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Revised Edition
&tfienarum ffiregg
GINN AND COMPANY PRO-
PBIETOKS BOSTON U.S.A.
PREFACE
The alterations in the text in this revision consist of verbal
changes in the details of some of the proofs and discussions, and in
the addition of a chapter on Hyperbolic Functions. This chapter
has been written with the same attention to clearness and com-
pleteness that marks all other sections of the book. Also, cylindrical
coordinates have been employed to broaden the applications of
double integration.
The problems have in general been completely revised, and in
some respects their appeal and interest have been increased. Some
applications to the mathematics of economics will be found in the
problems.
Additional problems for the use of superior students have been
added at the end of most chapters.
Answers to a good many of the problems are given in the text.
Some of the answers are purposely omitted in order to give the
student greater self-reliance in checking his work. Teachers who
desire answers to the other problems should communicate with the
publishers.
The labor of the authors will be amply repaid if this revised edition
meets with the generous and well-nigh universal favor accorded Gran-
ville's Calculus since its first appearance.
PERCEY F. SMITH
WILLIAM R. LONGLEY
CONTENTS
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
PAGE
CHAPTER I. COLLECTION OF FORMULAS 1
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER XII. INTEGRATION; RULES FOR INTEGRATING
STANDARD ELEMENTARY FORMS . . . 187
Differential of the area under a curve, 237 The definite integral, 237
Calculation of a definite integral, 239 Change in limits corresponding to
change in variable, 240 Calculation of areas, 241 Area when the equa-
tions of the curve are given in parametric form, 242 Geometrical repre-
sentation of an integral, 244 Approximate integration trapezoidal rule,
;
series, 340 General theorems, 341 Comparison tests, 342 Cauchy's test-
ratio test, 345 Alternating series, 347 Absolute convergence, 348
Summary, 348 Power series, 350 The binomial series, 353 Another
-
Taylor's series, 371 Approximate formulas derived from Taylor's series, 372
Hyperbolic sine and cosine, 414 Other hyperbolic functions, 415 Table -
of values of the hyperbolic sine, cosine, and tangent. Graphs, 415 Hyper-
bolic functions of v + w, 417 Derivatives, 420 Relations to the equi-
lateral hyperbola, 420 Inverse hyperbolic functions, 423 Derivatives
(continued), 425 Telegraph line, 428 Integrals, 430 Integrals (con-
tinued), 432 The gudermannian, 435 Mercator's Chart, 438 Relations
between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, 440
CONTENTS xi
PAGE
CHAPTER XXIII. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 444
Functions of several variables. Continuity, 444 Partial derivatives, 445
*
normal plane to a skew curve, 480 Law of the Mean, 482 Maxima and
minima of functions of several variables, 483 Taylor's theorem for func-
-
nates, 498 Volume under a surface, 501 Directions for setting up a double
integral, 503 Moment of area and centroids, 503 Theorem of Pappus,
-
INDEX 553
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER I
COLLECTION OF FORMULAS
1. Formulas from elementary algebra and geometry. For the con-
(2) Logarithms
log ab = Jog a -f log b. log a
7
= n log a.
'
log 1=0.
Jog ^ = log a log b. 'a = - log a.
log v'a log a a = 1.
(3) Binomial theorem (n being a positive integer)
called a degree.
Circular measure. The unit angle is an angle whose subtending arc is
ctn .r
1
sec x .
csc r
~
tan cos JT sin x
, sin x , cos x
tan j* ; ctn .r
cos x sin x
sin 2 x -f cos 2 x = 1 ; 1-1- tan 2 x = sec 2 .r ; 1 -f ctn 2 x = esc 2 x.
cos (.r
- #) = cos .r cos -f sin .r sin
// ?/.
- -
tan (jr + y} ^L^^UL
1- tan tan jr
//
.
tau ^ __
*
} = _lan
1 -f
.r
tan .r
tan y .
tan y
1 tan 2 x
-
; cos
-
=,
fl^L-' : tun =
\ - 2
sin-' j' - i - 1 cos 2 .r ; COS L>
.r -- + .1 cos 2 j-.
J
.sin x sin //
-. 2 cos .1
(.> -f //)sin ! (.r //).
sin (/> 4- T)
- a) where ,s (a -f b
(a />)(.-; r), ?, -f- r).
(1) Distance between two points /*i(xi, yi) and P2(x2, yz)
Slope of P^Pz.
1 -f mim2
(For parallel lines, wi = W2 ;
for perpendicular lines, mint = 1.)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
(3) Equations of straight lines
Point-slope form. y y\ = m(x xi).
Slope-intercept form. y mx + b.
"" ~^
Two-point form.
y yi = yz
'
x x\ x% Xi
Intercept form.
- -f
~ = 1.
2
(x h}' 2 p(y k}, axis x /i.
2
Axis ///r y-axiii. y ylj^ -f C.
Hyperbola with center at the origin and with foci on the x-axis.
^1 _ 111 ~ i
a2 b2
Equilateral hyperbola with center at the origin and with the coordinate
axes for asymptotes.
xy = C.
See also Chapter XXVI.
4. Formulas from solid analytic geometry. Some of the more impor-
tant formulas are given.
(1) Distance between PI(XI, yi, z\) and P2(*2, 1/2, 22)
d= V(xi - x2 )
2
-h (yi
- l/ 2 )
2
+ (21
- z2 )
2
.
COLLECTION OF FORMULAS
(2) Straight line
Direction cosines cos a, cos:
(3, cos 7.
Direction numbers: a, b, c.
Then
a 6 r
a
cos a =
i
2
+ b'
2
+ r2
- b
cos ft
Va 2
-f h2
cos 7 = r
Vu 2
~+ 6- + r2
For the line joining (jc\, ?/i, cO and (j- 2 , ?/ L., -.,)
cos = cos a cos <V -f cos ft cos ft' -f cos 7 cos 7',
= c/a' 4- W/ -f re'
cos t/
2
+ b- + r2 Va /2
"-f //
2
-f r'
2
Perpendicular lincx. aa
r
-f 6/>' -f rr' ~ ().
a b c
x = p cos 0, y P sin 0, 2
p
2 - + 9 arc tan -
x
f
* =: 6 = arc tan -> </>
= arc tan
^
LETTERS NAMES
P p Rho
Z d s Sigma
T r Tau
T i>
Upsilon
<f> Phi
X x Chi
^ i/'
Psi
12 a Omega
* For a discussion of cylindrical and spherical coordinates see Smith, Gale, and
Neellry's "New Analytic Geometry, Revised Edition" (Ginn and Company), pp. 320-322.
CHAPTER II
tion only of the number system. For example, we may restrict our
variable so that it shall take on only values lying between a and b.
Also, a and b be included, or either or both excluded. We shall
may
employ the symbol [a, 6], a being less than b, to represent the num-
bers a, b, and all the numbers between them, unless otherwise stated.
u
This symbol [a, 6] is read the interval from a to b."
8. Continuous variation. A variable x is said to vary continuously
a to the
through an interval [a, 6] when x increases from the value
value b in such a manner as to assume all values between a and 6
in the order of their magnitudes, or when x decreases from x
= 6 to
x = a, assuming in succession all intermediate values. This may be
illustrated geometrically by the diagram on page 8.
8 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The origin being at O, lay off on the straight line the points A
and B corresponding to the numbers a and b. Also, let the point
P correspond to a particular
value of the variable x. Evi- -
g ^ ^
dently the interval [a, b\ is rep-
resented by the segment AH. As x varies continuously through
the interval [a, the point P generates the segment AB when x
H
increases, or the segment BA when x decreases.
9. Functions. When two variables are so related that the value of
the first variable is determined when the value of the second variable
is given, then the first variable is said to be a function of the second.
J(x) =r j2
- 9 .r + 14,
then f(y)
= y2 9 y + 14.
VARIABLES, FUNCTIONS, AND LIMITS 9
Also /(&+l) = (6 + l) a
-9ifc + l) + 14 = & 2 -7& + 6,
/(0)=0 -9. 0+14-14, 2
number times zero equals zero, we see that .r (ioes not exist unless
a = 0. But, in this case, jc may be any number whatever. The forms
a
()' ()'
Assume that a b.
Dividing by a b, l> a + b.
But a - b ;
therefore b 2 />,
or 1 --- 2.
PROBLEMS
1. Given = - 5 s-
f(s) jr* that - 20, show
1 .r -}
2. Itfis) = 4
- 2 s- -f r find /(O ),/(!),/(- l),/(2 ),/(-- 2).
1
,
5. Given /(//) ?/
2
2 y -f 6, show that r
f(y -f //) = ?/
L> - 2 ?/ -f f> -f 12 O/
~ 1 J/' + h2 -
Jf J^ ~T" X/
1 x
10. Given 0(x) = log show that
and let
(1) y = x'2 .
point a 2 ) to (h, />-). Also, a and b may have any values. We then
(a,
(2) y = --
The variable area then approaches a limit, and this limit is defined
as the area of the circle. In this case the variable v (the area) in-
creases constantly, and the difference a r, where a is the area of
the circle, diminishes and ultimately becomes less than any preas-
signed number, however small.
The relation illustrated is made precise by the
DEFINITION. The variable r is said to approach the constant / as
a limit when the successive values of r are such that the numerical
value of the difference r /
ultimately becomes and remains less
than any preassigned positive number, however small.
The relation defined r -~ /. For convenience, we shall
is written lim
use the notation r
/, read, "r approaches / as a limit," or, more
briefly, "r approaches Z." (Some authors use the notation v == /.)
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Lot the valuer of r be
2 + 1, li -t i. 12 -f .... 2 + 1, -
f
|,
small, then the points determined by \\ill ultimately all lie within /'
tion, the following theorems may be applied. Proofs are given in Art. 20.
(1) lim (u + v - w) = A -f B- C.
jc- a
(3) lim
u
"
= A- 9 if B is not zero.
jt-a V B
12 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Briefly, in words, the limit of an sum, of a product, or
algebraic
of a quotient is equal, respectively, to the same
algebraic sum, product,
or quotient of the respective limits, provided, in the Last named, that the
limit of the denominator is not zero.
JT *
Solution. The given function is the sum of .c- and 4 jc. We first find the limit-
ing values of these two functions. By rji,
lim jr'
2 = 4, since j :
'
= x x.
X li
~ '
r
9
~ ~
:
2. Prove lim - t
the denominator, lim '.: 1 U) - 4. Hence, by '.'}), we have the re<juired result.
J x '
*>
X
For z =1, f(x) = /(I) =
3. Moreover, if x as a limit,
approaches 1
the function f(x) approaches 3 as a limit Hence the
(Art. 16).
function is continuous for x = 1.
CASE II. The
definition of a continuous function assumes that
the function already defined for x-o. If this is not the case, how-
is
lim f(x) = B,
x a
and lim (x + 2) = 4 ;
therefore lim
In these cases does not approach a limit as defined in Art. 14. The
v
"
notation lim v = QO, or v > oo, must be read v becomes infinite/'
lim - = oo,
x *<)
lim/(.r) = 00,
x - a
lim i = 0.
X oc X
And, in general, if /O) approaches the constant value A as a limit
when x >
oo, we use the notation of Art. 17 and write
lim /(*) = A.
x --
oc
Certain special limits occur frequently. These are given below. The
constant r is not zero.
r V OO
/o\
(o) Jim - = oo. = oo.
r --
oo C C
* On
account of the notation used and for the sake of uniformity, the expression
"
p sometimes read P approaches the limit plus infinity." Similarly, r *
* -f oo is oo is
"
read "r approaches the limit minus infinity," and v is read r, in numerical value,
These special limits are useful in finding the limiting value of the
quotient of two polynomials when the variable becomes infinite.
The following example will illustrate the method.
"*" ~
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Prove lim "L
5 x -
tS
x- -
.
7 x*
- _.
7
Solution. Divide numerator and denominator by x*\ the highest power of x
present in either. Then we have
J*
- J* - < X-*
lim u = A, lim r -= 0,
x * a a- - (i
This notation provides for the exceptional case of (3), Art. 16,
when B = and A is not zero. See also Art. 20.
PROBLEMS
Prove each of the following statements,
X
2. lim = 2.
3
r 4 t
2
+ 3 + 2 = "" / 1
+2 -6
-
J ja / 3*
2
. ,. r 2 /? 4- 3 x/z -f h*
= x-
4. lim r . _ ,
2
16 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
4j/ -3 _
M 3 h + 2 xh* + s'W 2
_
.
- 1 ~_
4-3*A-2^ = 27 7
,. ,.
2i^ + 3* ',!
"
lim
ft'****'- 4 = 8. Km
+ =
6-
- **'' 1. ! */-*/* 3.
A-.O 2 z(2z /r;
J
x-,* 2^* + 4z- 7
9 jj m ft"-7
"'
-f Qi^"
]
+ + a, <
= ao
', . ' &./" -I- h.r" '+ + & 60
-f
r ar
11. 11 in -
,
.
4
-f ^^ -f r
--- r = :
- r-
A
0.
--=
, . , (L'" 4 cs* -f
^^ 4- kr -f '
1 l
lim ------
r ^
,
12. 7 ;
oo.
.1 fj (if -f f'J"
. -f JS -f {/
13. lim- *
-
------ ~
.s . a a-
ir.
lc.
i:
m
11 III
S* 4
........
S-
..... "
5
(>_ ~*
.7
.
* - 4 4
16. r
i
lim
\ __x -f h - \_JT \ jr -f // -f \ J J -f ^ - .r
]_
\
-
JT
TT
J Ten ce
,.
lim --+ ---- =
\ .r //
-
\ r ,.
lim ---
:
1
== -1
2v
/* *> /z
/*-o\ j- -f h + \ x
/j -* W
*~o h
lim r = or r 0,
fixed number.
For the numerical value of the product will become and remain
less than e when the numerical value of each infinitesimal becomes
and remains less than the r/th root of e.
IV. If lim v = /, and I is not zero, ihen the quotient of an infinitesimal
i by v is also an infinitesimal.
For we can choose a positive number r, numerically less than /,
such that the numerical value of v ultimately becomes and remains
greater than r, and also such that the numerical value of i becomes
and remains less than ce. Then the numerical value of the quotient
will become and remain less than .
