Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Propeller design for very high altitude and low Reynolds number
Group
Ahsan Mansoor Khan
Munawar Hussain Jeelani
Group Supervisor
Dr. Anwar ul Haq
Mr. Sher Afgan
Project Description
The purpose of this project is to design a propeller that is able to provide required amount of thrust for
the aircraft to lift it from sea level and climb to reach at high altitude for sustained flight at 70,000ft.
Propeller
A propeller is a means of converting engine power into a propulsive force.
Rotating a propeller results in the rearward acceleration of a mass of air, the reaction to this
rearward motion is a forward force on the propeller blades called thrust.
Thrust = Mass of airflow x Acceleration
The propeller accelerates a large mass of air rearward at a relatively low velocity. The
reaction to this is a thrust force acting in a forward direction, propelling an aircraft along its
flight path. When a propeller is fitted in front of an engine, it is a tractor, whereas when fitted
at the rear it is a pusher.
Propeller efficiency
Propeller efficiency is the ratio of thrust horse power (THP), which is delivered by the propeller,
to the engine power (BHP) required to drive the propeller at a given rpm, expressed as a
percentage.
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY = THP/BHP
Another definition is the ratio of useful work done by the propeller in moving an
aircraft, to the work supplied by the engine.
The work done by the propeller is the product of the thrust and forward speed (TAS).
The work supplied by the engine is the torque required to turn the propeller at a given rpm.
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY= (THRUST *V) / P
V= True air speed
P= Power provided by the engine
When the aircraft is stationary on the ground with the engine running, the propeller is 0%
effective, since, although it may be developing a lot of thrust, it is not doing any work.
As the forward speed of the aircraft increases, the efficiency increases.
In general trends efficiency level of 88% upon achieving the optimum airspeed for that
propeller can be expected.
Propeller types
Fixed pitch propeller
For a fixed blade angle, with variations in forward speed the angle of attack changes. As the
forward speed increases, the angle of attack decreases and with it the thrust.
The disadvantages of fixed pitch propeller are that the Fixed pitch propellers, like most
airfoils, are most efficient only under one set of conditions i.e. cruise. But until reaching cruising
airspeed, the AOA of the propeller blades is comparatively large; therefore the propeller is less
efficient. During take‐off, the AOA of the blades of such a propeller would be extremely large.
This would result in poor acceleration, hence requiring a longer take‐off run.
For further understanding consider when a fixed pitch propeller is optimised for take‐off and
climb performance, the cruise speed is compromised, since the blades’ AOA would be too low
for maximum efficiency at higher speeds.
Variable pitch propeller
Due to the disadvantages of fixed pitch propeller, variable pitch propeller is most
suitable to use as shown in figure below which shows general trend seen in propeller
performance for varying pitch angles.
Counter Rotating Propellers
Airbus A400M
Contra Rotating Propellers
Dual Propeller Approach
Variable Diameter Propeller
Sikorsky Aircraft
Hartzell
Condor propller
ERAST
Pathfinder
Perseus B
High Altitude Characteristic
• Air density drops in half for every 15,000 feet in altitude
• low air‐density, almost constant air‐temperature, the horizontal‐direction movement [1]
• No thunderstorm or climate change.
• The sound velocity decreases with the increase of altitude.
So at a high altitude, the Mach number of blade‐tip airfoil profile is larger than the one at the sea level
and the shock effect increases at the same time.
Mach number is defined as:
M= V/a
where
V = speed of propeller
a= Speed of sound
As value of Speed of sound(a) decreases with increase in altitude it can be seen from the equation that
Mach number increases provided the Speed of propeller(V) is kept constant.
Reference Altitude: 70,000 ft altitude
Density ρ = 1.399 * 10‐4 Slug/ft3
Temperature T= 389.99 0R
At Sea Level
Density ρ = 2.37 * 10‐3 Slug/ft3
Temperature T= 518.69 0R
Comparing the above data it is clearly seen at altitude of 70,000ft the density is 17 times less as
compared to sea level. As mentioned above
Thrust = Mass of airflow x Acceleration
Decrease in density at high altitude would mean less mass flow available in turn this would mean less
thrust available.
