Endless meetings and extremely long
working hours are par for the course for execu-
tives. Executives who enjoy optimal physical fit-
ness-that is, "the ability to perform routine
physical activity without undue fatigue"2-will
be able to handle these demands more construc-
tively and thus perform better in their daily
tasks.
72
I do believe fitness impacts my job. I usually
exercise during the middle of the day-say, 1
to 4 p.m. or so. I find that my energy level is
much enhanced when I return from a workout.
Further, I find that because I choose to go
during the day, my thoughts tend toward
work while exercising. I have some of my
most creative thoughts when working out.
Judith Kaplan had a similar perspective while she
served as CEO of Action Products International, an
educational toy manufacturer:
I never felt better, physically and mentally,
than when I was exercising regularly three
times a week. I could still work harder, and
instead of collapsing at the end of the day, I'd
still feel good.
2000 Neck and Cooper
Likewise, Tom Monaghan, the founder of Domino's
Pizza and current chairman of the Mater Christi
Foundation, says:
Since I have been exercising regularly and eat-
ing right, I have had more energy and a better
self-image. Fitness and exercise also have
helped me develop good disciplinary habits,
which carries over to good business habits.
James Harris, director of pro personnel for the
NFL's Baltimore Ravens has a similar perspective:
I believe fitness can enhance your concentra-
tion and endurance to perform the task at
hand. Physical conditioning gives you confi-
dence and energy to achieve.
Carol Cone, president of Cone Communications,
also believes that fitness can enhance executive
performance:
I must make 50 to 100 decisions a day, and it's
important to have the same clarity of thinking
at 7 or 8 o'clock at night as at 7 or 8 o'clock in
the morning.
Fitness Promotes Job Performance
Various studies show that fitness promotes job per-
formance. Commercial real estate stock brokers
who participated in an aerobics training program
(walking and/or running three times a week, for 12
weeks) earned greater sales commissions during
and after the training program than brokers who
did not participate. Workers from a hospital equip-
ment firm who participated in a similar aerobics
training program (walking, running, swimming,
and/or bicycling four times a week, for 24 weeks)
enjoyed greater productivity and job satisfaction
than workers who did not participate in the fitness
program.4
In addition, a variety of studies support the rela-
tionship between fitness and mental performance,
especially for individuals within the age ranges of
many executives. One study of 56 college profes-
sors revealed that physically active people process
data faster and experience a slower decline in
information-processing speed than inactive people
as they age. A study of postal workers ranging
from 18 to 62 suggested that older (43-62), less fit
individuals consistently underperformed older, fit-
ter people and younger people (18-30) on mental
tasks involving information processing.5
There are other benefits to being fit. Individuals
who are fit are less likely to become obese, possess
73
higher levels of energy, and enjoy enhanced feel-
ings of well-being.6 Fit individuals who participate
in aerobic activity tend to enjoy various psycholog-
ical outcomes, including a reduction in anxiety,
depression, tension, and stress.7 In fact, Ken Resse,
former executive vice president at Tenneco Inc.,
used exercise to help him cope with the pressures
of being a top executive:
[There's] no question my exercise program
has helped me cope with stress. If it starts to
build up, I just go out and run like hell. I'm a
morning runner, and that sets the tone for the
whole day. By the time I get to the office, I'm
relaxed.8
Physiological benefits to individuals engaged in
fitness programs have also been documented. The
findings in one study revealed improvements in
cardiovascular function and strength, as well as
reductions in body fat and weight, for 66 men en-
gaged in a two-year exercise program located
within the corporate headquarters. Another study
showed that lifestyle changes that include diet
and exercise can reverse the atherosclerotic
changes of coronary heart disease and unblock
arteries enough to avoid surgery. Finally, it has
been estimated that 35 percent of cancers, the sec-
ond leading cause of death in the U.S., are related
to diet.9 In fact, there is a growing body of epide-
miological evidence correlating diet with the inci-
dence of cancer, particularly cancers of the esoph-
agus, breast, prostate, and colon.'0
Individuals who are fit are less likely to
become obese, possess higher levels of
energy, and enjoy enhanced feelings of
well-being.
There is also solid evidence that physically fit peo-
ple live longer. A recent study published in the New
England Journal of Medicine of over one million
adults during a 14-year period confirmed that being
overweight shortened a person's life. Several land-
mark studies at the Cooper Institute for Aerobics
Research in Dallas have investigated this associa-
tion between fitness and death. One of these inves-
tigated the relationship between fitness levels and
risk of dying in more than 10,000 men and 3,000
women. It revealed that men and women with low
levels of physical fitness had more than twice the
mortality rate of people with even a moderate level
of physical fitness. Fitness in this case helped over-
74 Academy of Management Executive
come all causes of mortality, including diabetes,
cancer, and heart disease.'1
The major finding from this study and others-
that physical fitness can prolong life-has tremen-
dous significance for organizations and execu-
tives. An illness or death of a top executive could
have far-reaching consequences for an organiza-
tion. Dr. Jerrold Post, co-author of When Illness
Strikes The Leader, states:
In a company where you have an entrepre-
neurial leader who is so identified with the
company, that kind of event [death or serious
illness of a key executive] will strike at the
core of its corporate identity.'2
Executive fitness is thus important not only to ex-
ecutives themselves, but also to all the constitu-
ents of the executive's organization. Economic ef-
fects from cardiovascular disease (which research
shows can be related to poor fitness habits)
amounted to an estimated $286.5 billion in 1999.13
According to the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, such losses affect employers and
employees alike "in lost work days and wages, lost
productivity, increased health care costs and low-
ered morale."'4 Richard E. Snyder, former Chairman
and CEO of Simon & Schuster Publishing, once re-
marked: "The healthier and stronger I am, the more
relaxed I am, the better it is for the company."'5
Executive Fitness Behaviors At a Glance
If fitness is so important, how many executives are
actually doing something about it? A survey of exec-
utives from the top 3,000 U.S. companies (identified
from Fortune 500, the Inc. 100, the Venture Fast Track
100, and Dun's List of Large and Small Companies)
revealed that two-thirds of the executives surveyed
exercised at least three times weekly, with more than
90 percent of them using aerobic exercise as the
cornerstone of their workouts. This survey also indi-
cated that 90 percent of the executives wanted to
improve their physical condition within the next five
years. Finally, more than 90 percent reported being
careful about their diet, 81 percent had had a com-
plete physical exam within the previous two years,
and only 10 percent smoked (compared with the na-
tional average of more than 25 percent).'6
The following are brief descriptions of how ex-
ecutives use fitness to enhance their abilities to
lead their organizations.'7
. Tom Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza
and current chairman of the Mater Christi Foun-
dation, runs about four miles every day or uses a
May
Stairmaster; he uses a Nautilus machine for 30
minutes, alternating upper and lower body ev-
ery other day; and when traveling does push-
ups and crunches along with running. He con-
sumes about 2,000 calories a day, does not eat
any desserts or sweets, and fasts on bread and
water for half a day twice a week.