(1) u A i, v B = j, w C = k.
18 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Then i, j, k are functions of x, and each approaches zero as x
>
a\
that is, they are infinitesimals (Art. 19). From equations (1), we
obtain
(2) u -f v w ( A+B C) = i +j k.
f("\ 1* _ 1 A -\- i
_A_
~ Bi Aj m
DIFFERENTIATION
21. Introduction. We shall now proceed to investigate the man-
ner in which a function changes in value as the independent variable
changes. The fundamental problem of the differential calculus is to
establish a measure of this change in the function with mathematical
precision. It was while investigating problems of this sort, dealing
with continuously varying quantities, that Newton* was led to the
discovery of the fundamental principles of the calculus, the most
scientific and powerful tool of the modern mathematician.
22. Increments. The increment changing from one
of a variable in
numerical value to another is the difference found by subtracting the
first value from the second. An increment of x is denoted by the
symbol Ax, read "delta x." The student is warned against reading
this symbol "delta times :r."
Evidently this increment may be either positive or negative t
according as the variable in changing increases or decreases. Similarly,
x
Suppose decreases to x = 9, that is, Ax = 1 ;
reverse ;
in either case Ax and A// will then have opposite signs.
23. Comparison of increments. Consider the function
(1)
= 3-2.
y + Ay/ = x + 2 x Ax +
2 2
or (Ax) .
Subtracting (1 ) //
=x 2
illustrating the fact that the value of -'( can be brought as near to
lim = 8.
Az-0 ^-'
AJ
24. Derivative of a function of one variable. The fundamental
definition of the ditlerential calculus is as follows.
The derivative* of ct
function /,> //,v limit of the ratio of the increment
When the limit of this ratio exists, the function is said to be differ-
cntiable, or to possess a deriralire.
The above definition may be given in a more compact form sym-
bolically as follows. Given the function
0) ?/
= /U),
and consider x to have a fixed value.
Let take on an increment A.r then the function y takes on an
;
To find the increment of the function, subtract (1) from (2), giving
symbol Therefore
^
,,, dy = rhm /(x + A*)-/(*)
(A)
dx AX-O Ax
defines the derivative of y [or f(n)] with respect to x.
Ax
is really a fraction. The symbol
dv
ax
!/=/(*),
(2 x
2
+ 5) indicates the derivative of 2 x 2 + 5 with respect to x.
dy
y' is an abbreviated form of -?-
ax
The symbol Dc is used by some writers instead of -
If, then,
ax
DIFFERENTIATION 23
Solution. Applying the successive steps in the General Rule, we get, after placing
= 3 4- 5.
y x'-'
4_5
A?/ = fix- Ax 4- 3(Ax)*
'/Vnrd
-~- 6x4-3- Ax.
S/f'/).
Or y'
- (3 x- 4- 5) = 6 x.
A// -- 3 x- :
Ax 4- 3 x ( Ax)
2
4- ( Ax)-' - 2 Ax
Third Step. -- - 3 x
"
4- 3 x Ax 4- (Ax)
'
- 2.
Or y'
- (x'
!
- 2 x 4 7) = 3 x- - 2.
-j-
, c _ -c Ax (2 x 4-
(x 4- Ax)- x- x j (x 4- Ax)
2
dr x-\x)- x <!
DIFFERENTIATION 25
PROBLEMS
Use the General Rule in differentiating each of the following functions.
1. = 2 -3 An*. -r. = - 3.
i/ //'
12. ?/
= -
-4;
2. # = mx -f 6.
3. //
= ax 2
.
<ty-
s = 2t-
2
4. t' .
y = ex
3
5. .
6. y = 3 J
- 3 j- .
M = 4 r -f 2 r*
2
7.
8. //
=x 4
.
li_
9.P^ ; -1 (.r
j
-f a :>
)
2
3
10. y =
10,, 8.T
11. s = 2
lo. // -
-
/ I' 4 s*
19. ?/
= 3 a - 4 - 5. ar j- 26. x - (r;
20. 8 = a/ + + r. 2
ft/
27.
-
w = 2r* - 3 r 2
//
21. . a + t>x'
2
22. ?/
- ar + bx' -f r.r s 2
d.
2
23. p=(a-bOY .
29. //
=
25. i/= a -f
of the
}
^
necessary to recall the definition
tangent line to a curve at a point P on
the curve. Let a secant be drawn through
P and a neighboring point Q on the curve
(see figure). Let Q move along the curve
and approach P indefinitely. Then the
secant will revolve about P, and its limiting position is the tangent
line at P. Let
(1) y=f(?)
be the equation of a curve AD. This curve is the graph of /(r)
(see figure).
26 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Now differentiate
(1) by the General Rule and interpret each step
geometrically from the figure (p. 25). We choose a point P(x, y)
on the curve, and a second point Q(x + Ax, y + Af/) near P, also
_
on the curve.
FIRST STEP. y + Ay = f(x + Ax) = NQ
SECOND STEP. y + Ay = f(x + Ax) = NQ
y =/(x)
= inclination
(/> of the secant line PQ,
r = inclination of the tangent line PT.
Then lim </>
= r. Assuming that tan is a continuous function (see
Ar~
Art. 70), we have, therefore,
FOURTH STEP. ^~
ttX
/'(x) = lim
Ar-^O
tan <t>
= tan r,
giving dy
dx~'
Therefore the tangent at the vertex has the slope zero that ;
is, it is parallel to the x-axis and in this case coincides with it.
that is, the tangent at the point P makes an angle of 45 with the x-axis.
PROBLEMS
Find by differentiation the slope and inclination of the tangent line to
each of the following curves at the point indicated. Verify the result by
drawing the curve arid the tangent line.
l.y = x'
2 - 2, where x = 1. Am. 2 ;
63 26'.
2. y = 2 x \ x
2
, where x 3. 4. y 3 + 3 x x \ where x
:
1.
4
3. y = ~, where x = 2. 5. y = .r
;<
3 x2 ,
where x 1.
X -L
In each of the three following problems find (a) the points of intersection
of the given pair of curves (b) the slope and inclination of the tangent
;
line to each curve, and the angle between tbe tangent lines, at each point
of intersection (see (2), p. 3).
8. y =1 x 2
,
Ans. Angle of intersection = arc tan $ = 53 8'.
y = x 2 1.
9. y = x
2
,
10. y= x*-3x,
z-2/ + 2 = 0. 2z + = 0. ?/
written by Newton were already in existence, and from these some claim Leibnitz got the
new The decision of modern times seems to be that both Newton and Leibnitz
ideas.
invented the calculus independently of each other. The notation used today was intro-
duced by Leibnitz.
CHAPTER IV
dx
dx
II -7- = 1.
dx
d du dv dw
+ 3dx-- -T--
...
III
,
(U +
,
V W)
.
=
dx dx dx
_ d . .
^ dv
IV -j- (ci>) c
dx dx
_. d dv du
v
VI
Via
v
du __ u _
dv
dx dx
-(-) =
dx\v/
28
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING ALGEBRAIC FORMS 29
du
VHa
E(i?)=T'
VTTT
VIU ^=^ dv
" '
u -
k emS a *function
.
of v.
5x 5U 5J J'
dy
30. Differentiation of a constant. A function that is known to have
the same value for every value of the independent variable is con-
stant, and we may denote it by
//
= c.
But lim ~ -~
dx
0.
AX .
oA.r
~~ *
dx
The derivative of a constant is zero.
Let y = x.
THIRD STEP. -~ = 1.
FOURTH STEP.
(
-~ = 1.
dx
!=
The derivative of a variable with respect to itself is unity.
unity.
30 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
32. Differentiation of a sum
Let y =u+ v w?.
THIRD STEP.
Now (Art. 24),
^^
Ax Ax
+ Ax
^___^.
Ax
:
<to,
e/x
lim
A/ - o
^!
Ax
== ^,
dx
]
AX -
im
o
^^.
Ax dx
Hence, by
FOURTH STEP.
(1), Art. 16,
^
c/x
^ dx
^ _ ^_
+ rfx dx
;
.
m
HI .'.
d ,
(u + v-
.
w)
.
= du
+
dv - dw-
dx dx dx dx
A
similar proof holds for the algebraic sum of any number of
functions.
,.i(, = c|.
The derivative of the product of a constant and a function is equal to
THIRD STEP. ^
Ax
- ^+
Ax
w r
^~
Ax
+ Aw Ax ^
Applying (2) and (4), Art. 16, noting that lim A// = 0, and hence
that the limit of the product A. -
is zero, we have
FOURTH STEP. ^= ?/ + r
ax rfx dx
d dv du
V '
.
* ~
dx dx dx
The derivative of the product of tiro functions is equal to the first
function titnes the derivative of the second, plus the second function
times the derivative of the first.
we may write
"
fl-r
^ _ df dx
Vn
ZJ
n)
dp
ax ,
f(r;^...,
ax
' ' *
Vi V'2 /'.'jr/i vn
dv dux dv:\ (
_ dx ,
dx dx_ ,
+ (V\V2 '
32 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The derivative of the product of n functions, n being a fixed number,
is equal to the sum of the n products that can be formed by multiplying
the derivative of each function by all the other functions.
36. Differentiation of a function with a constant exponent. The
Power Rule. If the n factors in the above result are each equal to v,
VI
"dx*" dx
When v x, this becomes
Via
dx
We far proved VI only for the case when n is a positive
have so
integer. In Art. 65, however, it will be shown that this formula
holds true for any value of n, and we shall make use of this general
result now.
The derivative of a function with a constant exponent is equal to the
+ Ay/ = v + ^A?;
u u
FIRST STEP. y
-
+
SECOND STEP. Av = ^M^ - - = **/*-?;**.
+ Ac v 0(0 + A)
A?/ - Ar A *-
THIRD STEP.
Ax '(( + At')
Applying il)-(4), Art. 16,
FOURTH STEP.
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING ALGEBRAIC FORMS 33
The derivative of a fraction is equal to the denominator times the
derivative of the numerator, minus the numerator times the
derivative
of the denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.
du
d / u\ 1 du dx
'
dx V c c dx c"
PROBLEMS*
Differentiate the following functions.
1. y = x*.
Solution. = ~r (x
<{
)
= 3 x'2 . Ans. By VI a
-/~
In = 3.]
2. y = ax 4 - bx 2 .
Solution.
^ = (ax 4 - bx 2 ) =~ (ax
4 - -f (bx
2
by III
dx -f
) )
dx dx dx
= a (x
1
)
6 (x*') by IV
=4 ax :i - 2 6 x. A ns. By VI a
3. y = x* + 5.
=
4. y
ig-^ + 8>^.
Solution. ^ =~ (3 x ^)
1
-~ (7 x~^) -f (8 x*) by III
ax dx ax dx
= : y
V x^ + I x-J + V ~^- An *- By IV and VI a
* When learning to differentiate, the student should have oral drill in differentiating
simple functions.
34 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
5. y
- (x
2 - 3)
5.
= 5(x
2 - 3) 4
2 x= 10 x(x 2 - 3)
4
. An*.
Solution. = (a
2 - * - (<* - by VI
7. y = (3 r2 + 2) l + 5 jc
2
.
Solution. ^ = & + 2) y-
dx
(3
c/x
(1 + 5 a*)* 4- (1 + 5 x^i -f
dx
(3 x* +2) by V
[u - 3 a-'-
1
_ _-_
)~^y-
= (3 x 2 4-2H1 -f 5x 2 )' 2 5x + 6x(l -f 5x 2 )2-
-
g
V1 -f 5 x2 v 1 -f 5 x2
. r///
Solution. -~
A.
dx
=
_
;;
- -
"
x-
H hv
DV VIT
v X1
_2 r((7
2 - :r
2
) -f xfa 2 -f T2 )
2
[Multiplying both numerator and denominator by (a
(a
2 - x 2 )^
9. ~ (3 .r
4 - 2 x 2 -f 8) = 12 a-
3 - 4 x.
dx
10. 4 (4 + 3 x - 2 jfi)
= 3-6 x2 .
dr
11. 4 (a/
6 ~ 5 W3 = ) 5 a/ 4 - 15 fa
2
.
ar
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING ALGEBRAIC FORMS 35
16. -
(2j-
J
-f 4
'
= f. JT
' - X
8
-a ;=s. s
17.^U
i Q
d i a -f bx -f <~.r~
18 '
d? i 7
v; _
4V.r
=a+ + 2
bt r/
20. ;
2V?
= a
21. V
-p=-
Vaj-
23. /(/) = (2
- 3 /-)
:l
.
(4
- 9 ,
<f/?/ __ .r
^r~ /., 2 .2 J
(2 - 5
^= 2
(a - ~
dj: - I ^*
dy _ 2 a -h 3 bx
ds< 2 Va 4- ^
2
ds _ a2 2
30. s = <Va + 2
<
z. -f f
2 a
31. =o x
36 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
dy __ 4 a 2x
*
dx~~ (a
2
-x 2
)
2
= Va +
2
d?/ _ a2
33. y
X ^ x 2
Va 2
-f x2
X rfjy _ a2
d:r
(a
2 - x 2 )*'
dr _6 6 - 10 2
35. r =
de~
36. = d^ r
//
^~ (l+rx)Vr
37. ~
,__ /a
2
+ x'
2
'
<// 2 a 2r
Va'2 -x'2 ^ (a
2
-o- 2 )Va 4
38. ,_ 3/2+in.
'- d,s- 4
\^TJn Ul
(2-h30 (2~ a
39. 77
-
do: ?/
40.
dx a-y
41.
44. =
Va -
//
bx
45. ,s-
V -f ft/ .
50. 2/=
46. r = -
V^H-3 JT
52. y = (x
2 - o-) ; .r = 3. Am. 540.
53. //
= VJ ; x = 64.
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING ALGEBRAIC FORMS 37
;
j- = L\
,_
57. 7/
= Vl6 -f Ii .r
58. ?/
= jr\/8 - .r
2
;
.r = 2. 0.
59. //
= .r-Vl + .*; .r = 2. 20.
60. //
= (4
- .r-V ; .r = U. 63. = j-N/.S -f 2 .
