I NTRODUCTION TO D IGITAL

C OMMUNICATION (IDC)
– EC 507
L ESSON P LAN
 M ODULE -1

Contents:

 Signal in time and frequency domain

 Fourier Series, Fourier Transform, Properties

& Examples

 Periodic & Non- periodic Signal Analysis,

Convolution, Parseval‟s Theorem &
Power Spectral Density
 S IGNAL

 What is a signal ?

 How it can be represented..!!

 S IGNAL

 Broadly it can be defined as a wave (electro-magnetic) used

to convey information (data) from a transmitter to a
receiver.

 Many types of signals are available and they could be

classified in different ways. One of them is according to
periodicity –

 Periodic

 Non-periodic / A-periodic

Periodic Wave has some definite time period (and thus some definite
frequency), To after which it repeats itself.

Non Periodic / A-periodic wave don‟t have any definite time period to
produce its exact replica in future (or its time period is infinite).
 S IGNAL

 Periodic Signal:

 A-periodic Signal:
 S IGNAL

 Signals can also be classified as

Analog & Digital.

 Analog signals are continuous and can

have infinite no of values in a given
range.

 Digital signals are discrete & can have

only a limited number of values.
A NALOG & D IGITAL S IGNAL :
 C OMPOSITE S IGNAL

 Periodic analog signals can be classified as

simple or composite.
 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.

 A composite periodic analog signal is

decomposed into many simple sine waves of
discrete frequencies.

 If the composite signal is non-periodic, the

decomposition gives a combination of sine
waves with continuous frequencies.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. But
if it changes continuously its frequency is infinite.
C OMPOSITE PERIODIC S IGNAL -
 S IGNAL P RESENTATION

 Signals could be presented in two

domains:
 Time

 Frequency

 A complete sine wave in time domain can

be represented by a single spike in the
frequency domain.

 The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than
one sine wave.
T IME DOMAIN & FREQUENCY DOMAIN
PLOT OF A SINE WAVE :
 T IME & FREQUENCY DOMAIN
PRESENTATION OF THREE SINE WAVES :
 S IGNALS IN COMMUNICATION :

 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in

data communications.

 We need to send a composite signal, a signal

made of many simple sine waves.

 According to Fourier analysis, any composite

signal is a combination of simple sine waves
with different frequencies, amplitudes, and
phases.
D ECOMPOSI TI ON OF A PERI ODI C COMPOSI TE
SI GNAL I N TI ME & F REQUENCY DOMAI N :
D ECOMPOSI TI ON OF A NON PERI ODI C SI GNAL
I N TI ME & FREQUEN C Y DOMAI N :
 B ANDWIDTH :

The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
B ANDWIDTH OF PERIODIC & N ON
PERIODIC COMPOSITE SIGNALS :
 F OURIER A NALYSIS

 It‟s a special method by which we convert

time domain signal to a frequency domain
signal & vice versa.

 Every composite periodic signal can be

represented with a series of sine and
cosine functions.

 The functions are integral harmonics of

the fundamental frequency “f” of the
composite signal.

 Using the series we can decompose any

periodic signal into its harmonics.
 F OURIER A NALYSIS

 Any signal x(t) be one of the following;

 Energy Signal

E x 2 (t )dt  Energy Signal, if E  

 Power Signal
1 T /2 2
P  Lim
T  T
T / 2
x (t )dt  Power Signal, if 0  P  

 Neither if P = ∞
 F OURIER A NALYSIS

 Example: x(t )  e at  E  
1 T / 2 2at 1  aT  aT  1  aT  
P  Lim
T  T
 T / 2
e dt  Lim
T  2aT 
e  e

 Lim
T  2aT 
e

 ?

1  aT 
 Lim ae   (L'Hopital's Rule):
T  2a  

So this is neither an energy nor power signal.

  1
x(t )  e at u (t )  E   x 2 (t )dt   x 2 (t )dt  ,a  0
 0 2a
So this is an energy signal .