* James Harris, director of pro personnel for the
NFL's Baltimore Ravens, exercises three to four
days a week. His regimen consists of 20 to 30
minutes on a treadmill or a brisk walk, some
weight work, stretching, and bike riding. He
avoids fried foods, red meat, and eating late.
* Dr. Thomas Frist Jr., chairman and CEO of Co-
lumbia/HCA Healthcare, uses time between
business flights to jog along airport roads or
neighboring streets.
* Michael Mangum, president of the Mangum
Group, performs aerobic exercises two hours a
week and lifts weights two to three times a
week. He also tries to minimize fat and choles-
terol while maximizing fruit intake.
* Charles 0. Rossotti, commissioner of the Inter-
nal Revenue Service, jogs five miles a day.
* Julian C. Day, chief financial officer for Sears,
Roebuck & Company, runs half-marathons and
surf s.
Despite such statistics and anecdotes, there is
room for improvement in the effectiveness of exec-
utive fitness. Executives dedicated to fitness may
be basing their exercise and diet routines on ob-
solete or incomplete data, and may be following
the fitness fad of the month or outdated training
and nutritional folklore.'8 We will attempt to rectify
this misinformation as we discuss prescriptions
related to two primary components that are key to
an executive's optimal fitness level-exercise and
diet.'9 (Other elements playing a key role in fitness
are attitudes and emotions.) The importance of ex-
ercise and diet is evidenced in the health history of
Al Hirsch, president of G+A Communications. Hir-
sch, who was diagnosed in 1991 with a heart fibril-
lation, remarked:
Maybe it was stress, maybe it was poor diet. I
don't know the exact cause-the doctors don't
either-but I knew I had to start eating right,
exercising right, and somehow handle the anx-
iety that comes with managing a business.20
Lean foods and a 20-minute run four times a week
remedied Hirsch's heart problem. A fitness pro-
gram focusing on exercise and diet helped him
gain optimal health. We suggest that the exercise
and diet-related prescriptions that follow will help
2000 Neck and Cooper
achieve optimal levels of fitness necessary for su-
perior job performance.
The First Key to Fitness: Exercise
If exercise could be packed into a pill, it
would be the single most widely prescribed-
and beneficial-medicine in the nation.
Dr. Robert Butler, former director of
National Institute on Aging
The three components of an effective executive
exercise program are endurance, strength, and
flexibility.21
Endurance
The second author's testing of more than 100,000
people via treadmill tests shows that a significant
decline in endurance or aerobic capacity does not
have to occur for people over 40. In fact, people 40
and older can maintain an extremely high level of
aerobic capacity if they pursue a regular endur-
ance exercise program. Without exercise, the
heart's ability to pump efficiently will drop approx-
imately 30 percent between age 30 and 70, and the
decline will increase after age 70.22 Exercise can
minimize this drop in aerobic capacity or endur-
ance as people grow older.
Indeed, various scientific studies on the aerobic
capacities of older people support these observa-
tions about endurance. To illustrate:
* Eight women and four men averaging over 71
years of age participated in a bicycle ergometer
training program. They worked out about three
times a week for 12 weeks at 60 percent of their
maximum work capacity. The participants be-
gan with two 10-minute sessions for each work-
out and worked up to two 20-minute sessions
after six weeks. On completion of the program,
the subjects were able to increase their maxi-
mum workload (intensity and duration of bicy-
cling exercise) by 16 percent and their maximum
oxygen uptake (a measure of aerobic capacity)
by 11 percent as compared with measurements
taken prior to beginning the training program.
* Forty-nine veterans over age 64 with such chronic
illnesses as arthritis, hypertension, and heart dis-
ease were in an exercise program over a four-
month period. The regimen consisted of a warm-
up, stationary cycling, stretching, weight training,
walking on a treadmill, and a cool-down. The re-
sults showed that the participants were able to
walka1verage
an of three minutes longer on the
75
treadmill than when they began the exercise pro-
gram. Their resting heart rates decreased by an
average of nearly five beats per minute, an indi-
cation of improved aerobic fitness.23
Healthy people of any age can improve their aer-
obic capacity with regular endurance activity. Dr.
William J. Evans, director of the Noll Laboratory for
Human Performance Research at Penn State Uni-
versity, remarks: "With regular exercise programs,
the gains we see in V02 max [endurance capacity]
between the old and young are similar."24
What aerobic capacity should people expect as
they age?25 In their 40s, they can expect to approach
the maximum endurance capacity that they attained
earlier in life, particularly if they were never ath-
letes. In their 50s, they can expect some loss of en-
durance capacity, but not a rapid decline. A regular
endurance exercise program will delay significantly
this part of the aging process. In their 60s and 70s,
they will continue to experience a gradual decline in
endurance. But with a regular endurance exercise
program, they can still perform at optimal levels-
even better than many younger individuals. As they
approach their 80s, the decline in endurance will be
more noticeable, but an exercise program can still
maximize natural capacities.
Measuring endurance: The one-mile walking test
To evaluate endurance, a simple one-mile walking
test is all that is required.26 In this test, you must
walk the entire distance (no running or jogging is
allowed). In other words, one foot must always be
on the ground. A warm-up for three to five minutes
by stretching or walking briskly is recommended.