//
61- //
= ;
* r ^ - 64. =-
rri~7~> //
j-= J. 65. //
=
and
then ?/ is a function of a function. P>y eliminating v we may express y
JT, but in general this
is not the best plan
directly as a function of
-
when we wish to find
dx
If y = f(v) and v =
<(JT), then is a function of # through 0. Hence, '//
(A)
v '
*y = dJL.Q. By (2), Art. 16
dx dv dx
This may also be written
(B)
-^=/'00-f.
// y =/(?;) and v </>(x), tlie derivative of y with respect to x equals
the product of the derivative of y with respect to v by the derivative of v
with respect to x.
y =/(*).
It is often possible in the case of functions considered in this book
to solve this equation for x, giving
and the second one the inverse function. Thus, in the examples which
follow, if the second members in the first column are taken as the
direct functions, then the corresponding members in the second
column will be respectively the inverse functions.
y = x 2 + 1, x = \ly - 1.
y = a
x
, ar= loga y.
y = sin x, x = arc sin y.
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING ALGEBRAIC FORMS 39
_
simultaneously by the General Rule.
FIRST STEP. y+Ay=f(x + Ax) x + Ax = 4)(y + Ay).
SECOND STEP, y + Ay = f(x + Ax) x + Ax = (y + Ay)
JL
=f(x + Ax)-f(x) Ax
THIRD STEP Ay^f(x+Ax}-.f(x) r
AT ^ <(?/ + A?/)
Ax Ax Ay Ay
Taking the product of the left-hand forms of these ratios, we get
AJ/ AT
'
Ax Ay
A//
FOURTH STEP. When Ax - 0, then also, in general, Ay - 0. Pass-
ing to the limit,
(C) r = dx
dx
' by (3), Art. 16
dy
or
+ 2 .r'ty
- ix = 10.
Then -^+^)-^
I
(
) /V.M >' I C . '2. 7 ^ . T> .' __ /I
/ O -*'} T , () \ //
"*
^*
'
/? >
7
rf//__ ?/ 6aj- e>
G^ 1
'//
The student should observe thai in general the result will contain
both j
1
and v/.
PROBLEMS
-'-
Find for each of the following functions.
An*. <^ = ^.
dr V
2. y = 2 - ?/
2
, ?( = j-a - .r. - 1).
5. 15 .r = 15 y + 5 ?/
: <
+ 3 y fi
.
6. ,= V + \/ A
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATING ALGEBRAIC FORMS 41
7. y
2 = 2 px. 13. .r
3
4- 3 =r
.r
2
?/ -f ?/
:< 1
.
8. x 2
+ 2 - r2 14. JT -f = a. ?/
?/ .
2V^7/_+
9. 6
2
x2 -f a =a 6
2
?/
2 2 2
.
15 ' J
' 2
+ a ^- r + = .'
/ ?/
2
ft3 -
V# = Va.
*
Vx -f
' '
' *
10.
o
3
17. r;.r
:l
3 />
2
.r// -f r?/
3 = 1.
18
12. ^ - 3 arj/ + j/
3 = 0.
'
Find the slope of each of the following curves at the given point.
19. jc'
2
-f jry + 2 y'
2 = 28 ; v-. '*). Awx. - }.
20. .r<
~ 3 xy' + 2
?/'
= 1 ; (2,
- 1 ). - J.
VlTjy =
21. V2~7 -f 5 ; (2, 3). 23. .r'
1
- a.n/ -f 3 a//- =3a :t
; (a, a).
22. jc
2 - 2V7// - ir = 52 ; (8, 2). 24. .r'-'
- .r \fxlj
- 2 /r'=6 ; (4, 1).
28. If f(x) and </>(//) are inverse functions, show that the graph of </>(.r)
may be found as follows: construct the graph of fix) and rotate it
around the origin 9(T counterclockwise.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
The vertex of the parabola y 2 = 2 px is the center of an ellipse.
1.
The focus of the parabola is an end of one of the principal axes of the
ellipse, and the parabola and ellipse intersect at right angles. Find the
equation of the ellipse. Ans. 4 x 2 + 2 y 2 2
p .
2. A circle is drawn with its center at (2 a, 0) and with a radius such
that the circle cuts the ellinse b'
2
x2 + a 2 ?/ 2 = a 2 b 2 at right angles. Find the
radius. AUK. r2 - 2 2
2(3 a -f b ).
3. From any point P on an ellipse lines are drawn to the foci., Prove
that these lines make equal acute angles with the normal at P.
in the ratio at the point of contact. Ans. myiix x\) + nx\(y #,) = 0.
n
2 2 -
the slope of a tangent to the hyperbola b x
6. If A* is a 2 ?/ 2 = a 2 b 2 ,
2 -
prove that its equation is y - kx Va^k b 2
and show that the locus of ,
2 =
the points of intersection of the perpendicular tangents is x 2
-f y a2 b2 .
CHAPTER V
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
42. Direction of a curve. It was shown in Art. 28 that if
=/(*)
is the equation of a curve (see
figure), then
r = ; therefore
-^ = 0.
ax
At points such as A, B, G, where the direction
of the curve is perpendicular to the x-axis and
the tangent line is vertical, I o
T = 90; therefore
-& becomes
infinite.
x = 1 VS = 2.29 and
0.29, giving the -
abscissas of the points F and E where
the direction of the given curve (or tangent^ is parallel to the line AB.
Since a curve at any point has the same direction as its tangent
line at that point, the anglebetween two curves at a common point
will be the angle between their tangent lines at that point.
(A) x 2 + y 2 -4;r = l f
(B) x2 + y*
- 2 y = 9.
The formula for finding the angle between two lines whose slopes are m\
and m2 is
tan
f
= 7^
1 -f
-^-
7W1///2
(2), Art. 3
3
Substituting, tan 6 = ^ 1 ; /. = 45". Arw.
and its projection on the r-axis is called the length of the subtangent
(= TM). Similarly, we have the length of rite, y\
normal (= P\K) and the length of the sub-
r
normal (= yi/A ). i) /i f
The
length of the tangent (TPi) and the length of the normal
(PjAO may then be found directly from the figure, each being the
hypotenuse of a right triangle having two legs known.
When the length of subtangent or subnormal at a point on a curve
is determined, the tangent and normal may easily be constructed.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of tangent and normal and the lengths of sub-
tangent, subnormal, tangent, and normal, at the point (a, a) on the cissoid
^a- x
Solution.
dx y(2 a
- x)~
Substituting x a, ?/
= a, we have
-
rr 2 = slope of tangent.
* If the
subtangent extends to the ritrht of 7\ we consider it positive; if to the left,
negative, If the subnormal extends to the right of M, we consider it positive, if to the
Jeft, negative.
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 45
Find the equations of the tangent and normal at the given point.
2. y = ar
3 - 3 x; (2, 2). .4//,s. 9 .r
- //
- 16 = 0, .r -f 9 ?/
- 20 = 0.
9 T 4- 1
3. T/
= ^L1. (2, 5). 7 j-
- y -9 = 0, .r + 7 <//
- 37 = 0.
o X
4. 2x 2 -xy + y- = 16; (3, 2).
5. 7/
2
+ 2 ?/-4 jr-f 4 = 0; (1, -2).
6. Find the equations of the tangent and normal at (x\, y\) to the
2 2 2 2
ellipse b' x -f a a~b'2 ?/ .
7. Find the equations of the tangent and normal, and the lengths of
the subtangent and subnormal, at the point u*i, ?/i on the circle s- -f ir T~. )
Find the equations of the tangent and normal, and the lengths of the
subtangent and subnormal, to each of the following curves at the points
indicated.
10. x 2 - 4 ?y
2 = 9 ; (5, 2). f> .r
- 8 ?/
= 9, 8 x + 5 ?/
= 50, V, J.
11. 9x + 4 2= 72; 2/
2
(2, 3).
12. xy +
2
+ 2 = 0; ?y (3,
- 2).
13. Find the area of the triangle formed by the j-axis and the tangent
and the normal to the curve y = 6 jr - .r'2 at the point (5, 5). A us. A p.
14. Find the area of the triangle formed by the //-axis and the tangent
and the normal to the curve //- = 9 j- at the point (5, 2).
15. y = x 4-
2
1, x2 + y
2 = 13. Am. 109 39
r
.
16. y =6- a*
2
,
7 x 2
+ y
2 = 32.
Ans. At ( 2, 2), 5 54'; at ( 1, 5), 8 58'.
at the points where it meets the parabola y 2 = ax are parallel to the //-axis.
(See figure in Chapter XXVI.)
32. Show that the sum of the intercepts on the coordinate axes of the
tangent line at any point to the parabola x^ + ifi = a* is constant and
equal to a. (See figure in Chapter XXVI.)
'> 10 or'
and when = ON ~~
x 4\ in.,
its point, of contact T is greater than any other ordinate. Hence this
observation One of the inscribed rectangles has evidently a greater area
:
than any of the others. In other words, we may infer from this that
the function defined by (1) has a maximum value. cannot find We
this value (= 7/7") exactly by measurement, but
very easy to it is
find by the calculus. We
observed that at T the tangent was
horizontal hence the slope will be zero at that point
;
(Art. 42). To
find the abscissa of T we then find the derivative of A with
respect
to x from (1), place it equal to zero, and solve for x. Thus we have
(1) = arVlOO - 2
.4 jc' ,
432
-
and Area of four sides = 4 .r// sq. ft. Hence
(2) M= x'
2
+
isa formula giving the number of square feet required in any such box
having a capacity of 108 cu. ft. Draw a graph of (2), as in the figure.
50 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
What do we learn from the graph ?
(2) has a minimum value. Let us find this point on the graph ex-
actly, using the calculus. Differentiating (2) to get the slope at any
point, we have
dM -9r --
432
+' *
j
<<-"
rr
ax x2
The fact that a least value of M exists is also shown by the follow-
ing reasoning. Let the base increase from a very small square to a
very large one. In the former case the height must be very great and
therefore the amount of lumber required will be large. In the latter
case, while the height is small, the base will take a great deal of
lumber. Hence M
varies from a large value, grows less, then in-
creases again to another large value. It follows, then, that the graph
must have a "lowest" point corresponding to the dimensions which
require the least amount of lumber and therefore would involve the
least cost.
We will now proceed to the treatment in detail of the subject of
maxima and minima.
45. Increasing and decreasing functions.* Tests. A function y =f(x)
is said to be an increasing function if y increases (algebraically) when
x increases. A
function y f(x) is said to be a decreasing function
if y decreases (algebraically) as x increases.
The graph of a function indicates plainly whether it is increasing
or decreasing. For instance, consider the graph in Fig. a, p. 51.
increasing ;
(b) from x = 1 to x = 2 the function is de-
creasing ;
negative.
f (x] is positive.
We may then state the conditions in general for maximum and
minimum values of /Or).
/(jc) is a maximum if /'(*)
= and /'(*) changes sign from + to .
sliglitly less than the corresponding critical value, and then one
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 53
slightly greater. If the first sign is and the second then the + ,
When x < - +.
1, /'(*) = (-)(-)
When
x 1, f'(jr) (+)(-) - -.
> -
Hence /(r) has a maximum value when x ~ 1. By the
table, this value is ?/=/(!)
= 2.
Next, test y = 2. Proceed as before, taking values of x now near
the critical value 2.
W henf
< 2, /'(/) - (+)(-) - -.
.r
47. First method for examining a function for maximum and mini-
mum values. Working rule.
SECOND STEP.
are the critical values of the variable.
equation for real roots. These roots
THIRD STEP. Considering one critical value at a time, test the first
*
derivative, first for a value a trifle less and then for a value a trifle greater
than the critical value. If the sign of the derivative is first and then , +
the has a maximum value for that particular critical value of the
function
variable; but if the reverse is true,
then it has a minimum value. If the
has neither.
sign does not change, the function
"
* In this connection the term "little less/' or trifle less," means any value between the
"
next smaller root (critical value) and the one under consideration and the term little ;
A = xVlOO -x 2
that the rectangle of maximum area inscribed in a circle of radius 5 in. con-
tained 50 8(4. in. This may now be proved analytically as follows by applying the
above rule.
100 - 2 X2
r,- ,
First Step.
a, ///
f'(x)
N
=
VI 00 -x 2
Second Step. Setting f'(x) 0, we have
x^r 5 \ '2 = 7.07,
which is the critical value. Only the positive sign of the radical is taken, since,
from the nature of the problem, the negative sign has no meaning.
Third Slcp. When x < 5\"2, then 2 x-' < 100, and /'(x) is -K
When x > 5\ then 2 x 2 > 100, and f (xj is -.
,
Since the sign of the first derivative changes from + to the function has a ,
Second Step, (x
- l)(x + 1) (5 x - 1) = 0. 2
= 5(-)(+) = -.
"
When x < 1, /'(x)
2
(-f )
Therefore, when x \ the function has a maximum value /(J) =1.11 (= ordi-
nate of B).
Examine lastly the critical value = 1 (A in
x figure).
FIG. d
f(x) is continuous and has a maximum value, but /'(a*) becomes in-
finite,since the tangent line at B is parallel to the -//-axis. At E, f(x)
has a minimum value, and /'(/) again becomes infinite. In our dis-
cussion of all possible maximum and minimum values of /(j), we
must therefore include as critical values also those values of x for
which /'(x) becomes infinite, or, what is the same thing, values of x
satisfying
The Second Step of the rule of the preceding section must then
be modified as indicated by (1 ). The other steps are unchanged.
In Fig. d above, note that /'(/) also becomes infinite at A, but the
function is neither a maximum nor a minimum at A.
2b
Hence, when x = c = OM, the function has a maximum value /(c) = a = MP.
56 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
Examine each of the following functions for maximum and minimum
values.
1. r {
6 x2 + 9 x. Ans. x = 1, gives max. = 4.
x = 3, gives min. = 0.
2. 10 + 12 .r
- 3 jr
2 - 2 jr
1
. a- = 1, gives max. = 17.
x 2, gives min. = 10.
3. 2 :r
{
+ 3 j*
2
-f 12 .r 4. No max. or min.
4. /< + 2.r 2 - 15 j*- 20.
5. 2 .r
2
.r
4
. a* = 0, gives min. = 0.
x 1, gives max. = 1.
7. r4 - j'
2
+ 1.