The main problem to design propeller efficient enough to produce effective or required amount of
thrust at such varying conditions where it should be able to lift the aircraft from sea level and climb to
reach such high altitude.
Types of existing Propellers for very high altitude
High‐altitude long‐endurance unmanned airplanes
Tier, Helios, Pathfinder
Reynolds number
The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the importance of inertial effects in the flow to viscous
effects in the flow.
Reynolds number is defined as
Re=ρUL/µ
Where:
U = characteristic velocity
L =characteristic length
ρ =density of the fluid
μ =dynamic viscosity
Low Reynolds number
Main Effects of low Reynolds number are as follows:
• Rapidly descending maximum lift‐to‐drag ratio of common airfoils
• Atmospheric density decreases and Air kinematic viscosity coefficient increases with the
increase of height in turn both factors decrease the Reynolds number.
The main problem associated with low Reynolds number is the Appearance of laminar flow separation
bubble even in small attack angles (see Fig.(a) below), which brings the slowly increased lift coefficient
and the rapidly increased drag coefficient.
Along with the increase of attack angle, lift coefficient event does not change anymore but the drag
coefficient still increases rapidly which makes the airfoil maximum lift‐to‐drag ratio drop rapidly.
a) Airfoil boundary layer in low Mach
b) Airfoil boundary layer in high Mach
Fig. boundary layer schematic diagram on the upper surface of low Reynolds number airfoil
[1]
For more clear understanding the following example shows the flow patterns that are caused by the
flow around a cylinder for varying Reynolds number.
For small Reynolds numbers, when inertia is not important, the flow is smooth and laminar. For higher
Reynolds numbers, inertia begins to play a role and two stationary vortices are present behind the
cylinder. At still higher Re, where inertia is dominant, vortex shedding starts, i.e. the vortices are not
stationary anymore but detach from the top and bottom of the cylinder. This happens in an alternating
fashion and this flow pattern is known as the Von Karman vortex street. At this stage, the flow is still not
turbulent: although the flow shows vortices, they are laminar there is no chaotic motion if the fluid. At
the highest Reynolds numbers, turbulence sets in and the wake behind the cylinder is filled with chaotic
fluid motion.
[2]
Airfoil for low Reynolds number
Keeping E387 airfoil as reference the following airfoils are short listed. Airfoil data for E387 airfoil is
shown below for comparison with other airfoils shown below.
Eppler E387
Thickness: 9.1%
Camber: 3.8%
Trailing edge angle: 7.1o
Lower flatness: 94.9%
Leading edge radius: 1.8%
Max CL: 1.143
Max CL angle: 7.0
Max L/D: 58.18
Max L/D angle: 5.0
Max L/D CL: 0.955
Stall angle: 7.0
Zero‐lift angle: ‐3.5
E174 (Dicke 8.92%)
Thickness: 8.9%
Camber: 3.8%
Trailing edge angle: 4.6o
Lower flatness: 95.0%
Leading edge radius: 1.8%
Max CL: 1.15
Max CL angle: 7.0
Max L/D: 58.383
Max L/D angle: 5.0
Max L/D CL: 0.961
Stall angle: 7.0
Zero‐lift angle: ‐3.5
S9037 (9%)
Thickness: 9.0%
Camber: 3.5%
Trailing edge angle: 5.9o
Lower flatness: 92.6%
Leading edge radius: 0.9%
Max CL: 1.246
Max CL angle: 8.5
Max L/D: 55.999
Max L/D angle: 4.5
Max L/D CL: 0.92
Stall angle: 8.5
Zero‐lift angle: ‐3.5
SD6080 (9.2%)
Thickness: 9.2%
Camber: 3.7%
Trailing edge angle: 7.0o
Lower flatness: 94.5%
Leading edge radius: 1.9%
Max CL: 1.196
Max CL angle: 8.0
Max L/D: 57.556
Max L/D angle: 5.0
Max L/D CL: 0.948
Stall angle: 8.0
Zero‐lift angle: ‐3.0
SD 2083 (9.0%)
Thickness: 9.0%
Camber: 2.8%
Trailing edge angle: 9.8o
Lower flatness: 92.0%
Leading edge radius: 1.7%
Max CL: 1.071
Max CL angle: 7.5
Max L/D: 54.066
Max L/D angle: 4.5
Max L/D CL: 0.795
Stall angle: 7.5
Zero‐lift angle: ‐2.5
S1210
Thickness: 12.0%
Camber: 7.2%
Trailing edge angle: 6.9o
Lower flatness: 34.2%
Leading edge radius: 2.1%
Max CL: 2.248
Max CL angle: 9.0
Max L/D: 73.283
Max L/D angle: 6.0
Max L/D CL: 1.961
Stall angle: 9.0
Zero‐lift angle: ‐10.5
Propeller Nomenclature
Fig. Constant speed propeller blade positions
Feathered: When the chord line of the blade is parallel to the airflow, thereby preventing wind
milling.