Then you should walk for one mile as fast as you
can without straining, trying to maintain a con-
stant pace. On finishing the one-mile course,
record the time it took to cover the distance in
minutes and seconds. The one-mile walk should be
immediately followed by a cool-down, a slow walk
for at least five minutes to allow the heart rate and
blood pressure to return to normal.
To determine your endurance level, refer to the
appendix, which is designed to allow the walker to
compare chronological age to real age. Real age
refers to the functional or physiologic age at which
your physical and mental capabilities are cur-
rently operating. For example, if a man walked the
mile in 11:50, his functional endurance would be
comparable to someone 20 to 29 years of age. To
determine the specific endurance score, figure the
approximate fraction or percentage that walking
time has cut into the particular time category and
then apply that same fraction or percentage to the
76 Academy of Management Executive
age group. For example, for men, a mile in 11:30
would equate to an age of 21. For women, a mile in
12:30 would be equal to an endurance age of 25.
A blueprint to enhance endurance
Specific programs to enhance endurance include
walking, treadmill walking, running/jogging, out-
door cycling, stationary cycling, and swimming.27
Following are guidelines for the minimum and
maximum amount of walking exercise adults need
for optimal functioning:28
Specific programs to enhance endurance
include walking, treadmill walking,
running/jogging, outdoor cycling,
stationary cycling, and swimming.
* Minimum for women: walk two miles in less
than 30 minutes three days per week. Or walk
two miles in 40 minutes, five days per week.
* Minimum for men: walk two miles in less than 27
minutes three days per week. Or walk two miles
in 35 minutes, five times per week.
* Maximum for women: walk two miles in less
than 30 minutes six days per week. Or run two
miles in less than 24 minutes, four days per
week.
* Maximum for men: walk three miles in less than
45 minutes, five days per week. Or run two miles
in less than 20 minutes four days per week.
These walking guidelines are consistent with the
public health statement regarding physical activity
produced by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention and the American College of Sports Med-
icine: "Every U.S. adult should accumulate 30 min-
utes or more of moderate-intensity physical activity
on most, preferably all, days of the week."29
The above recommendations parallel the guide-
lines provided by Dr. Steven Blair, director of epi-
demiology at the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Re-
search, based on his study of approximately 13,400
men and women. These subjects were monitored
for four years before any testing to ascertain that
they were healthy. The participants were then
asked to exercise to exhaustion on a treadmill.
Based on their treadmill times, they were divided
into fitness categories of five groups (20 percent of
subjects were placed into each group), and were
then monitored for an average of 8.2 years to de-
termine the cause of death of any of the partici-
pants. At the conclusion of the study, the totally
sedentary men, who made up the bottom 20 per-
May
cent fitness category, had a death rate from heart
disease, cancer, diabetes, and stroke that was 65
percent higher than the most active men in the top
20 percent category. Blair concluded from this
study that 30 minutes of sustained activity, three to
four times a week, would have a significant impact
on reducing mortality from all causes.30
Moderate exercise means exercising at one's tar-
get heart rate, a scientifically established, higher-
than-normal, but less-than-maximum rate that al-
lows an executive to improve endurance. To
determine your personal target heart rate, subtract
your age from 220 to get your predicted maximal
heart rate. Then take 65-80 percent of that figure to
obtain your target heart rate. For example, a 40-year
old would have a predicted maximal heart rate of 220
minus 40, or 180. Multiplying that figure by 0.65 and
by 0.80 produces a target heart rate range for endur-
ance exercise of 117 to 144 heartbeats per minute.
Strength
A particularly destructive tendency of aging is the
loss of muscle tissue. Without a regular program of
strength exercises-or at least consistent involve-
ment in rigorous, muscle-conditioning activities,
such as heavy labor-a steady loss of muscle mass
will occur after about the age of 30. According to
some estimates, a three to five percent loss of mus-
cle mass happens every 10 years, beginning be-
tween ages 30 and 40. Some experts argue that the
total loss of muscle mass between ages 30 and 70
may be as high as 30 to 40 percent, or an average
of 10 percent every 10 years during this period.3'
What's the significance of losing muscle mass?
First, less strength means a reduced ability to
function physically. An average 90-year-old
woman must contract her thigh muscles at their
maximum capacity just to stand up from a sitting
position in a low chair, or to get out of a car.
Second, an individual's strength can indirectly ex-
tend one's life. A 1988 Danish study indicated that
gait disturbances and vision impairment were the
two objective health measurements most strongly
associated with death during a three-year fol-
low-up among patients 75 to 85 years of age.
Strength exercises can thus perhaps extend a per-
son's life because such exercises can enhance
one's ability to walk efficiently. Third, it is esti-
mated that 80 percent of all lower back pain is the
result of poorly conditioned muscles.32
The good news is that strength exercises can
help reverse this very destructive aging tendency,
the loss of muscle tissue. Research suggests that
one is never too old to reverse the loss of muscle
tissue. One study in particular showed that even
2000 Neck and Cooper
those over 90 years of age can become stronger
and increase the size of their muscles with a su-
pervised weight-training program.33
Research suggests that one is never too
old to reverse the loss of muscle tissue.
Another important facet of strength exercising re-
lates to bone loss. In brief, an individual's bones
reach their maximum density between ages 25 and
40. After age 40, total bone mass declines at a rate of
up to one-half of one percent per year. Women who
go through menopause may begin to lose bone den-
sity at an even higher rate of two to three percent per
year. Losing bone density can be dangerous because
it results in an increased risk of broken bones and
the development of osteoporosis, a disease charac-
terized by brittle, porous bones that fracture easily.