8. 3 .r
4 - 4 ^ - 12 .r
2
. a-=- 1, gives min. =- 5.
x = 0, gives max. = 0.
x = 2, gives min. 32.
9. x* 5 r 4
. x = 0, gives max. = 0.
x = 4, gives min. = 256.
10. 3 JT*
- 20 jr
3
.
2 rr*
11. j-2 + ^__. x a, gives min. = 3 a2 .
12. 2,
-g-
a4
13. r2 + a: = a, gives min. = 2 a2 .
a*
22
4- a x = a, gives max. = .
15.
16 -
^+ a*
T 2 -4- rr
"
17.
x ,
+ ^
1Q /O
ID. v^2/1 I o*^2 .
^~T~Uy ^JL U^
19. (2 + x) 2
(l
- x)*.
2
20. ?> + r(j* a) . x = a, gives min. = 6.
23. a-(a +
2
(a
- x)*.-r) = - a, gives max. = 0. .r
= \ a, gives min. = ~ jj a .r ft
.
j* o, gives neither.
24. (2 a:
- a)*(j
- a)*. x - gives max. =
J a, J a.
r = a, gives min. = 0.
* i <*> gives neither.
25 '
3* + 2
'
x ~ 0, gives max. - J.
:r
2
-f 2 j- + 4 J- = - 4, gives min. =- J.
26
^2 + ^ + 4 T gives
.'i, max. ~ - 5.
^ ~f~ 1 u* 1, gives min. ,'{.
^ 2 -f r + 4 a- =- *J,gives max. =
27 *
.3.
(.r- -
_
a -f />
.
/>
----- >
. .
a -f b a
.
(a -
gives max. =
a
3
on
30. ^(a x)
_^_. x = -a .
givers mm. =
. .,
*? a
7
2
o
.
a 2 x
x2 x -f 1
General directions
(b) // tho resulting expression contains more than one variable, the
conditions of the problem will furnish enough relations between the vari-
ables so that all may be expressed in terms of a single one.
58 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
(c) To the resulting function of a single variable apply the above rule
(p. 53) for finding maximum and minimum values.
from a square piece of tin whose side is a, by cutting equal squares out
of the corners and then folding up the tin to form the sides. What should
be the length of a side of the squares cut out ?
and volume is V= (a 2 x) 2 j,
which is the function to be made a maximum by varying x.
rtV
First Step. -~- = (a
- 2 x) 2 - 4 x(a - 2 x} = a2 - 8 ax + 12 x 2 .
It is evident from the figure that x = - must give a minimum, for then all the
tin would be cut away, leaving no material out of which to make a box. By the usual
test, x is found to give a maximum volume -- Hence the side of the square to
jj
Depth = \ j{
of diameter of log,
2(h-x)y.
But since P lies on the parabola y 2 = 2px, the function to
be tested is
f(x) = 2(h-x)\f2px.
AUK. Width = | h.
TT A\
f(y) ^ y*(2 r y).
2
f(y)=y2 y(h-y}
.
Ans. Altitude = | h.
60 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
6. If three sides of a trapezoid are each 10 in. long, how long must the
fourth side be if the area is a maximum? Ans. 20 in.
8. A
rectangular garden to be laid out along a neighbor's lot and is
is
to contain 432 sq. rd. If the neighbor pays for half the dividing fence,
what should be the dimensions of the garden so that the cost to the owner
of inclosing it may be a minimum? Ans. 18 rd. x 24 rd.
JT= 100-1:
Show that the manufacturer should produce only about 25 instruments per
week for maximum profit.
T2 = 2500 - 20 p.
How many instruments should be produced each week for maximum profit?
2
12. The producing x articles per week is (ax
total cost of -f bx -f c)
_ Va 2
-f 3a-qi- b)
- a
x
3 a
by the government. The manufacturer adds the tax to his cost and de-
termines the output and price under the new conditions.
(a) Show that the price increases by a little less than half the tax.
(b) Express the receipts from the tax in terms of / and determine the
tax for maximum return.
(c) When the tax determined in (b) is imposed, show that the price is
government, and the price (p dollars) at which each can be sold is p = p ax.
Show that the tax brings in the maximum return when t = J(/3 b) and
that the increase in price is always less than the tax.
A
steel
15. steel plant is
n 1
18. What should be the diameter of a tin can holding 1 qt. (58 cu. in.)
and requiring the least amount of tin (a) if the can is open at the top?
(b) if the can has a cover?
Ans. (a) -vV
-v = 5.29 in. ; (b) ; = 4.20 in.
\ 7T \ 7T
19. The lateral surface of a right circular cylinder is 4 TT sq. ft. From
the cylinder iscut a hemisphere whose diameter equals the diameter of
the cylinder. Find the dimensions of the cylinder if the remaining volume
is a maximum or minimum. Determine whether it is a maximum or a
minimum. .4//s. Radius 1 ft., altitude = 2 ft. ; maximum.
20. Find the area of the largest rectangle with sides parallel to the
coordinate axes which can be inscribed in the figure bounded by the two
12 - s- and 6 // - s - 12.
2
parabolas 3 //
Ans. 16.
21. Two vertices of a rectangle are on the .r-axis. The other two vertices
are on the lines whose equations are y 2 jr arid 3 jc -f y 30. For what
value of y will the area of the rectangle be a maximum? Am. y 6.
- mx - m
"
x
26. The equation of the path of a ball is y ", where
800
the origin is taken at the point from which the ball is thrown and is the m
slope of the curve at the origin. For what value of m will the ball strike
(a) at the greatest distance along the same horizontal level? (b) at the
greatest height on a vertical wall 300 ft. away? Ans. (a) 1 (b) $. ;
light when the sides of the rectangle are equal to the sides of the right
triangle.
28. The sum of the surfaces of a sphere and a cube being given, show
that the sum of their volumes will be least when the diameter of the sphere
is equal to the edge of the cube. When will the sum of the volumes be
greatest ?
29. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle which can be inscribed
30. Find the area of the largest rectangle which can be drawn with
its base on the .r-axis and with two vertices on the witch w hose equation r
*
8ff>
is ?/
= .,
(See figure in Chapter XXVI.) Ans. 4 a 2 .
ir* -f 4 a2
31. Find the ratio of the area of the smallest ellipse that can be cir-
cumscribed about a rectangle to the area of the rectangle. The area of an
ellipse is irab, where a and b are the semiaxes. Ans. | TT-
( and (6, 0). The two upper vertices lie on the curve jc 2 + 4 y
6, 0) 36.
Find the area of the largest trapezoid which can be drawn in this way.
Ans. 64.
33. The distance between the centers of two spheres of radii a and b,
36. Prove that a conical tent of agiven capacity will require the least
amount of canvas when the height is V2 times the radius of the base.
Show that when the canvas is laid out flat it will be a circle with a sector
of 152 9' cut out. How much canvas would be required for a tent 10 ft.
high? Ans. 272 sq. ft.
2
37. Given a point on the axis of the parabola 2 px at a distance a ?/
from the vertex find the abscissa of the point on the curve nearest to it.
;
A HK. JT = a p.
38. Find the point on the curve 2 y = x2 which is nearest to the point
(4, 1). Am. (2, 2).
h -f tan
is the angle of friction and h is the pitch of the screw. Find // for maximum
efficiency. -4ns. h = sec tan 6.
The distance between two sources of heat A and /?, with intensi-
41.
tiesa and b respectively, is I. The total intensity of heat at a point P
between A and B is given by the formula
~ \" /
where x is the distance of P from A. For what position of P will the tem-
perature be lowest ? a ij -
Ans. x = T
(1) y = r2
gave as the ratio of corresponding increments
(3. -.
Then, we say, the average rate of change of y with respect to x
when jr increases from x
equals 8.5 4 to x = 4.5.
In general, the ratio
(B) -f-
= instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x for a
definite value of x.
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 65
(o) ,
^ Z x.
When x = 4, the instantaneous rate of change of y is 8 units per
unit change in x. The word "instantaneous" is often dropped in (B).
(6) #=/(*)
be drawn, as in the figure. When x in-
creases from OM
to OA7 then y increases ,
of P when the point moves from P to P', during the time interval A.
If P moves with uniform motion (constant velocity), the above ratio
will have the same value for every interval of time and is the velocity
at any instant.
66 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
For the general case of any kind of motion, uniform or not, we
define the velocity (time-rate of change of s) at any instant as the limit
of the average velocity as At approaches zero as a limit ; that is,
<o .-
The velocity at any instant distance (= space)
is the derivative of the
Our notion of velocity tells at once that (3) does not give us the
actual velocity at the end of two seconds for even if we take At very ;
small, say o y or nuio of a second, (3) still gives only the average
, (
locity at the end of two seconds is, from (3), 64.4 feet per second.
Thus even the everyday notion of velocity which we get from experi-
ence involves the idea of a limit, or, in our notation,
/ As\
v = lim )= 64.4 ft. per second.
Ai-oVAt/
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 67
PROBLEMS
1. A man is walking at the rate of 5 mi. per hour toward the foot of
a tower 60 ft.high. At what rate is he approaching the top when he is
First Step. Draw the figure. Let x distance of the man from the foot, and
y = his distance from the top, of the tower at any instant.
y
y = x2 + 3600.
**%=**%'<*
m
U '
4y
dt
= xdx
y dt'
-
This means that at any instant whatever
& = _ JjL
80f
dt~3
-.. dt
Fourth Step. x = 6.
~-2 ft. per second.
dt
^ = ~o x 2 = 4
at
ft. per second. Ans.
From the first result we note tliat at the point / J (G, 6) the ordinate changes twice
as rapidly as the abscissa.
If we consider the point /"( t>, 6) instead, the result is = 4 ft- P^r second,
the minus sign indicating that the ordinate is decreasing
as the abscissa increases.
3. A
circular plate of metal expands by heat so
that radius increases at the rate of 0.01 in. per
its
That is, at any instant the area of the plate is increasing in square inches 2 ?nr
times as fast as the radius is increasing in linear inches.
Substituting in (U),
lengthening when he is walking away from the light at the rate of 168 ft.
per minute?
Solution. Let x = distance of the boy from a point directly under the light L,
and y length of boy's shadow. From the figure,
y :
y + x =5 :
12,
or y = 8 x.
T^.- .. ,. t/v 5 dx
Differentiating, '
d/ 7 d/
5. A
point moves along the parabola //-' 12 jc in such a way that its =
abscissa increases uniformly at the rate of 2 in. per second. At what point
do the abscissa and ordinate increase at the same rate? Ans. (3, 6).
6. Find the values of .r for which the rate of change of
^- 12 jc
2
+ 45 .r
- 13
is zero. /b/.s\ 3 and 5.
A
barge whose deck is 12 ft. below the level of a dock is drawn up
7.
to it by means
of a cable attached to a ring in the floor of the dock, the
cable being hauled in by a windlass on deck at the rate of 8 ft. per minute.
How fast is the barge moving towards the dock when 10 ft. away?
Ann. 10 ft. per minute.
above the which the rope is attached to the boat. The boat is
level at
drifting away at the rate of 8 ft. per second. How fast is it unwinding the
rope when 30 ft. from the point directly under the windlass?
Ann. ().Gf) ft. per second.
10. One ship was sailing south at the rate of 6 mi. per hour; another
east at the rate of 8 mi. per hour. At 4 P.M. the second crossed the track
of the first where the first was 2 hr. before, fa) How was the distance
between the ships changing at 3 P.M. ? fb) How at 5 P.M. ? (c) When was
the distance between them not changing ?
Ans. (a) Decreasing 2.8 mi. per hour; (b) increasing
8.73 mi. per hour; (c) 3.17 P.M.
70 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
11. The side of an equilateral triangle is o in. long, and is increasing at
the rate of k in. per hour. How
fast is the area increasing?
12. The edges of a regular tetrahedron are 10 in. long and are increasing
at the rate of 0.1 in. per minute. Find the rate of increase of the volume.
13. If at a certain instant the two dimensions of a rectangle are a and 6
and these dimensions are changing at the rates ra, n respectively, show that r
the rate at which // must change to keep the volume of the solid fixed at
the instant when r is 10 in. and Jt is 20 in.
19. A stone is dropped down a' deep shaft and after t sec. another stone
is dropped. Show that, the distance between the stones increases at the
rate of ty ft. per second.
20. A
gas holder contains 1000 cu. ft. of gas at a pressure of 5 Ib. per
square inch. If the pressure is decreasing at the rate of 0.05 Ib. per square
inch per hour, find the rate of increase of the volume. (Assume Boyle's
Law pv = c.)
: Ans. 10 cu. ft. per hour.
21.The adiabatic law for the expansion of air is PV IA = C. If at a
given time the volume is observed to be 10 cu. ft. and the pressure is
50 Ib. per square inch, at what rate is the pressure changing if the volume
is decreasing 1 cu. ft. per second?
^ ?r/r
!
the segment.)
24. Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 1000 cu. in.
per minute. At the instant when the radius is 10 in., (a) at uhat rate is the
radius decreasing? (b) at what rate is the surface decreasing?
AUK. (b) 200 sq. in. per minute.
25. If r denotes the radius of a sphere, tf the surface, and V the volume,
x, , ,. dV = -rdS
prove the relation
dt 2 dt
60 mi. per hour. An automobile is 500 ft. from the intersection and moving
toward it at the rate of 30 mi. per hour. What is the rate of change of the 1
27. A horizontal trough 10 ft. long has a vertical section in the shape of
an isosceles right triangle. If water is poured into it at the rate of H cu. ft.
per minute, at what rate is the surface of the water rising when the water
is 2 ft. deep? Aws. I ft. per minute.
28. In Problem 27, at what rate must water be poured into the trough
to make the level rise I ft. per minute when the water is 3 ft. deep ?
29. A horizontal trough 12 ft. long has a vertical cross section in the
shape of a trapezoid, the bottom being 3 ft. wide and the sides inclined to
the vertical at an angle whose sine is ;?. Water is being poured into it at
the rate of 10 cu. ft. per minute. How fast is the water level rising when
the water is 2 ft. deep?
30. In Problem 29, at what rate is water being drawn from the trough
if the level is falling 0.1 ft. per minute when the water is 3 ft. deep ?