 1 T /2 1
x(t )  cos(0t )  E   x (t )dt  ; P  Lim 
2
cos 2 (0t )dt 
 T  T T / 2 2

This is a power signal .

 F OURIER A NALYSIS

 A periodic waveform x(t) (infinite

energy/finite power) has a Fourier Series
representation – power carried at discrete
frequencies.
 A non-periodic waveform x(t) (finite
energy/zero power) has a Fourier
Transform representation – energy carried
at all (a continuum of) frequencies.
 A „random‟ waveform x(t), or sample
sequence from a random process (infinite
energy/finite power), has a Power Spectral
Density representation, Sx(f) – power
carried at all (a continuum of) frequencies.
 C ONDITION FOR F OURIER S ERIES

 It may not be possible to represent a periodic signal

as a Fourier series, if:

 The signal is not integrable over any period

 Over a finite interval of time, the signal has

infinite number of variations

 Over a finite interval of time, the signal has

infinite number of discontinuities.

- these conditions are called

Dirichlet’s Condition.
D IRICHLET C ONDITION :
 F OURIER S ERIES

 Three forms of Fourier series exists:

 
1: f (t )  A0   An cos( n0t )   Bn sin( n0t )
n 1 n 1

2: f (t )  A0   Cn cos( n0t  n )
n 1

3: f (t )   n
 e jn0t

n 

 Where wo = 2πfo ; fo being the fundamental frequency and also

wot could be represented with x.
 T YPE I WITH P ERIOD : 2 Π


f ( x )  a0   (an cos nx  bn sin nx)
n 1

1 
a0   f ( x )dx
2 
1 
an   f ( x ) cos nxdx n  1,2,
 

1 
bn   f ( x ) sin nxdx n  1,2,
 
 T YPE I WITH P ERIOD : 2L

 n n
f ( x )  a0   (an cos x  bn sin x)
n1 L L
1 L
a0   f ( x )dx
2 L L
1 L n
an   f ( x ) cos xdx n  1,2,
L L L
1 L n
bn   f ( x ) sin xdx n  1,2,
L L L
 F OURIER S ERIES

If we rearrange the series, we will have -

+ (a1 cos t + b1 sin t) + (a2 cos 2t + b2 sin 2t) + (a3 cos 3t + b3 sin 3t) + ...

Where,
The term (a1 cos t + b1 sin t) is known as the fundamental.
The term (a2 cos 2t + b2 sin 2t) is called the second harmonic.
The term (a3 cos 3t + b3 sin 3t) is called the third harmonic, etc.
 F OURIER S ERIES

 Even function:
g ( x )  g ( x )

 Odd function: h( x)  h( x)

Key facts L L
Even  g ( x )dx  2  g ( x )dx
L 0

Odd L
 h( x )dx  0
L

Product of even and odd is odd

 F OURIER S ERIES

 Fourier cosine series  Fourier sine series

 f(x)is an even  f(x) is a odd function

function
 T o=2L
 T o=2L
 n  n
f ( x )  a0   an cos x f ( x )   bn sin x
n1 L n1 L
1L
a0   f ( x )dx
L0 2L n
bn   f ( x ) sin xdx
2L n L0 L
an   f ( x ) cos xdx
L0 L n  1,2,
n  1,2,
 O THER FORMS :

 Type II:
 Co = Ao

 Cn = √((An * An )+(Bn * Bn))

 tan Φn = (Bn / An )

 Type III:

 αn =
 F OURIER H ALF R ANGE E XPANSION :-

 Sometimes if one only needs Fourier series of a function to be defined in the

range of (0, L) , it may be preferable to use a sine of cosine series instead of a
regular Fourier series.

 This can be accomplished by extending the definition of the given function to

the following intervals

 For Even (to have a Cosine Series):

 (-L, 0) ,
 (O,L) and
 (L,2L)

 For Odd (to have a Sine Series):

 (0,L)

 Such Fourier series are called Half Range expansion.