Approximately one-third of all women and one-sixth
of all men suffer a hip fracture by the time they reach
70. Strength training, however, can serve as a barrier
or impediment to bone loss. It has been shown that
weight-bearing exercises can help individuals reach
the highest possible peak bone mass by age 40 and
then can retard this gradual loss of bone mass after
age 40. In short, people who fail to exercise their
muscles can expect to lose more bone mass than
those who don't.34
An effective method to gauge current strength
level is to perform a two-part strength test de-
signed by the second author. This test involves
performing as many sit-ups as possible within 60
seconds and executing as many push-ups as pos-
sible within a separate one-minute time period. An
adult who performs 30-34 (men) or 25-29 (women)
sit-ups would have a real age of 30 to 39. Similarly,
a man or woman who performs 25-29 push-ups
would have a real age of between 30 to 39.35
Guidelines to enhance strength
Strength exercises can be classified into three types
of activities: calisthenics, light circuit weight train-
ing, and aqua-aerobics training. Activity type en-
compasses exercises designed to condition three ba-
sic muscle groups: arms, shoulders, and chest;
abdomen and trunk; and legs and lower back. To
benefit from strength exercises, do a minimum of 20
minutes of such exercises three times a week.36
Flexibility
Research suggests that as individuals age, their
tendons (which connect muscles to bones) and lig-
77
aments (which connect bones to bones) tighten up,
resulting in loss of flexibility. A regular program of
flexibility exercises can help keep this inflexibility
at a minimum. The benefits of flexibility are a
wider range of body motion, decrease in risk of
injury, increase in relaxation and energy, and re-
duction in stiffness and aches related to one's nor-
mal work routine.37
To test flexibility, tape a yardstick to the floor,
with a piece of masking tape across the 15-inch
mark. With shoes off, sit straddling the yardstick
with the zero end closest to you, heels flush with
the 15-inch mark. With legs completely straight,
arms parallel to the floor, reach forward as far as
possible over the yardstick. Have an observer note
the point above the yardstick of your maximum
reach. Adults who can reach between the 17.5 and
17.74 inch marks (men) or 18.5 and 18.74 inch marks
(women) would have a real age of 30 to 39.38
A formula to improve flexibility
It is important to work on flexibility in all the major
parts of the body. Stretch each of the following
muscle groups at least three times a week: rear
shoulders and upper back; back of upper arms, and
middle and sides of the back; hamstrings and
lower back; groin; and lower back and buttocks.
Regardless of the flexibility program chosen,
consider several basic principles for safe and ef-
fective stretching. Dr. Rich Blake, senior podiatrist
at the Center for Sports Medicine at Saint Francis
Memorial Hospital in San Francisco, and former
president of the American Academy of Podiatric
Sports Medicine, offers these stretching guide-
lines:39
* Stretch after your activity when muscles are
warm.
* Warm up muscles before an activity.
* Stretch three times a day to gain flexibility, and
one or two times a day to maintain flexibility.
* Don't count, breathe. Breathing gets oxygen into
the muscles to help with flexibility. When count-
ing, people often hold their breath.
* Know which muscles are tight and stretch these
50 percent more than other muscles.
. Do not bounce or jerk while stretching. Stretch
slowly, gradually, and evenly. The greatest
gains in the least amount of time can be expe-
rienced by stretching for 30 seconds.40
. Stretch muscle groups in various positions to
optimize the stretch. For example, both the in-
side and the outside of the hamstrings can be
stretched. Most muscle groups have three or
more fairly easy variations like this to get better
stretching of any particular group.
78 Academy of Management Executive
* When an injury has occurred, it is very important
to heat up a muscle or tendon before stretching,
and especially before activity.
The Second Key to Fitness: Diet
Doctors are always working to preserve our
health and cooks to destroy it, but the latter
are the more often successful.
-Denis Diderot, 18th century philosopher
Dick is a 54-year old executive who had partici-
pated in a progressive exercise program that in-
volved walking for about two miles a day, three
days a week; then jogging and walking; finally,
running for four days a week. He typically covered
two miles in 20 to 22 minutes, or 10 to 11 minutes
per mile. Three days a week, he had a simple
strength and flexibility program, with stretching
exercises for the back, hamstring stretches, 50 sit-
ups, seven to nine chin-ups, and 30 to 40 push-ups.
He stayed on this program for about four years;
then downsizing and other internal turmoil at his
company made it necessary for him to put in ex-
ceptionally long hours. As a result, he began to
miss exercise sessions. At a routine physical ex-
amination, Dick's doctor noticed that Dick seemed
generally depressed, and his physical condition
had deteriorated noticeably. In conversation, he
was less alert and articulate than he had been just
a few months earlier.
The doctor identified what he thought might be the
underlying cause of the executive's problem. During
a conversation with Dick, the doctor asked as an
aside how he was eating. "Oh, I've been so busy
lately that I grab something quick whenever I'm hun-
gry. I can't even remember when I was home at a
decent hour to have a nice balanced meal with my
wife." "What kind of quick things?" the doctor asked.
"Hamburgers, French fries, tacos, things like that."
As it turned out, Dick had not had more than a half-
dozen well-balanced meals in the past six months,
and he almost never had fruits or vegetables.
So the doctor arranged to have Dick meet with a
nutritionist. The nutritionist's analysis of Dick's eat-
ing showed that he was eating too many calories
and was not getting the necessary vitamins and min-
erals. The physician immediately concluded that
Dicks' depression and loss of mental functioning
were most likely connected in part to the lack of good
nutrition. The doctor placed Dick on a more sound
diet regimen and within only a week or two, Dick's
mood and mental abilities improved.
Improper nutrition is a common problem. Research
May
suggests that both exercise and nutrition should
form important components of any regimen for pre-
vention of chronic diseases and promotion of optimal
health.4' Good nutrition, and a proper diet are abso-
lute prerequisites for building up the endurance and
muscle power that will enable individuals to func-
tion and perform at optimal levels.