31. ^-intercept of the tangent line to the positive branch of the
The
hyperbola xy = 4 is increasing 3 units per second. Let the -//-intercept be
OB. Find the velocity of B at the end of 5 sec., the x-intercept starting at
the origin. Am. f| unit per second.
32. A
point P moves along the parabola y x so that its abscissa in- 2
through the fixed point (//, k). Find the equation of the ellipse if its area
is a minimum. Am. k 2 jr 2 + h'2 y 2 2 h 2k 2 .
$52,500 for the second, $55,000 for the third, and so on. Other expenses
(lot, plans, basement, etc.) are $350,000. The net annual income is $5000
for each story. How many stories will give the greatest rate of interest on
the investment? Am. 17.
6. For a certain article the increase in the number of pounds consumed
which is perpendicular to the wall. A man 6 ft. tall is walking on the path
toward the wall at the rate of 2 ft. per second. When he is 4 ft. from the
wall, how fast is the shadow of his head moving up the wall ?
Am. f ft. per second.
CHAPTER VI
V - 3 r>,
<LM ._ 19
i^
~3
x
, ,
ax
dx\ drv/.r
= , _
- ,
. . .
,
- .
dxn
I/''
= 36 x 2 T/'" = 72 r, ?y w = 72 is most convenient.
,
= a2 62
(1) b 2x 2 a 2 ?/ 2 .
73
74 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Differentiating with respect to x (Art. 41),
-
2 b*x 2 a'2 y
^= 0,
(9)
^L ^ -
dx a-y
_
d~y
dx*
^ its
^ dx
., ,i, /fcVN
4
a 4 '//- r/ v/
;{
PROBLEMS
Prove each of the following differentiations.
2. = >/" + W. ^~
"'*
8(a-f6/)^
iL^!___.
2
\LJ-.y^. .
d
*j< // __
__
4 a?>-
3_ y
(i bx dx'2 (a b.
2
d~u a
4. //
_/~~
Va- 2
;
-f r .
r;
-
fi\~
=
dl
(a-' + r
2
5. //
= d-y _ 2 a'
(i + r dx'2 (a + x)
3
6. =
'2 t -h 1
r-< *?
7. f(s) =
8. y =
.r-fl
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS 75
9. j*
2
-f- */
2 = r 2.
<ir 2 y3
2
= d' 4 a2
10. y
2
4 ru*. y __ _
dx'2 //*
11. fc-.r
2
-f a 2
//
2 = a' b 2 2
.
a 4 ?/'
12. or-' -f 2 Jixy -f fy/ 2 1.
(//.r -f by)*'
13. JT* + ?/
:{
^ 1.
djr-
14. .r + 2 T2^2 -
= -
a4 .
V
2
</.r
In Problems 15 25 find the values of //' and //'' for the given values of
the variables.
16. ;//
= V25 - 3 x j = 3. ;
17. ?/
= x Vx 2 + 9 = 4. ;
j*
18. j-
2-4 2=9 = 5, = 2.
?/ ;
j- ?/
x2 -f 3 = x = 2, =-
2
19. -f 4 xy 4- z/ ; ?/
21. ?/
= Vl 4- 2 J-; j- =
22. ?/
= 4 ;
x = 2. 24. ?/
2
+ 2 .r/y
= 1 G ; .r = 3, y ^ 2.
23. ?/
= 2 ; x = 25. .r'
{ - .r/y
2
-f //"
= 8 ;
x- 2, y = 2.
In each of the following problems find
29. y j-Vr/"' -x 2
.
30. //
2 - 4 xy
- If).
27. ?/- 2
a 2 31. x :i - 3 ajry -f ?y
:{
= ?>
3
.
a: H-
28. T/
= V2 - 3 a:.
56. Second method for testing for maximum and minimum values.
At A a of the preceding section, the arc is concave upward,
in Fig.
and the ordinate has a minimum value. That is, /'(x) = and /"(/)
is positive. At B in Fig. b, f'(x) and f"(x) is negative.
We may then state the sufficient conditions for maximum and
minimum values of f(x) for critical values of the variable as follows
M = x~ -f
x
found in the example worked out on page 49.
Solution. /(;r)=.r
2
+
439
First Step. f(x)=2x-~>
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS 77
Second Step. ;
-^=.
x = 6, critical value.
Third Step.
Second Step. 3 x2 - 6 x - 9 = ;
PROBLEMS
Examine each of the following functions for maxima and minima.
1. x 3
4- 3 x 2 - 2. An*. JT - 2, gives max. 2.
x ~ 0, gives min. 2.
2. x3 - 3 x + 4. x 1 gives max.
,
6.
x = 1, gives min. = 2.
3. 2 x3 - 3 ox 2 4- a 3 .
(a ; 0) x 0, gives max. a3 ,
x = a, gives min. = 0.
5. 3 x - 2 x 2 - - x \, gives max. = \.
jr | gives min.
,
= $.
6. 3 x 4 - 4 x 3 - 12 x 2
4- 2. x = 0, gives max. = 2.
x = 1, gives min.
=
3.
7. x4 - 4 x2 -f 4. x = 0, gives max. 4.
11. x 2 (x-4) 2 .
13. x-
78 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
14. A rectangular box with a square base and an open top is to be made.
Find the volume of the largest box that can be made from 1200 sq. ft. of
material. Ans. 4000 cu. ft.
15. A
water tank is to be constructed with a square base and an open
top, and to hold 125 cu. yd. If the cost of the sides is $2 a square yard,
is
and of the bottom $4 a square yard, what are the dimensions when the
cost is a minimum? Ans. A cube of edge 5 yd,
16. A rectangular flower bed
is to contain 800 sq. ft. It is to be sur-
rounded by a walk which wide along the sides and 6 ft. wide across
is 3 ft.
the endtt. If the total area of the bed and walk is a minimum, what are the
dimensions of the flower bed? Ans. 20 ft. x 40 ft.
17. A rectangular field to contain a given area is to be fenced off along
the bank of a straight river. If no fence is needed along the river, show that
the least amount of fencing will be required if the field is twice as long as
it is wide.
18. A trough is to be made of a long rectangular piece of tin by bending
piece is 14 in., how deep should the trough be made in order that its carry-
ing capacity may be a maximum? Ans. 3.5 in.
mum amount of light. An*. Rectangle is 3.51 ft. wide and 2.23 ft. high.
20. A solid wooden sphere weighs ?/> Ib. What is the weight of the
heaviest right circular cylinder which can be cut from the sphere?
Ans. r^lb.
V3
21. The slant height of a right circular cone is a given constant a.
Find the altitude if the volume is a maximum. A a
-ri/io. 7^
V3
22. An oil can is to be made in the shape of a cylinder surmounted by a
cone. for a given capacity the least material is required
Show that if the
altitude of the cylinder is equal to the altitude of the cone.
23. Ciiven the parabola // = 8 jc and the point P(6, 0) on the axis, find
2
the coordinates of the points on the parabola nearest to P. Ans. (2, 4).
25. A
miner wishes to dig a tunnel from a point A to a point B 200 ft.
below and 600 ft. to the east of A. Below the level of A it is bed rock and
above A is soft earth. If the cost of tunneling through earth is $5 and
through rock is $13 per linear foot, find the minimum cost of a tunnel.
Ans. $5400.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS 79
26. A sheet of paper for a poster is to contain 16sq. ft. The margins
at the top and the bottom are to be (\ in., and those on the sides 4 in.
What are the dimensions if the printed area is to be a maximum?
.4 MS. 1.90ft. x 3.27 ft,
The student should observe that near a point where the curve is
concave upward (as at A) the curve lies above the tangent, and at
a point where the curve is concave downward (as at C) the curve
lies below the tangent. At a point of inflection (as at B) the tangent
bending.
1. 77
=3 j-
4 - 4 x3 + 1.
Third Step.
. x 3 and x
/"(x) =36T(x-
are the roots.
I).
tl
When x < 0,/"(x) = +.
When 3 >x> 0,/"(x) = -.
Therefore the curve is concave upward to the left and concave downward to
the right of x (A in figure).
When ()<x < 3,/"(x) = -.
When x > l,f"(x) = -f.
Then^fore the curve is concave downward to the left and concave upward to
the right of x = (/ in figure).
rj
Hence the points .4(0, 1) and B($, \\] are points of inflection.
Th*> curve is evidently concave upward everywhere to the left of 4, concave
downward between ,4(0, 1) and (, A}), and concave upward everywhere to
the right of B.
2. (y-2}*= (jr-4).
Solution. y =2 -f (x - 4)*.
Second Step. When x = 4, both first and second derivatives become infinite.
W hen x >
T
4, ^=
dr 2
-.
8. 2/=24x 2
-x4
. 9. ?/^x +
1
-.
'
* x
the second derivative determines the intervals within which the curve
isconcave upward or concave downward, and the points of inflection
separate these intervals; the maximum points are the high points,
and the minimum points are the low points on the curve. As a guide
in his work the student may follow the
FIRST STEP. Find the first derivative; place it equal to zero; solve
to find the abscissas of the maximum and minimum points. Test these
values.
SECOND STEP. Find the second derivative; place it equal to zero;
solve to find the abscissas of the points of inflection. Test these values.
THIRD STEP. Calculate the corrcspomling ordinates of the points
whose abscissas were found in the first two steps. Calculate as many
82 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
more points as may be necessary to (jive a good idea of the shape of the
curve. Make a table such as is shown in tlie problem worked out below.
FOURTH STEP. Plot the points determined and sketch in the curve to
correspond with the results shown in the table.
reduce the scale on the ?/-axis so that the general shape of the curve
will be shown within the limits of the paper used. Coordinate plot-
PROBLEMS
Truce the following curves, making use of the above rule. Also find
the e([iiations of the tangent and normal at each
point of inflection.
1. y rr .r
:{ - 9 jr
2
4- 1M x - 7.
Fourth Step. Plotting the points and sketching in the curve, we get the figure
shown.
To find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve at the point of
/V3,
inflection 11), use formulas (1), (2\ Art. 43. This gives 3 x + y 20 for the
tangent and 3 ?/ x 30 for the normal.
2. ;] //
= .r<
- 3 x'2 - 9 x -f 11.
J
An*. Max. ( 1, /); min. (3, -\f-)point of inflection,
;
(1, 0) ;
tangent, 4 jc + y -4 ; normal, .r 4 // 1 = 0.
3. 6 y = VI - 24 x - 15 :r
2 - 2 j-\
A//S. Max. ( 1, ^) min.: (- 4,
- 5) ; point of inflection,
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS 83
4. y = x4 - 8 x2 .
*-?Ti-
Am. Max. (V3, V3) ; min. ( ~ V3, - V3 )
; points of inflection,
(-3, -ij), (0, 0), (3, H).
7. ?/
=
+6 /< .T
2
. 18. (I If ^ .r- + -
8. ?/
=
4 + 3 - .r .r<.
9. 3 = 4 .r< - 18 r 2 +
?/ 15 x. 19- '-'//
^ .'"' -f ~
10. ?/
= O - a) -f b. :*
11. 12 = - I) - 24
// (.r
1
(.r -1)2. 20. a-'//
^ .r< -f
^,.
12. //
= r (9 - 2
-r
L>
).
13. ?/
=2 - 5 2 .r> .r . 21. //
= - - -"-' -
.,-
.r- -1 1 a-
14. //
= 3 - 5 .r\ .r>
15. ?/
= .r - 5 r>
.r
1
. 22. ?/
- - ''-- -
(.r f <i)-
16. y = jr(s- - 4)
2
.
4 23. 1
.r '// - (.r-' { 1 )'.
(h
From (C), Art. 51, we obtain also, since v --*
Referring to Arts. 45, 47, and 56, we have the following criteria
which apply to a definite instant / = / :
8 = 16.1 1
2
,
v = = 32.2 t, <* = = 32.2.
PROBLEMS
1. By experiment it has been found that a hody falling freely from rest
in a vacuum near the earth's surface follows approximately the law
s
~ 16.1 t 2 where = space (height) in feet, t time in seconds. Find
,
=
the velocity and acceleration (a) at any instant; (b) at end of the first
second (c) at end of the fifth second.
;
(a) Differentiating,
~ = 32.2
ds
t,
or, from (C), Art. 51, (2) v - 32.2 / ft. per second.
which us that the acceleration of a falling body is constant in other words, the
tells ;
velocity increases 32.2 ft. per second every second it keeps on falling.
(b) To find and </ at the end of the first second, substitute / 1 in (2) and (3).
(c) To find rand a at the end of the fifth second, substitute t = 5 in (2) and (3).
2. * 4 1- ~ (> t ;
f 2. AUK. * 4, r 10, a = 8.
3. .s-
-= 120 {
- lf> t'- ; / = 4. * = - - 8, a = -
224, r 32.
4. .r
- 32 /
- 8 /' ; / = 2. s = 32, r = 0, a = - 16.
5. //
= (J /-'
- 2 t'
{
;
t = 1. y = 4, r = 6, a = 0.
7. / = 16 t'
2 - 20 / -f 4; / = 2.
8. //
= 100 - 4 /
- 8 /
2
; / = 3.
9. * = V5/ -f ; ^ = 5.
V5f
10. * = \
7
3 / 4- 2 ; / = 2.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS 85
In the following problems find the acceleration at the instant indicated.
= -!()/; = 2. +
2 1
12. r 4 / / 6. /
14. * = 16 - 64 + 04.
/
2
/ AHS. s = 0, a = 32.
15. *= 120 /- 16 /
J
.
Pt 20 ~.
17. ,s- 5/4-
16. * = 3 c*t - /'. * + 1
,s-
= 80 /- If) /-.
Find (a) its position and velocity after 2 sec. and after 3 sec. ; (b) how
high it will rise; (c) how far it will move in the fourth second.
moved during the fourth second and during the sixth second.
A car makes a trip in 10 min. and moves according to the law
22.
,s- =
250 f2 t\ where is measured in minutes and
:\
in feet. Ca) How far
/
does the car go? (b) What is its maximum speed? (c) How far has the
car moved when its maximum speed is reached?