Coarse Pitch: the maximum cruising pitch in normal operation
Flight Fine Pitch: The minimum pitch obtainable in flight.
Ground Fine Pitch: the minimum torque position for ground operation and is sometimes
referred to as superfine pitch.
Reverse Pitch: An angle to which the propeller blade may be turned to provide reverse thrust
from the propeller.
Propeller Design
Different parameters to consider for the design are listed as follows:
• Airfoil selection
• Airfoil thickness
• Airfoil Cd versus Cl curve
• Blade twist
• Blade diameter
• Propeller Hub diameter
• RPM
Blade Twist
The following diagram illustrates difference between constant blade angle and blade with twist.
As the propeller for high altitude application blade with twist is the logical choice which gives
optimum propeller performance at all blade stations tip to root.
Advance Ratio
It is the ratio of the forward speed divided by the product of rotational speed and the diameter
J=V/ND
V=Free stream velocity
N=number of propeller revolutions/sec
D= Propeller diameter
Starting point for the design
As initial estimate of propeller performance the analysis using following inputs would be done using
simple blade element theory.
• Shaft Power out of the Engine (hp)
• Propeller RPM (z)
• Flight Altitude (70,000ft)
• Forward Velocity (Vo)
• Average Local Velocity (V)
• Propeller Diameter (D)
• Number of Propeller Blades (n)
• Blade Activity Factor (AF)
• Blade Design Lift Coefficient (Cl)
• Propeller Airfoil Lift To Drag Ratio (L/D)
This method is based on the assumption that 0.75r of blade location where r is the chord of
blade section can be assumed to represent the performance of the entire blade.
This analysis also takes into account effects due to low Reynolds number operation.
However the above mentioned analysis is inaccurate if the aircraft needs to operate at higher Mach
number close to M=0.8 however this is efficient for lower subsonic speeds.
For reference of this method Formulas and method is initially referred from
Composite Propeller prototype manufacturing Cost estimated
Rs. 20,000
Timeline
References
[1] Numerical Simulation of Low‐Reynolds‐Number and High‐Lift Airfoil S1223 by Rong Ma, Peiqing Liu,
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2009 Vol II, WCE 2009, July 1 ‐ 3, 2009, London, U.K.
[2] 36324005‐Low‐Reynolds‐Number‐Flows.pdf
High Altitude Propeller Design and Analysis Overview by Anthony Colozza, Federal Data Systems
Cleveland Ohio 44135, March 1998.
Design and Performance Calculations of a Propeller for Very High Altitude Flight, L. Danielle Koch Lewis
Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio
Selig, M. S., Guglielmo, J. J., Broeren, A. P., and Gigue´re, P., “Summary of Low‐Speed Airfoil Data
(Translation Journals style)”, vol. 1, SoarTech Publications, Virginia Beach, VA, 1995.
Selig, M. S., and Guglielmo, J. J., “High‐Lift Low Reynolds Number Airfoil Design”, AIAA Paper 94‐1866,
June 1994.
Airfoil database: DaVinci Technologies,
http://www.davincitechnologies.com/AirfoilOptimizerStdAirfoils.htm
Airfoil Investigation Database, http://www.worldofkrauss.com/