Despite-or because of-the abundance of diet-
related books on the bestseller lists, it's easy to be
confused about exactly what nutritional plan is
necessary for superior executive performance. In-
dividuals should keep the following in mind as
they consider what to eat.42
Reduce fat and cholesterol
A major objective should be to keep consumption
of fats-especially saturated fats-and cholesterol
as low as possible. Controlling cholesterol levels
helps to avoid heart disease, stroke, and heart
attacks. The more saturated fat an individual con-
sumes, the higher the risk of developing elevated
cholesterol, colon cancer, and other diseases.43
There are more calories in each gram of fat (nine
calories) than in each gram of protein or carbohy-
drates (four calories). Consequently, people who
eat more fat are likely to become obese. There are
three types of fat: saturated, polyunsaturated, and
monounsaturated. Some research suggests that
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats may
help control blood cholesterol levels. Saturated
fats definitely raise blood cholesterol levels and
should be avoided.44
Olive oil contains a high percentage of monoun-
saturated fat. Butter is mostly saturated fat, while
corn oil is mostly polyunsaturated fat. What bal-
ance of fat, carbohydrates, and protein should
one's diet have? Adults over 30 should follow these
guidelines:45
* No more than 20 to 25 percent of daily calories
from fat.
* About 50 to 70 percent of calories from complex
carbohydrates, such as fruits, vegetables, le-
gumes, and whole grain products-not candies,
desserts, or simple sugars, which are classified
as simple carbohydrates.
. About 10 to 20 percent of calories each day from
protein sources such as fish, poultry or meats.
Complex carbohydrates make up the bulk of a
proposed diet because they are the most readily
available and powerful form of energy. A high
percentage of complex carbohydrates provides the
nutritional fuel needed to perform demanding
daily activities in an efficient and effective man-
ner. Complex carbohydrates are also the main
2000 Neck and Cooper
source of fiber, which has been shown to provide
major health benefits.
The American Heart Association recommends
that daily consumption of cholesterol in foods
should be 300 milligrams or less for those without
blood cholesterol problems and 200 milligrams or
less for those with blood cholesterol problems. A
nonproblem range would include adults with total
cholesterol of less than 200 mg/dl.
A high percentage of complex
carbohydrates provides the nutritional
fuel needed to perform demanding daily
activities in an efficient and effective
manner.
In sum, for better health, it is important to lower
consumption of fat, especially saturated fat, and
cholesterol by following these guidelines:
* Rely on the nutritional information on food pack-
ages that describes the breakdown of calories,
amount of calories from fat, and the percentages
of fat that are monounsaturated, polyunsatu-
rated, and saturated. Always select products
that are relatively low in saturated fat.
* With foods that don't have specific nutritional
information, note these points: (a) vegetables
and fruits are generally safe because they are
fat-free, (b) foods containing palm and coconut
oil should be avoided because they are high in
saturated fats, (c) beef and pork have relatively
high levels of saturated fat, so eat them spar-
ingly, (d) chicken, turkey, and other poultry
(white meat with skin removed) is generally low
in fat-as long as preparation is low fat (e.g.,
broiled, not fried), (e) fish (prepared in a low fat
fashion) tends to be low in most fats, although
shellfish tend to be high in cholesterol, (f) regu-
lar cheese and dairy products, such as whole
milk, are high in saturated fat, but low-fat dairy
products are widely available and can provide
the same nutritional value without the extra fat.
Eat foods high in fiber
An effective strategy to ensure eating less fat and
cholesterol is to increase consumption of foods that
are high in fiber. Fruits, vegetables, whole-grain
products, and cereals with plenty of fiber will contain
a greater percentage of complex carbohydrates and
a lower percentage of fat, including saturated fat.
There are two main sources of fiber-insoluble
and soluble. A diet rich in insoluble fiber so
79
called because it does not dissolve in water-can
prevent or treat colon cancer, diverticulitis, consti-
pation, and obesity. Foods high in insoluble fiber
include wheat bran and whole grain cereals, corn
bran, nuts, seeds, and crunchy vegetables like
broccoli and carrots.
Soluble fiber has been shown in some studies to
help reduce the level of cholesterol in the blood. In
particular, oat bran and oatmeal have been linked
in various studies to a reduction of cholesterol. As
a result, soluble fiber is considered an important
food for lowering the risk of atherosclerosis and
heart disease. Good sources of soluble fiber in-
clude oats, oatbran, oatmeal, apples, citrus fruits,
dried legumes, beans, lentils, barley, peas, pota-
toes, raw cabbage, strawberries, and Metamucil.
The bottom line about fiber is this: Eat at least 20
to 35 grams of fiber per day with about half coming
from soluble fiber and half from insoluble fiber.46
Ensure high calcium intake
Since bone loss becomes an increasing concern as
one ages, it is particularly important to preserve
bone mass. Adequate levels of calcium are essential
for strong bones and teeth. This mineral also plays
an integral role in protecting adults from osteoporo-
sis, the bone-weakening disease that affects an es-
timated 24 million Americans, and from cardiovas-
cular disease and colon cancer.
The amount of calcium recommended for adults
is 1,500 milligrams of a day. The best dairy sources
of dietary calcium, with milligram amounts indi-
cated are: skim and low-fat milk (300-325 mg per
eight ounce glass); plain and low-fat yogurt (415
mg per cup); ricotta cheese (340 mg per 1/2 cup);
Swiss cheese (270 mg per ounce); cheddar,
Monterey, provolone cheese (200-214 mg per
ounce); American cheese (150-180 mg per ounce).
Effective nondairy sources of calcium include
sardines with bones (324 mg per three ounce can in
oil); canned salmon with bones (180 mg per three
ounce can); tofu (108 mg per 3 ounces); frozen
chopped broccoli (94 mg per 1/2 cup). Adults can
get the entire dose of calcium through diet. If foods
do not provide the calcium requirement, the re-
maining portion can be achieved through a cal-
cium supplement. Calcium supplement amounts
vary from product to product, so one should read
the label to ascertain the number of milligrams in
each calcium tablet.47
Consume antioxidants
Antioxidants reduce or eliminate damage caused
by dangerous, out-of-control molecules that often
80 Academy of Management
contain oxygen. These molecules, known as free
radicals, are critical to the working of the immune
system.48 When they are present in the body in
excessive amounts, however, the immune system
may cease to operate properly. In fact, studies sug-
gest that there is a significant relationship be-
tween free radical damage and coronary artery
disease, various forms of cancer, premature aging,
early onset of Parkinson's disease, and cataracts.49
There is growing research evidence that an in-
crease in free radicals can be caused by factors that
people are exposed to every day-stress, cigarette
smoke, air pollution, ultraviolet light, and even cer-
tain drugs.50 While the body produces a variety of
antioxidants to fight free radicals, additional antioxi-
dants are normally necessary through a well-man-
aged diet and a supplement program. Specifically,
the most powerful antioxidants that can be taken in
through food and supplements are vitamin C, vita-
min E, beta-carotene (the precursor to vitamin A),
folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12,and selenium. Scien-
tific studies support the idea that antioxidant supple-
ments will help prevent the damage inflicted by free
radicals in the body.5'
A nutritional program that includes optimal dos-
ages52 of antioxidants has the potential to increase
protection from many forms of cancer, strengthen
defenses against heart disease, preserve eyesight
via the prevention of cataracts, delay the onset of
aging, develop a more powerful immune system, and
decrease the risk of Parkinson's disease.