Anx. (a) 12,500 ft.; (b) 1924 ft. per minute; (c) 0944 ft.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
Trace the curve (4 - 2 x + s-)tj
1. 2 x - s 2 arid find the equations ,
normal, 2 x y 4 = 0.
2. A certain curve (the tractrix) is such that the length of every tangent
from point of contact Pur, y} to
its its intersection A with the x-axis is
\ 4lL V x
d 2 ij _ c 2y
( /|
4V2
CHAPTER VII
XI -^-(a")
= a"lna^-
dx dx
XI a
f <"> = ?
dx dx
XII 4. <!")
= 1*1"
1^ + inu.u*^.
dx dx dx
d dv
XIV
, , =- sin v -
^ (cos v)
XV (tan v) sec 2 v
c?x dx
dx clx
86
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 87
dv
XXII 4- (a1
"
^n v) = 7-^-
dx 1 -f ^
dv
XXV ~
(arc csc ") =-
(1) Km
x ->
(1 + ar = 2.71828 -.
exists is beyond the scope of this book. For the present we shall
content ourselves with plotting the locus of the equation
(2) y=(l + xf
and showing graphically that as x the function (1 + x) x (= y) -+
If .r ==
0, A =
r
1, and In 1 - 0. If x = 1, AT = e, and In e = 1.
If j,
_._ _ oo^ (h en ,\
T
-
0, and we write In = oo.
(4) 10" = A or //
= log N. T
_ log W
~~
log e
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 89
(c = 2.718 )
(2) y = In y.
f
The functions e and In y are inverse functions
(3) y - In y,
(4) lim In x = In a.
x-*a
When x >
0, then y *
oo, as remarked above. The ?y-axis is an
asymptote in the graph.
The functions a x and log,, x (a > 0) have the same properties as
r
e and In x and graphs similar to the above.
90 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
63. Differentiation of a logarithm.
Let y = In v. (v > 0)
By(2),p.l
THIRD STEP. ^=
A?'
-i-in
A/?
A
\
+- r /
)
L r J
P,v(2),p.l
FOURTH STEP. ~ ^- - in r = -
a." r /;
When Ar-*0,
r
- 0. Honco lim
Ar-(A
fl + '
V
/
}?
= r, by]
(1), Art. 61. FsiiiK (1), Art. (>2, wo havc the result. J
dy_ _ dy_
(ir
<7,r dv di
we
Substituting the value of ^ from the result of the Fourth Step,
get
dv
d
v
X ,.
(In v)
.
= dx
= -1 dv
dx v v dx
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 91
v
Xa
dx v dx
Let //
=a 1
.
(a > 0)
r = lM = -L.ln V .
In a In a
^^_La .1. In
(/-// y
*="*
or
(1) ^ = lna-a".
tfV
r
Since ?? is a function of .r and
required to differentiate a with
it is
dv
dii
-~ = In a
i
a'
.,
-y-
aa* ax
XI /. (a^)-lna-^- ax -
ax
product of the natural logarithm of the constant, the constant with the
variable exponent, a,nd the derivative of the exponent.
92 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
65. Differentiation of the general exponential function. Proof of the
Power Rule
Let y = u''. (n > 0)
In '//
= v In u t
Differentiating by formula XI a,
^ = <'"" 4- ("ton)
ax ax
to
u
+ nw.rfr\
l byVandX
(Ijr (Is/
<-'- s+-""s- 1
sum of the two results obtained bij first differentiating by VI, regarding
the
the exponent as eonstant, and ayam differentiating by XI, regarding
f (,,")
= WM "
i^.
rf.r rf^
Thus we have shown that the Power Rule VI holds true for any
value of the constant n.
2
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Differentiate y In (:r 4- a).
Arts.
x2 + a
2 x '
2,
= log 2 r - log (1 + J 2 ).
Then
lhen ^= o j.
_ EJL (i + a-2) bylllandXfl
dx 2 j dx l+x 2
<te
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 93
= 6 x In a a**'. Ans.
4 z2
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 4. Differentiate y be^ .
Solution. &= b 4- (c
r
*
* * 2
) J IV
by
dx dx
= be
fy
+**(c*+x 2
) by XL a
T
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 5. Differentiate y = .r' .
T
Solution. 3^ = fz'' ' -- (.r) + r' In z (r
1
) by XII
dx dx dx
= (^x^ l
-f x'
J
In a* <'
Ans.
Solution. By using (2), p. 1, we may write this in a form free from radicals, as
follows :
--
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Differentiate y In
'
y = i [In (1 + *2 ) - In (1
- ;
A
Then i*
= - - I
by III and X
dx J
In y = e r In x. By (2), p. 1
or
dx
In y - (2 4- vV~' - 5 ) In (4 xj - 7 ).
rfj:
= ( 2 f V^^5) -L-
-
4 j- i
f l n (4 r2 - 7)
4 j--'
- 7
In y = i[ln (J
- 1) + In (x - 2) - In (x - 3)
- In (x - 4)].
i^/ = ir_i_ ,
_! i
L
ydx 2[ar-l j-2 x-3 x~4
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 95
PROBLEMS
Differentiate each of the following functions.
2. ?,
= In (a.r-> + 6). 'A' = _JL_.
dx ox + 2
ft
3. ?/
= ln(ax + ft)'.
^- 2fl -
dx ax +
4. ?/
= In ax n .
dx
.] ..
5. y = In x :?
.
dx x
n2 x
6. y=\ri*x\= (Inx)
3
].
(
lli ~^ ^
dx x
7. = In (2 ^ - x 2
+ dy __ 6 x(x 1)
ij :>>
</.r~2.r :{ - 3^ 2 -f 4"
8. //-log-.
J"
^
dc
:
2
9. ?/
= In >r
d?/.
s2 dx x(l -h a-
2
)
^= ~
10 ln V9 - ^>
.r
2 2 J
dx 9-2 x 2
Vl
i
>
__ i^
in /u -r (// a,L r aft
.
-^ (// a2 - ft
2 2
/
15. f(x) = .r
2
In x 2
. = 2 y(l
f'(jc) -f 2 In x).
16. y = <>"*.
^ = w -.
dx
17. j/
= 10- ^ = w 10- In 10.
dx
.
y e _ xe r .
19. ?/
= -.J ^ = _1. z
^ dx e
20 <? e^ ^s -. f
dt 2^/1'
21. r = ft
2
''.
^=2 ft
2"
In ft.
d//
96 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
22. u = se".
dv e"(u -1)
23. v =- du
u
24. /,
-
^
25. In (.rV)
= .
/y
ds JT
= dy _ 2 c
26. ?/
~~ry
27. 7/
= .r-Y '.
g= c "(2 ,-**).
28. = ~(c'
1 - t
a= + <- :) -
// |(,'
fir U"
2 - 4 InJ
30.*^. ^
3Lf(j )== in^il^:.
.
/'(,)=
-
7
==-
V J-- -f 1 -f JT Vx 2
-f 1
32. y == s
r
.
^^ s
'-
// = r
r
'
= .r \/3 .r + a
35. ?/
3 s + a 2 x
J
= V4 +
2 1 ,
>r
36. y
mb
37. //
= .r"
^-^a
In Problems 38 47 find the value of -^ for the given value of x.
39. /y
= log (4 - 3); .r J
= 0.3474.
'
40. y - In V.r -f 3
JT ; -r y'
= 1.4319.
41. y = xe-
2r = J. \
.r 7/'
= 0.
.
42.
rt
7/
= In .r
2
.r = 4.4
t/'
=- 0.0483.
-y- ;
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 97
43. y =
48. In
\i
cjc.
52. //
= In
49. ?/
= f". .r -f a
50.
51.
//
= <'
x In
r
-'.
a*.
53. y = ~ -
2/
54. In
58. (^
:
In V
59. 10' log/.
55.
In Va 2
jc
2
60. (ttf)'".
s 2
61. 2 ,s .
'
57. In 6$
Vl> / -f 3
(1) y = sin x
i T 2
y =- l
graph on page 97 : The portion of the curve for values of x from Oto2w
(arc OQBRC in the figure) may he displaced parallel to either to OX
the right or left a distance equal to any multiple of the period 2 TT, and
it will be part of the locus in its new position.
(B) hm
,.
= 1.
x -> %
sin x
Therefore when x is small, the value of lies between 1 and cos x.
But when x *
0, lim cos x = cos = 1, since cos x is continuous for
x = (see Art. 17). Thus we have proved (B).
It interesting to note the behavior of this function from
is its
Let y = sin v.
By the General Rule, Art. 27, considering v as the independent
variable, we have
FIRST STEP. y + A//= sin (v + Ar).
SECOND STEP. Ay = sin (v + A?0 sin r.
Then ?, ( ( ?>
Substituting,
sin + A/0 sin v = 2 cos (v + *> Ar) sin ?, A?;.
\ \n
Hence A//
~ 2 cos
/
( ?'
+
\
sin
-7^- j
sin
THIRD STEP.
Av
,2
FOURTH STEP. -p = cos v.
dv
/sinf\ -
Since lim I
-
] 1, by Art. 68, and lim cos
V (M -'
f )
coi
Ar .Ol Ar I A,. .0
(
-~ in we
Substituting this value of (4), Art. 38, get
a t/
dv
-~
r/v/
= cos z;
ax ax
Let y = cos v.
= sin
d du
XIV .'.
f
(cos u)
.
= .
sin v
dx dx
72. Proofs of formulas XV-XIX.
These formulas are readily de-
rived by expressing the function concerned in terms of other functions
whose derivatives have been found, and differentiating.
Proof of XV. Let y = tan v.
cost?
Differentiating
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
by formula
rf^_
dx
_
cos
VII,
cos 2
dr
r
dx
r -7-
dx
_ (sin r)
+ sin 2
cos-
v -r~
dx
sin
v
r -r 1
do*
(cos r)y
101
- -^- - sec 2 f-
;
-
Using (2), p. 2
cos- r dx
XV . .
dx
VM ^ ,
- ^ .
dx
To prove XVI-XIX, differentiate the form as given for each of
the functions below.
XVI. ctn v = ^
XVII. sec /? - -^- XVIII. esc v = -^
tan ?> cos /> sin v
sary to apply the General Rule, Art. 27, only for the following.
TTT d f
-- </'// <]P (I'M" 1
Al
III
dx
(u +v w)
^
-T-
as
+ d.r ,
-T
dx
1
Algebraic sum.
d dv dvx
TT
V -r-
,
(uv)
^
=w -7- + ,
'
T"
*
-,->
Product,
, ,
dr ax ax
dn dr>
VII -(-)=
dxv
\
'
v'
2
Quotient.
IX -~ = -r - -
Inverse functions,
ax ax
7
a ?/
cfe
X 4- HOK 1 = Logarithm.
ax ?;
XIII Sine,
jLfein^^eos,,^.
dx dx
Not only do all the other formulas deduced depend on these, but
all we shall deduce hereafter depend on them as well. Hence we see
102 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
that the derivation of the fundamental formulas for differentiation
involves the calculation of only two limits of any difficulty, namely,
I
and lim (1 + v) = e. v
By Art. 61
PROBLEMS
Differentiate the following functions.
1. y = sin u.r 2 .
2. ?/ tan Vl x.
-x~ - x)*
Solution.
^- sec-' \ 1 (1 by XV
= sec- \ 1
-x \ ( 1 x)~ *( 1)
2 \ 1 - x
3. y = cos x.3
y- (cos.r)
:{
.
4. ?/
= sin ?u: sin" jc.
Solution. -^
= sin nx ~ (sin x)
n
4- sin" r ~ (sin wx) by V
Cw* fix ax
[?<
= sin ??T and r sin" a-.]
5. y sin ax. y
r
= a cos or.
dn
=2 ctn -- -
= o ?'
esc- -
dv 2
y
f
= 4 sec 4 .r tan 4 x.
c/.s-
- sin 2 /
dp _ SOC L>
.H ^
d ^? S
(tan30)
dx V sec .r
/'(0) = tan 2 0.
_ cos sin
17. P - (jj) ""
To 0-
19. ?/
= In sin ax. y' a ctn ax.
20. ?/
= In Vcos 2 x. T/ =- tan 2 x.
21. y e
a<f
sin frx. y' = c" r
(a sin bx 4- fo cos ?>x).
22. s f
'
cos 2 /.
'
=- c '(2nm 2 / -f cos 2 0-
X 9 X
In tan - ctn - sec 2 -
/ i A
23. y 7/' .
24 . ?/
= .
/
= .
\ 1 sin x
25. f(0) = sin r0 + a) cos (6
- a). f'(0) = cos 2 (9.
29. = x
V' = ?/On cos x
- x tan x).
i/ (cos x) .
104 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Find the second derivative of each of the following functions.
2
d
-~ y
30. ?/
= sin kx. Arts. k 2 sin kx.
dx 2
= =
-
'
33. ?/
=x cos x. ~-^( 2 sin j* .r cos j.
<ir-
*>/i
J^ ?/
_ sin r *
L
c/ '//
i- _ -------
2 x cos r
2 sin x -
x2 sin .r
.
x dx 2 x-
{
d -'
fc
~ 2 r' sin /.
a/
36. = r
'
sin 2 /.
^=-
<//-
r '(3 sin 2/4-4 cos 2 /).
37. y/ c
nr
sin ftj-. ^-
</j*"
c"
r
\
(a- - />'-') sin bx 4 2 a?> cos
Find -
from each of the following equations.
38. 7,
- cos (.r
-
sin (x //) 1
dn - 1
40. cos // In (x 4 //).
dx I 4 (x 4 //) sin //
In Problems 41-50 find the value of ~ for the given value of x (in
radians).
41. -//
=x cos .r ; x = I. Ans. y' 1.841.
45. ?/
= sin cos 2 j-1. .r ; .r ?/' 1.754.
46. ?/
= In Vtan \ :r ; .r TT. y' = 1.
48. t/
= 10c-'cos TTX; x = 1. ?/'
= 3.679.
49. y = 5 f 2 s in -^ ; .r = 2. ?/'
=- 21.35.