 P ROPERTIES OF F OURIER S ERIES :

 Given two periodic signals with same

period T and fundamental frequency
0=2/T: x(t )  ak
y (t )  bk

 Linearity:
z (t )  Ax (t )  By (t )  Aak  Bbk

 Time-Shifting: z (t )  x(t  t0 )  ak e j0t0

 Time-Reversal (Flip): z (t )  x(t )  ak

 Time-Scaling:
z (t )  x(t )  ak ,  0
L INEARITY:
T IME S HIFTING :
T IME R EVERSAL :
T IME S CALING :
E XAMPLES OF F OURIER S ERIES
E XAMPLES OF F OURIER S ERIES
E XAMPLE OF F OURIER S ERIES
E XAMPLE OF F OURIER S ERIES
E XAMPLE OF F OURIER S ERIES
E XAMPLE OF F OURIER S ERIES
E XAMPLE OF F OURIER S ERIES
 F OURIER T RANSFORM

 A transform takes one function (or signal) and turns it into another function (or
signal).

 Continuous Fourier Transform

 Discrete Fourier Transform

N 1
H n   hk e  2ikn N
k 0
N 1
1
hk 
N
 n
H e
n 0
2ikn N
F OURIER T RANSFORM E XAMPLE
F OURIER T RANSFORM E XAMPLE
F OURIER T RANSFORM E XAMPLE
S UMMERY OF F OURIER T RANSFORM
P ROPERTIES
S UMMERY OF F OURIER T RANSFORM
P ROPERTIES
 C ONVOLUTION

 It’s a mathematical way of combining two signals to form a third signal.

 It states that under suitable conditions the Fourier transform of a convolution is the
pointwise product of Fourier transforms.

 convolution in one domain (e.g., time domain) equals point-wise multiplication in

the other domain (e.g. frequency domain).

 Let ,

 f and g be two functions with convolution f*g.

 F denotes the fourier transform, so F(f) & F(g) denotes the fourier transform of f & g.

 Then, denotes point wise multiplication in frequency domain.

 Convolution for these two functions are defined as

 E XAMPLE OF C ONVOLUTION

If we apply a signal to a
network having frequency response

then,
to find the output of the network
we apply convolution principle.
 S PECTRAL D ENSITY

 It describes how the energy or the power of a signal is

distributed with frequency.

 Its classified in two types

 Energy Spectral Density

 Power Spectral Density

 E NERGY S PECTRAL D ENSITY

It describes how the energy of a signal is distributed with

frequency. If f(t) is a finite-energy signal, the spectral
density Φ(ω) of the signal is the square of the magnitude of
the continuous Fourier transform of the signal (here energy
is taken as the integral of the square of a signal, which is
the same as physical energy of the signal).

- where ω is the angular frequency (2π times the cycle

frequency) and F(ω) is the continuous Fourier transform of
f(t), and F * (ω) is its complex conjugate.
 E NERGY S PECTRAL D ENSITY

 If the signal is discrete with values fn, over an

infinite number of elements, we still have an energy
spectral density:

- where F(ω) is the discrete-time Fourier transform of fn.

 P OWER S PECTRAL D ENSITY

 It describes how the power of a signal is distributed with

frequency. Here power can be the actual physical power can be
defined as the squared value of the signal, that is, as the actual
power if the signal was a voltage applied to a 1-ohm load.

 The power of the signal in a given frequency band can be

calculated by integrating over positive and negative frequencies,

- where, S(f) is the sum of normalized power contributed

by each power spectral line up to frequency f.
 P OWER S PECTRAL D ENSITY

 Application:
 Sales estimation – which period of time is having better
selling.

 In Spectrum Analyzer - which frequency components

are having required amplitude etc.
 PARSEVAL’ S T HEOREM

 States that power computed in either domain equals

the power in the other. And its given by -
 

s (t )dt   S( f )
2 2
df
 