Gaining Time, Prolonging Life
We have attempted to explain the importance and
benefits of fitness for executives and to offer exer-
cise and diet prescriptions to enhance functioning
and performance. We stress the importance of en-
durance, strength, and flexibility. We suggest that
people reduce their intake of fats and cholesterol
and increase the amount of fiber, calcium, and
antioxidants consumed. As a case in point, con-
sider Michael Mangum, president of the Mangum
Group. At the age of 38, he had been diagnosed
with early stages of arteriosclerosis. Two years
later, after applying many of these principles, he
has clearly benefited:
... my weight has dropped 25 pounds, my
body fat dropped from 19 percent to roughly 10
percent, and my cholesterol from 225 to
110.... My ultrafast CT scan showed no
spread of heart-related calcifications, and my
time on the treadmill stress test went up by
three minutes or so. It has made a big differ-
ence for me. On a related point, I find that I
Executive May
miss less time from work due to illness. Since
I started on a pretty rigorous wellness pro-
gram (including antioxidants and other sup-
plements) I have seen a marked drop in my
sick days. I virtually don't get sick any more.53
Finally, we offer these words written by the late
exercise enthusiast, author, and cardiologist, Dr.
George Sheehan:
People who say they can't find the time to
become fit should realize that a fitness pro-
gram actually produces time.
Indeed, executives who place a priority on fitness
and follow the prescriptions outlined here will
reap more time; they should live not only longer,
but also gain maximum effectiveness and effi-
ciency. Who benefits? Executives themselves and
the organizations that depend on their leadership
and other talents.
People who say they can't find the time
to become fit should realize that a fitness
program actually produces time.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Ruth Martin, Heidi
Neck, Jeff Houghton, and Chuck Koerber for their
insightful comments. They would also like to thank
the editors and two anonymous reviewers for their
suggestions towards enhancing earlier versions of
this manuscript.
Appendix. Endurance Test Scoring for
One-Mile Walk
Real Age Men Women
20-29 11:20 -12:20 12:00 -12:59
30-39 12:21 -13:20 13:00 -13:59
40-49 13:21 -14:20 14:00 -14:59
50-59 14:21 -15:20 15:00 -15:59
60-69 15:21 -16:20 16:00 -16:59
70+ 16:21 and longer 17:00 and longer
Source: Cooper, K. H. 1995. It's Better To Believe. Nashville:
Thomas Nelson, Inc., 46. Also available in paperback as Faith-
Based Fitness. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1997.
Notes. Real age refers to the functional or physiologic age at
which your physical and mental capabilities are currently op-
erating. Walking times are in minutes and seconds.
Endnotes
'This quotation appeared in LeRoux, M. 1981. Cashing in on
wellness. Business Insurance, September 1.
2000 Neck and Cooper
2 Smolin, L. A., & Grossvenor, M. B. 1997. Nutrition: Science
and applications, 2nd ed. Fort Worth: Saunders College Pub-
lishing. 354.
3The sources for the quotations by Mr. Mangum and Mr.
Monaghan were personal interviews conducted by the first
author on February 26, 1999 (Mr. Mangum), March 23, 1999 (Mr.
Monaghan), and March 15, 1999 (Mr. Harris). The quotes by Ms.
Kaplan and Ms. Cone appeared in Rippe, J. M. 1989. Psychology
Today. CEO fitness: The performance plus. 23(5):50-54.
4For more information on these studies and others that exam-
ine the fitness-performance relationship, see Shephard, R. J. 1999.
Do work-site exercise and health programs work? The Physician
and Sports Medicine, 27:48-72; Frew, D. R., & Bruning, N. S. 1988.
Improved productivity and job satisfaction through employee ex-
ercise programs. Hospital Material Management Quarterly, 9:62-
69; Gettman, L. R. 1980. The effect of employee physical fitness on
job performance. Personnel Administrator, November:41-61.
'For additional discussion of these and other studies focus-
ing on fitness-mental performance issues, see Lupinacci, N. S.,
Rikli, R. E., Jones, C. J., & Ross, D. 1993. Age and physical activity
effects on reaction time and digit symbol substitution perfor-
mance in cognitively active adults. Research Quarterly For Ex-
ercise and Sport, 64(2):144-151; Bunce, D. J., Barrowclough, A., &
Morris, I. 1996. The moderating influence of physical fitness on
age gradients in vigilance and serial choice responding tasks.
Psychology and Aging, 11(4):671-682; Wojtek, J. C., Solomon, J.,
Heinl, B., & Ellis, N. R. 1992. The influence of physical fitness on
automatic and effortful memory changes in aging. International
Journal of Aging and Human Development, 35(4):265-286.
6For more discussion of the benefits of being fit, see Cooper,
K. H. 1995. It's better to believe. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.
The paperback edition of this citation is Cooper, K. H. 1997.
Faith-based fitness. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.
7For an in-depth discussion of research on physical activity
and psychological outcomes, see: Physical activity and psycho-
logical benefits: Internal Society of Sport Psychology position
statement. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 1992,20(10):179-184;
Brandon, J. E., & Loftin, J. M. 1991. Relationship of fitness to depres-
sion, state and trait anxiety, intemal health locus of control, and
self-control. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73(2):563-566.