(1) ?/
= sin x.
we may read "x is the measure of an angle in radians whose sine
equals //." For a central angle in a circle with radius unity, x equals
also the intercepted arc (see Art. 2). The statement in quotation
marks is then abbreviated thus
"
read x equals an arc whose sine is //." Interchanging x and y in (2),
we obtain
and arc sin x is called the inverse xine function of :r. It is defined
for any value of x numerically less than or equal to 1. From (1)
and (2), it appears that sin x and arc sin // are inverse functions
(Art. 39).
therefore
~- By (C), Art. 39
^~-
Since r is a function of .r, this may be substituted in (A), Art. 38,
_
dx cos '//
dx
-os y \ 1 sin-'// \ 1 rH ,
the positive si^n of tho radical bpinpf)
dx Vl - v2
dy
, . dx
XXI .-. (arc cos in
dx
1
If y = arc cos J, then y' When x increases from
(2)
v = tan ?/.
Or, symbolically,
arc tan (+ oo) - \ TT,
arc tan (-00) =- \ IT.
(3)
sec~ y ,
dy
By (C), Art. 39
and dv sec 2 y
be substituted in (A), Art. 38,
Since v is a function of x, this may
giving dy ^
"~
1 <fo
= _j_jg..
1 + v' dx
2 2
c/x sec ?y dx
[sec
2
?/
= 1 + tan'-' y = 1 + '.] *'
L
dv
XXII
108 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
y arc tan -
1 -f i^
if ^^> 7T.
// ^>
therefore .
Byy (C),
v '' Artu 39
Ot7
sec y tan y
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 109
giving
^ 1 dr _ 1 (h
dx sec y tan y dx v~ 1
I sec y = r, and tan y = V sec 2 y 1 = \ r-' 1, the plus sign of the radical being taken,"!
since tan y is positive for all values of y between and and between - and ~-
I
^ 7T
dv
XXIV /. -
(arc sec v) =
2/
= arc esc v ;
XXV - arc
( v) =
dx - 1
The function y = arc esc r is defined for all values of v except those
lying between 1 and + 1, and is many-valued. To make the func-
tion single-valued (see figure above),
then v = vers y.
Differentiating with respect to y by XIX,
dv a v
\
* Defined only for values of r between and 2 inclusive, and many-valued. To make
the function single- valued, y is taken as the smallest positive arc whose versed sine is 0;
that is, y lies between and TT inclusive. Hence we confine ourselves to arc OP of the graph.
110 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Since v is a function of x, this may be substituted in (4), Art. 38.
K ivin 1 dv 1 dv
dji =
~ = t
Ax sin y dx V2 c
2
r' dx
~ V'l - COR-
~ V] - <
1
- versv/^ = V'J r r a the plus sign of the radical!
ffjin y // ,
dv
PROBLEMS
Differentiate the following functions.
1. y arc tan ax'2 .
<((ax -\ "
}
. dx byXXn
Solution.
dx 1 -f (
[r
-
. Ans.
2. ?/
= arc sin (3 jr 4 X H
).
Solution. by XX
\ 1
- 9 .r-' -f 24 x 4 - 16 x r '
vl- x' 2
3. y = arc sec
~ *"
./* JL
Solution. by XXIV
x- 4- 1 ix- + 1\-
i .r^-'-l I
x* - 1)2 j- (r= 4- O2 a;
__ __ = _. __!!_. Ans.
x2 + 1
4. i/
= arc cos--
a dx a2
5. y = arc sec 2! .
c
lu a
a dx xVx 2 a2
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 111
dy -1
7. y = arc sec -
__
~
dx Vl - .r
2
-
8. = arc esc 2 x.
</?/ 1
?/
<k* .rV4 x'2 - 1
.r
2
2
10. 6 = arc vers p 2 .
N? =
</p V2 p
2
dy
<iy
--- o-
Vl -
-I .
</x 4 x2
112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Differentiate each of the following functions.
x -
01 arc ctn 2
31.
x
0/,
36. V / :
arc sin 2 x.
arc cos V^
32. arc versa-*). 37
Vx
PROBLEMS
Sketch the following curves, and find the slope at each point where
the curve crosses the axes of coordinates.
4.
?/
//
=
=
In (4
In V4 -
_ - JT).
x'
2
.
At
at x
(3, 0),
= 0,
m=-1
m = - J.
;
5. Show that if ?/
= J,
a(r"' -f c
a
), then ?/" = $-
a*2
6. //
= In (.r + 1 ), y = In (7 - 2 x). Ans. 127 53'.
7. ?/
= In (JT + 3), y = In (5 - x'2 ).
8. //
- sin xjy - cos j. 109 28'.
9. y tan j% ?/
= ctn jr. 53 8'.
10 ?/
= cos j*, ?/
= sin 2 x.
In x inflectional point, (e 2 , J e 2 ).
13. ?/
= In (8 x - x 2 ). Max. (4, In 16).
14. y = xe x . Min. (- 1,
--);
inflectional point, ( 2, -V
15. y =
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 113
the speed of signaling varies as .r-ln-- Show that the greatest speed
J
is attained when JT = 1
-p-
Vf
17. What is the minimum value of // ac kj + be Ax
? Anx. 2Vob.
18. Find the maximum point and the points of inflection of the graph
of y = f~J
~, and draw the curve. f
Find the maximum, minimum, and inflectional points for the range
indicated, and sketch the following curves.
An*. Alax. (
1
AW.S-. Min. f;
1
, TT,
- 2.457); max. (J TT,
- 10.11);
inflectional points, (0, 0), (TI, 4 TT).
23. i/
= 3 sin x 4 cos x ; (0 to 2 TT).
AUK. Max. (2.498, 5); min. (5.G40, - 5);
inflectional points, (0.927, 0), (4.069, 0).
25. ?/
= sin TTJC cos TTJ ; (0 to 2).
m sin jc + cos jr
where m
denotes the coefficient of friction. Show that the pull is least
when tan x = m.
35. If a projectile is fired from (> so as to strike an inclined plane which
makes a constant angle cv with the* horizontal at (>, the range is given
by the formula
A ----^--
2 _
,,, (
.
O[
(/
,
cos-
-
cv
(Q (v)
where ?> and y are constants and is the angle of elevation. Calculate the
value of giving the maximum range* up the plane. AHX. 9 } TT + CY. -I
36. For a square-headed screw with pitch and angle of friction </>
the
efficiency is given by the formula
__ tan
p
tan (0 + 0) +/
where / is a constant. Find the value of for maximum efficiency when
is a known constant angle.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. The curves ?/
= jr In .r and // jr In (1 jc} intersect at the origin and
at another point A. Find the angle of intersection at .4. Ans. 103 30'.
2. Sketch the following curves on the same axes and find their angle
of intersection. , -
{
x ( 2 x
?/
= In ('- - 1
), ?/
= In (:*
.r
- '
- 1
).
Am. 32 28'.
The AB y = e + 1
x
3. line is tangent to the curve whose equation is
(1)
[_//
= rsin/
are parametric equations of the circle in the
figure,t
being the parameter. For if we elim-
inate t by squaring and adding the results, we
have .>.,,.>
3-
.
-f =
?/-
,
sin-
JN
r-(cos- / + /) r~,
by (A), Art.
dx dt rfx
'
dj J_. y by (C), Art. 39
dt' dx
dt
that is,
04)
dt
COS
Substituting in (A),
# =- /J
=- - ctn = slope at any point = m.
dx a sm ff
a
Substituting (/>
45" in the given equations (13), we get xi = \ a\ 2, y\ ^ b\'2
as the point of contact, and the slope m becomes
a a
\ b^ / -\ =- 2
x - = length of subtangent,
~
V "
i &V2I - i
= J
length of subnormal.
\ a/ 2 a
4
f
v )
'
l# = cos v),
* As in the figure, draw the major and minor auxiliary circles of the ellipse. Through
two points /* and C on the same radius draw 7>M parallel toOY'and DP parallel to OA'.
These lines will intersect in a point / (j, //) on the ellipse, y >
because _
y = OH = OB
.
.,
cos 4>
= a cos />
and l/
= AP = OD = Or sin <jf>
= 6 sin <,
or - = cos and
j-
= sin </>.
-f
%- cos 2 </) + sin 2 (/>
= 1,
o2 ft-
ellipse.
fThe path described by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls without
sliding line is called a cycloid. Let the radius of the rolling circle be a, P
on a fixed straight
the tracing point, and M
the point of contact with the fixed line X, which is called the
PARAMETRIC AND POLAR EQUATIONS 117
dy sin
= - = m = slope .
at
,
any polnt
dx 1 cos
Horizontal and vertical tangents. From (4), and referring to Art. 42,
we see that the values of the parameter / for the points of contact of
these tangent lines are determined thus :
^ y = a sin - \ a sin 2 0.
Solution. -73
dx = a( sin i
+ sin 2 0) ;
= a(cos - cos 2 0).
du ^|
Horizontal tangent*. Then cos - cos 20 = 0. Substituting (using (5), p. 3)
cos 20 = 2 cos 1
'
PROBLEMS
Find the equations of the tangent and normal, and the lengths of the
subtangent and subnormal, to each of the following curves at the point
indicated.
7\inynit \ormal Subt. Subn.
1. j- = ,7/ = 2/-f t-1. Am.
/
2
1 ; .r-?/ +2= (), :r + ?/-4 = 0, 3, X.
2. x = f\ y = 3 =-1 / ;
/ . .r
- - 2 = 0,
?/ .r -f y -f 4 - 0,
- 3,
- 3.
= 0, - 1,
- 9.
6. x rr /a,
= 2 - = //
/ ;
/ 1 . 11. j* = tan 0, //
= ctn =4 ;
TT.
7. 3 =
j- y = t'\
= '1 /'-' ; /
4
J!. 12. jr =- ,'{ r ', //
= 2 r' = 0. ;
/
8. j-=6 - = 2 + 3 - 0.
/ /'*, ?/ / ;
t 13. .r -m 3 cos n', ?/
- 5 sin a=J a- ; TT.
9. r = r,
,
= -f 3 t; = 1.
?/ /
:{
1 14. j- = sin 2 0, ?y
= cos - J ; TT.
In each of the following problems plot the curves and find the points
of contact of the horizontal and vertical tangents.
16. JT =3 t /-\ ?/
= + / !. Ann. Horizontal tangents, none ; vertical
tangents, (2, 2), (- 2, 0).
17. x = 3 - 4 sin 0, //
=4+3 cos 6.
19. s = + r cos 0,
1i
.y
A- + r siri 0. 21. .r = cos 4
0, y = sin 4 0.
?/ a (sin / / cos n.
x = a c OR '
23. The hypocvcloid / (astroid) = f4 .
''f (Figure, p. 533)
I// sin-*/.
.4?js. (a)
- // ctn t, ( ?/ tan t, (c)
-~ (d)
-^
sin / cos t
_, r
The
.
, fx~ rcos/,
24. circle ^
[^/
= r sin / .
/.
nc rm. j- -j f x
= </(- cos/ cos2 /), (Figure,
h
25. The cardioid \ sin
= a (2 . . . ./' ..
{
^ // / sm J () P- 11
r - COS /,
^
27. The hyperbolic spiral !
(Figure, p. 534)
i
?/
= yf
sin <.
=
(1) V'
To find the second derivative y", use this formula (A) again, re-
placing y by y'. Then we have
dt
ifx=/(0,asin (1), Art. 81.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find y" for the cycloid (see Illustrative Example 2,
Art. 81)
c^_' __ (1
^~
- cos 6) cos
l-cos^) 15
sin 2 __ cos
(l-coc0J-
,j_. __L__.
(l-cos(9)
Substituting in (),
- -- Ans.
PROBLEMS
-. _ _._-
/^ _
- o -
__ (e) x = a cos = b sin
/, f.
^c; T
|/
x L , 7
y
.
<_!.
i,
3 (f) x
= 2(1- sin 0, = 4 cos *.
P 2 = sin = sin 2
T _ = (K) x '> ?/ <
/<ix; (_ .
v y
>)J
= cos 2 y = sin
6 2 (h) x /, ?.
3. In each of the following examples plot the curve and find the maxi-
mum, minimum, and inflectional points :
m *-J.'
Lay off the vectors vx and v v from P as in the figure, complete the
rectangle, and draw the diagonal from P. This is the required vector
PARAMETRIC AND POLAR EQUATIONS 121
velocity v. From the figure, its magnitude and direction are given
by the formulas .
vx dx
~dt
Comparing with (4), Art. 81, we see that tan r equals the slope
of the path at P. Therefore the direction of v lies along the tangent
line at P. The magnitude of the vector
velocity is called the speed.
84. Curvilinear motion. Component accelerations. In treatises on
mechanics it is shown that in curvilinear motion the vector accelera-
tion a
not, like the vector velocity, directed along the tangent, but
is
at
_dv t
a _?/2
~dt' "~jT
(R isthe radius of curvature. See Art. 105.)
The acceleration may also be resolved into components parallel to
the axes of coordinates. Following the same plan used in Art. 83
for component velocities, we define the component accelerations
paral-
lel to OX and OY,
/m
(F) , = dvXm ,
av - dv,, -
PROBLEMS
1. Neglecting the resistance of the air, the equations of motion for a
projectile are
= vi cos
x y = 0i sin
<t> t,
16.1 2 <t>
t 1 ;
(c) r
= arc tan -
v*
arc tan
8(j
^' 6
11" 37' = angle of direction of motion with
the horizontal.
x - 50 /V3, y - 50 /
- 16.1 /-.
-
Eliminating /, the result is y ^ x~, a parabola.
\ 3 <5
(1 + tan 2 0).r
2
.
direction inclined 45 with the horizontal, find (a) the component velocities
at the end of the second and fourth seconds ; (b) the velocity and direc-
tion of motion at the same instants.
Ans. (a) When t 2, ?v 113.1 ft. per sec., v = 48.7 ft. per sec., y
level from which it started, find the time of flight and the angle of impact.
5. A
projectile with an initial velocity of 160 ft. per second is hurled
at a vertical wall 480 ft. away. Show that the highest point on this wall
that can be hit is at a height above the o*-axis of 253 ft. What is </> for
this height? Ans. = 59.
I
.r = at,
\ u b sin a/,
show (a) that the .r-component of the velocity is constant; (b) that the
acceleration of the point at any instant is proportional to its distance from
the /-axis.