'These remarks appear in Rippe, op. cit.
9 See Paolone, A. M., et al. 1976. Results of two years of exercise
training in middle-aged men. The Physician and Sports Medicine,
December: 77; Ornish, D., Brown, S. E., Scherwitz, L. W., et al. 1990.
Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? Lancet, 336,
July, 21:129-133; Smolin & Grossvenor, op. cit.
" three-month endurance training on a bicycle ergometer. Euro-
Healthy people 2000: National health promotion and dis-
ease prevention objectives. 1990. Washington DC: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services.
11For a more precise discussion of these landmark studies,
see: Calle, E. E., Eugenia, E., Thun, M. J., Petrelli, J. M., et al. 1999.
Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S.
adults. The New England Journal of Medicine, 341:1097-1105;
Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Paffenbarger, R. S., Jr., Clark, D. G.,
Cooper, K. H., & Gibbons, L. W. 1989. Physical fitness and all-
cause mortality: A prospective study of healthy men and
women. Journal of The American Medical Association, 262(17):
2395-2401; Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Barlow, C. E., Paffenbarger,
R. S., Jr., Gibbons, L. W., & Macera, C. A. 1995. Changes in
physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of
healthy and unhealthy men. Journal of The American Medical
Association, 273(14):1093-1098.
12 Romano, C. 1994. In sickness and in health. Management
Review, 83(5):40-46.
13 Economic Cost of Cardiovascular Diseases. American
Heart Association world wide web page (http://american-
heart.org/statistics/l0 econom.html).
81
4 Health Education Branch, Office of Prevention, Education,
and Control; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Ser-
vice, National Institutes of Health. 1981. Cardiovascular primer
for the workplace. NIH Publication No. 81-2210. January.
15 This quotation is documented in Rippe, J. M., & Groves, D.
1990. The new executive image: A fitter breed. The Physician
and Sports Medicine, 18(5):125-134.
1 More details related to this survey can be found in ibid.
Also, Leinfelder, J. 1991. Executive training: How five managers
keep that lean and hungry look. Corporate Report-Minnesota,
22(5):86-93; Rippe, op. cit.
17 See Note 3 for the sources of these quotations. The other
fitness examples of executives have been documented in: Han-
non, K. 1999. USA TODAY. USA TODAY profile: Charles Rossotti.
February 17:7B; Michels, A. J. 1992. Fortune. Doctor's orders:
CEOs of pharmaceutical companies stay fit through exercise
and a healthy diet. June 15, 125(12):13-15; Kilman, S. 1999. Wall
Street Journal. Sears names as Chief Financial Officer Day, who
helped revive Safeway Inc. March 5:B-8.
18 argument that "executives who are dedicated to fit-
ness may be basing their exercise and diet routines on obsolete
or incomplete data" was another finding from the survey of
executives from the United States' top 3,000 companies (see
endnote 16). Also see Rippe, op. cit. for more information on this
survey and this particular finding from this survey.
19Unless otherwise stated, the main sources for the prescrip-
tions and other materials in this article are the second author's
own clinical testing and research, which he has conducted
during the last three decades in the United States Air Force, at
the Cooper Clinic in Dallas, and at the Cooper Institute for
Aerobics Research in Dallas. Before implementing any of the
exercise and/or diet prescriptions in this article and/or before
embarking on any exercise and/or nutritional program, readers
should obtain medical clearance from a qualified physician.
20 See Ahrens, R. 1995. Inc. The healthy workplace. 17(11):77-86.
21
Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.
22
See Higginbotham, M. B., Morris, K. G., Williams, R. S.,
Coleman, R. E., & Cobb, F. R. 1986. Physiologic basis for the
age-related decline in aerobic work capacity. American Journal
of Cardiology, 57:1374-1379; Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.
23 For in-depth discussion of these studies and others that
focus on the aerobic capacities of older people, see Cooper,
Better to believe, op. cit.; Haber, P., Honiger, M. K., & Nieder-
berger, M. 1984. Effects of elderly people 67-76 years of age of
pean Heart Journal, 5 (Supplement, E):37-39; Strovas, J. 1990.
Chronic illness need not deter elderly exercisers. The Physician
and Sports Medicine, 18(2):20.
24 This quotation appeared in The Physician and Sports Med-
icine, 1990, 18(11):89.
25 See for example Higginbotham, Morris, Williams,
Coleman, & Cobb op. cit.; Kasch, F. W., Boyer, J. L., Van Camp,
S. P., Verity, L. S., & Wallace, J. P. 1990. The effect of physical
activity and inactivity on aerobic power in older men (a longi-
tudinal study). The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 18(4):73.
26
Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.
27 See for instance Cooper, K. H. 1982. The aerobics program
for total well-being. New York: Bantam Books; Cooper, Better to
believe, op. cit.
28
Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.
29
See Pate, R. R., Pratt, M., Blair, S. N., Haskell, W. L., Macera,
C. A., et al. 1995. Physical activity and health. A recommenda-
tion from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and
the American College of Sports Medicine. Journal of the Amer-
ican Medical Association, 273(5):402-407.
82 Academy of Management Executive
30See Blair, Kohl, Paffenbarger, Clark, Cooper, & Gibbons,
op. cit.
31 For more discussion on aging and muscle mass decreases,
see for instance Cohen, S. H., et al. 1980. Compartmental body
composition based on the body, nitrogen, potassium, and cal-
cium. American Journal of Physiology, 239:192-200; Evans, W. J.,
& Campbell, W. W. 1993. Sarcopenia and age-related changes
in the body composition and functional capacity. Journal of
Nutrition, 123:465-468.
32For more insights into this Danish study and for more
information on the importance of muscle mass loss, see Hjort
Sorensen, K. State of health and its association with death
among old people at three-years follow-up. Institute for Almen
Medicin, Kobenhavns Universitet, Juliane Maries Vej 18, DK-
2100 Kobenhavn 0, 121; Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.
33 Fiatarone, M. A., Marks, E. C., Ryan, N. D., Meredith, C. N.,
Lipsitz, L. A., & Evans, W. J. 1990. High-intensity strength train-
ing in nonagenarians. Journal of The American Medical Asso-
ciation, 263(22):3029-3034.
34 For a more specific delineation of the relation of strength
and bone loss see for example, Sinaki, M. 1989. Exercise and
osteoporosis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
70, March:220-229; Work, J. A. 1989. Strength training: A bridge to
independence for the elderly. The Physician and Sports Medi-
cine, 17(11):134-138.
35 For specifics on this two-part strength test and a complete
scoring guide, see Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit., 47.
36 Specific programs to enhance executive strength are de-
scribed in detail in Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit., 128-150.
37 For an expanded discussion of flexibility and related ben-
efits see Stevens, K. 1998. A theoretical overview of stretching
and flexibility. American Fitness, 16(1):30-37; Garnett, L. R. 1996.
Stretching it to the limit: Stretching exercises increase flexibil-
ity of joints. Harvard Health Letter, 21(9):4-6.
38 For specifics on this basic flexibility test and a complete
scoring guide, see Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit., 50.
39 See a fuller discussion of Dr. Blake's stretching guidelines
in Blake, R. 1998. Don't take muscle flexibility for granted. Ex-
ecutive Health's Good Health Report, 34(12):7-8.
40 See Bandy, W. D., Irion, J. M., & Briggler, M. 1997. The effect
of time and frequency of static stretching on flexibility of the
hamstring muscles. Physical Therapy, 77(10):1090-1097.
41 See for example, Singh, V. N. 1992. A current prospective on
nutrition and exercise. Journal of Nutrition, 122(3 Supplement):
760-765; Blair, S. N., Horton, E., Leon, A. S., Lee, I. M., Drinkwater,
B. L., Dishman, R. K., Mackey, M., & Kienholz, M. L. 1996. Physical
activity, nutrition, and chronic disease. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 28(3):335-349.
42 For a detailed discussion of these issues related to execu-
tive nutrition, see Cooper, K. H. 1996. Advanced nutritional ther-
apies. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.
43 For a closer look at research studies examining the link
between fat intake and/or cholesterol levels and negative
health outcomes, see for example: Dwyer, J. T. 1993. Diet and
May
nutritional strategies for cancer risk reduction. Cancer, 72:1025-
1031; De Vries, C. E., & van Noorden, C. J. 1992. Effects of dietary
fatty acid composition on tumor growth and metastasis. Anti-
cancer Research, 12:1513-1522.
44 See for example, Norum, K. R. 1992. Dietary fat and blood
lipids. Nutrition Reviews, 50:30-37.
45 Cooper, Nutritional therapies, op. cit.; Cooper, Better to
believe, op. cit.
46 For other discussions examining the relationship between
fiber and health, see for example Council on Scientific Affairs,
Dietary Fiber and Health. 1989. Journal of The American Medical
Association, 262(4):542-546; Schneeman, B. O., & Tietyen, J. 1994.
Dietary Fiber. In M. E. Shils, J. A. Olson, & M. Shike, (Eds.),
Modern nutrition in health and disease, 8th ed. Philadelphia:
Lea & Febiger.
47 Further examination of discussions and/or studies that fo-
cus on the link between calcium intake and health can be found
in: Marcus, R. 1986. Calcium intake and skeletal integrity: Is
there a critical relationship? The Journal of Nutrition, 117(17):631;
Toss, G. 1992. Effect of calcium intake and other lifestyle factors
in bone loss. Journal of International Medical Research, 231:181-
186; Bunker, V. W. 1994. The role of nutrition in osteoporosis.
British Journal of Biomedical Science, 51:228-240.
48 A primary source for our discussion on free radicals and
antioxidants is the entire issue supplement of the American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition that was devoted to the topics of
free radicals and antioxidants. The citation for this issue is:
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Supplement to Vol. 53(1),
January 1991:189S-396S.
49 For examples of research findings and/or discussions sup-
porting the relationship between free radical damage and neg-
ative health outcomes, see for example Cochrane, C. G. 1991.
Cellular injury by oxidants. The American Journal of Medicine,
Supplement 3C, September:303C-23Sff.; Kanter, M. M. 1994. Free
radicals, exercise, and antioxidant supplementation. Interna-
tional Journal of Sport Nutrition, 4(3):205-225.
5 See Cooper, K. H. 1994. Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper's antioxidant
revolution. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.
51 See for example, Block, G. 1992. The data support a role for
antioxidants in reducing cancer risk. Nutrition Reviews, 50:207-
213; Kanter, op. cit.
52 Be sure to consult with a physician before taking high
dosages of individual supplements if you are on prescribed
medications, are pregnant, or have any kind of health problem.
Comprehensive guidelines for optimal antioxidant dosages
have been issued by the Cooper Clinic. For example, adults
over the age of 22 should consume daily the following: vitamin
C (1000 mg); vitamin E (400 IU); beta carotene (5000 IU); folic acid
(800 mcg); vitamin B6 (50 mg); vitamin B12 (400 mcg); and sele-
nium (100 mcg). Other specific recommendations for optimal
dosages of antioxidants can be found in Cooper, Antioxidant
revolution, op. cit.
53 Interview with Michael Mangum by the first author,
February 26, 1999.
2000 Neck and Cooper
Christopher P. Neck is an asso-
ciate professor of management
at Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University. His most
recent books include Mastering
- .-~ N~ Self-Leadership: Empowering
Yourself for Personal Excel-
lence (Prentice-Hall, 1999) and
Medicine for the Mind
(McGraw-Hill, 1997). He has
completed twelve marathons.
Contact: cneck@vt.edu.
83
KennethH. Cooper is a graduate
of both the University of Okla-
homa School of Medicineand the
Harvard University School of
Public Health. Founder of the
Cooper Aerobics Center, he
coined the term aerobics in 1968,
and has received worldwide rec-
ognition for his contributions to
health and fitness. He received
the C. Everett Koop Award for
his distinguished advocacy of
health and wellness. Contact:
ckgrantham@cooperclinic.com.