(a) Show that the moving point oscillates on an arc of the parabola
4 ?/- - 9s - 18 0. Draw the path, (b) Draw the acceleration vectors
at the points where r 0. (c) Draw the velocity vector at the point
where the speed is a maximum.
11. x = t
2
, y = 2t; = 2. /
12. x = 2 /, ?/
= /<; t= 1.
13. x = P, y = = 2. /-'; ?
14. x = 3 /, y =
-3 = 2
t' ; / 3.
85. Polar coordinates. Angle between the radius vector and the tan-
gent line. Let the equation of a curve in polar coordinates p, 6, be
CD p
124 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
We proceed to prove the
Theorem. // \f/
is the angle between the radius vector OP and the
(H) tan $=
where .
dd
Proof. Through P and a point
Q(p + Ap, + A0) on the curve near
P draw the secant line AB. Draw PR
perpendicular to OQ.
Then (see figure) OQ = p+ Ap, angle POQ = A0, PR = p sin A0,
and OR = p cos A0. Also,
"
PR ~ PR __
~~ p sin A0
(2)
RQ OQ OR p + Ap p cos A0
Denote by ^ the angle between the radius vector OP and the
tangent line PT. If we now let A0 approach zero as a limit, then
(a) the point Q will approach P ;
(b) the secant AB will turn about P and approach the tangent
line PT as a limiting position and ;
Hence
, rtx , .
= vhm p sin A0
(3) tan ^
Y
v }
o p + Ap p cos A0
p sin A0 ~ p sin A0
Pd
sin A0
p.
A0
A0
A0
and dd
(7),
i P = (i(l
-^
tan \I/
t
P a si 2 a sin \ cos J
= tan J 0. ((5), p. 3)
line PT is produced to cross the axis OX, forming with it the angle T, we have
angle XOP = 180
- angle OPT + r.
Therefore r = i - 180, and tan r = tan 0, as above ((3), p. 3).
NOTE. Formula (H) has been derived for the figure on page 124. In each prob-
lem, the relations between the angles i/s T, and 6 should be determined by examin-
ing the signs of their trigonometric functions
and drawing a figure.
126 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
To find the angle of intersection (/>
of two curves C and C" whose
equations are given in polar coordinates, we may proceed as follows :
or <j)
= \//' \[/.
Hence
n tan - tan
/
(7)'
*
tan^
JL
= ^r' t/r
z-p
1 + tan t/r'
tan r/r
tan </>
= * -f
= $. /. </>
= arc tan
do
* When increases with p,
-
is positive and i/'
is an acute angle, as in the above figure.
tip
Then the subtangent OT is positive and is measured to the right of an observer placed at O
and looking along OP. When -
is negative, th^ subtangent is negative and is measured
dp
to the left of the observer.
PARAMETRIC AND POLAR EQUATIONS 127
The length of the polar tangent (= PT) and the length of the polar
normal ( PN) may be found from the figure, each being the hypotenuse
of a right triangle.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find the lengths of the polar subtangont and polai
subnormal to the lemniscate p~ = a 2 cos 2 (figure in Chapter XX YJ).
Solution. Differentiating the equation of the curve, regarding p as an implicit
function of 6,
Substituting in (1)
dO
and
-, (2), we get
dO
=- " L>
Length of polar subnormal ff.
P
If we wish to express the results in terms of 0, find p in terms of from the given
equation and substitute. Thus, in the above, p = i </ \ cos 20; therefore the
length of the polar subtangent = a ctn 2 Veos~2~0.
PROBLEMS
1. In the circle p a sin 0, find \p and r in terms of #.
3. Show that t/' is constant in the logarithmic spiral p e< Since the l
.
tangent makes a constant angle with the radius vector, this curve is also
called the equiangular spiral. (Figure, p. 534)
-4 w.s'.
^^ 80 57' and 85 27'.
5. p = a(l
- cos 0)', = ~- Am. -1.
p = a sec
2
6. p 2 a.
; 3.
7. p = a sin 4 origin. ; 0, 1, oo , 1.
p = a sin 4
2 2
8. origin. ; 0, 1 ,
oo , 1.
13. p =
128 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Find the angle of intersection between the following pairs of curves.
28. p - a0, p0 a.
30. p 2 sin 20 = a 2
, p- cos 20 = 62 .
32. Find the lengths of the polar subtarigent, subnormal, tangent, and
normal of the spiral of Archimedes, p = aO.
subnormal = a, normal = Va 2
-f p
2
.
The student should note the fact that the subnormal is constant.
33. Find the lengths of the polar subtangent, subnormal, tangent, and
normal in the logarithmic spiral p = a ft
.
subnormal = p In a, normal = p Vl -f In 2
a.
34. Show that the reciprocal spiral p0 = a has a constant polar sub-
tangent.
(2) 0=/fr)
is constructed, following Art. 58, the intercepts or? the x-axis are the
roots. From the figure, therefore, we know at once the number of
roots and their approximate values.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Locate all real roots of
is done.
10
'
20" '10
'"
Id
'
(1) ctnj--j- = 0,
ctri x x.
(2)
If we draw the curves
(3) y ctn x and y x
on the same axes, the abscissas of Ihc points of in-
tersection will be roots of (1\ For, obviously,
eliminating y from (3) gives equation (1), from
which the values of x of the points of intersec-
tion are to be obtained.
PARAMETRIC AND POLAR EQUATIONS 131
In plotting it is well to lay off carefully both scales (degrees and radians ^ on OX.
Number of solutions. The curve y - ctn .r consists of an infinite number of branches
(4) /iW-MO.
Plot the curves
on the same axes, choosing suitable scales (wot necessarily the same on
both axes).
The number of points of intersection of these curres equate the num-
ber of real roots of f(x) = 0, and the abscissas of these points are the roots.
The terms selected in (4) can often be chosen so that one or both
of the curves in (5) are standard curves.
.r
: <
+ 4 x - 5 = 0,
y = A
JC' , y ~ f> 4 x,
y = \ (**
~l
and the parabola )
x-o, x^a'\ j
X [
/ = &' =& X
(,
FIG. a FIG. 6
0) y-f(a)^f'(a)(x-a).
Putting ?/ = and solving for x(= a') gives Newton's formula for
approximation
,-a-M.
Having found a' by (K), we may substitute a' for a in the right-
hand member, obtaining f ,, ,
<-<-$&
as a second approximation. The process might be continued, giving
a sequence of values , ,
* ' '
U, U- ,
u/ ,
Li )
-
6', 6", 6'",
/'(x) =- csc'
J
x - 1 =- 2 - ctn 2 x.
PARAMETRIC AND POLAR EQUATIONS 133
By the illustrative example of Art. 88, we take a = 0.855. Then, by the table in
Art 88
' '
Afl>= 0.014.
From the figures on page 132 we observe that the graph crosses
the o>axis between the tangent PT and the chord PQ. Hence tlie exact
root lies between the value found &// Newton's method and that found by
PROBLEMS
Determine graphically the number and approximate location of the real
roots of each of the following equations. Calculate each root to two decimals.
1. JT* + 2 jr
-
= 0. 8 A //*. 1 .07.
2. .r' - 4 + 2 = 0.
.r
- 2.21, 0.54, 1.07.
3. .r
3 - 8 x - 5 = 0. - 2.44,
- 0.00, 3.10.
4. .r
a - 3 - 1 = 0.
.f
- 1.53,
- 0.35, 1.88.
6. ^+ 3 x 2 - 10 = 0. 1.49.
7. .r
3 - 3 x'
2 - 4 .r + = 0.
7 - 1.71, 1.14, 3.57.
9. 2 x* - 14 .r
2
-f 2 x -f 5 = 0. - 0.51, 0.71, 0.80.
10. x* -f 8 JT
- 12 = 0. - 2.30, 1.22.
11. x 4 - 4 ^ - 6 x + 20 2
.r -f 9 = 0.
- 2.10,
- 0.41, 2.41, 4.16.
equations. Calculate the smallest root (different from zero), using both
18. cos x - 2 x = 0. 2
Two roots ; x = 0.635.
19. ctn x -f x = 0. 2
Infinite number of roots ;
x = 3.032.
20. 2 sin 2 x - x 0. Three roots ; x = 1.237.
23. c'
x
cos j* = 0. Infinite number of roots ;
x 1.29.
25. (
'
-f .r
- 3 = 0. One root ;
x = 0.792.
31. The quantity of water Q cu. ft. per second flowing over a weir of
width 7> ft. is given by Francis's formula
where 77 is the height of the water (the head) above the crest of the weir.
Given Q 12.5, H= 3, find 77. (Solve the formula for the factor 77^ and
then plot.) Ans. II = 1.23.
V= 0.6490 ^-~~4?.
P PS *
- 2
24
34. The area u of a circular segment whose arc s subtends the central
is u = % r' (x Find the value of x if r = 8 in.
2
angle x (in radians) sin x)
and u = 64 sq. in. Ans. x = 2.554 radians.
(See Problem 35.) Find x for a maple ball for which S 0.786.
Ans. 0.702.
38. Find the smallest positive value of for which the curves p cos
and p =
e~ e intersect. Find the angle of intersection at this point.
Ans. = 1. 29 radians; 29 (>
.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
4. A
square, one of whose diagonals
lies along the polar axis, is cir-
cumscribed about the cardioid p a(l = - cos 0). Show that its area is
fi(2 + V3)o 2 .
dx~
We have taken special pains to impress on the student that the
symbol
d/n
dx
(B) dy=f'(x)dx*=^-dx.
dx
* On account of the position which the derivative f'(x) here occupies, it is sometimes
called the differential coefficient
136
DIFFERENTIALS 137
(1, V=l*x\
volume is the difference AV between the
of the shell
Obviously, the exact
Since
volumes of two solid spheres with diameters 10 in. and 9J in. respectively.
is required, we find dV. From (1)
an value of AV and (),
only approximate
worthless otherwise.
y -f dy 1.0350 ~
approximately. Anx.
tan 46 ",
(Four-place tables give tan 46 = 1.0355.)
r
(1) A \
TTX". (x diameter)
Relative and percentage errors. If di( is the error in u, then the ratio
T~
A
--
dA = 2dx
x
PROBLEMS
1. If A is the area of a square of side x, find dA. Draw a figure show-
ing the square, dA, and A A. Aus. dA = 2 x dx.
rate to 0.01 in.? (b) what is the maximum percentage error in each case?
Ans. (a) S, 0.24 TT sq. in. V, 0.36 TT cu. in.; ;
L (approximately).
x -f djc x x2
How accurately must the inner edge be made so that the volume will
be correct to within 3 cu. ft.? Ans. Error ^ 0.01 ft.
8. If ?/
= a:
5
and the possible error in measuring x is 0.9 when x = 27,
what is the possible error in the value of ?/? Use this result to obtain ap-
expressions.
V51
17. If In 10 2.303, approximate In 10.2 by means of differentials.
Ans. 2.323.
that the area shall be correct to within 1 per cent? Arts. Error ^ '
;
.
22. Show that the relative error in the volume of a sphere, due to an error
in measuring the diameter, is three times the relative error in the radius.
23. that the relative error in the ?rth power of a number is
Show
n times the relative error in the number. -
- times
24. Show that the relative error in the nth root of a number is
the relative error in the number.
25. When block of metal is heated, each edge increases
a cubical
increase in temperature. Show that the surface
r^ per cent per degree
increases fa per cent per degree, and that the volume increases f\ per cent
per degree.
for finding differentials are the same as those for finding derivatives
II d(j) - dy.
III d(u -f- v ?r) du + dv dw.
IV d(r/) = fd/>.
V d('ur) u dv + v du.
VI d(v
n
)
= wn ~ }
dv.
Via d(jr")
= nj? n - }
dx.
vn
Vila rf(") =
y-
dp
X v
XI d(a
!
')
= a In a dv.
r
XI a d(e*) = e*dv.
XII d(w.") = vu ~ du + In u
r }
ur dv.
Solution. = X +* - (
x* + :
dy d(
\ar
a
+ 3/}
( x'
2
+ 3 )dx (x .
+ 3 )2 .r (te ( 3 - G j:
- .
J-
1
(x
2
+ 3)- (x- -f 3)-
Solution. 2 6 2 x dx - 2 a'
2
y dy ~ 0.
, b-jc j 4
/. aij
2
a/. Ans.
<*'
y
Solution. 2 p dp = a'
2
sin 20-2 <i#.
.". op =
,
--- a'
2
sin 2
P
, n
(/. >inK.
\ 1
- (3 /
- 4 /')' \l-r- 4
PROBLEMS
Find each of the following differentials.
1. y x* 3 x.
ax
3.
.
-
4/00
T/
y
Vax
= xv a ,
2
-f- 6.
x 2
.
ay
7 _
= C/-I2
'
'*
__
a2
-f 6
O Ar2
t-t
5. s = ae bt
. ds abc ht dt.
dv
6. u = In rr.
i j
aw =
v
12. v = VV -f 1.
10
lo. ,,, r==r
// /
Va~ ~ x-
19. If jr
2
-f ?r = a-, show that f/?/
=
Find in terms of .r, //, and dx from each of the following equations.
2 = __ (4 jr4 3 ?/)dx
20. 2 JT'~ -f 3 .r?/ -f 4 ?/ 20.
3x48//
21. x :{
+ 6 x/r 4 2 = 10. //" 24. x: '
-f /' = a\
22. x -f 4 Vx// 4 = a.
12 //
25. x - ?/
= r
j4
^.
arc
2
Multiplying and dhdding by (As) in the left-hand member and
dividing both members by (Ax)
2
we get ,
222
/Chord As V_
PQV\ //A8\ _
~
(2)
V As / VAx/
DIFFERENTIALS 143
(C) ds 2 = dx 2
+ dy
2
.
Or, if we extract the square root in (3) and multiply both members
by dr, i
we obtain = sec T
r/,s djc, assuming the angle r to be acute. Hence
we may easily prove
dx du
(F) = cos r, -~ = sin r.
ds ds
^ tan T COB r = sin r.
f/8 I
i
= y
2
(G) COST j>
sinr p
(1 -f y' )"
2 2
(1 + y
r2
)*
If the angle r is obtuse (?/' < 0), a negative sign must be placed before
the denominators in (G) and before cos r in (F). y j
Then /> 7
1
= W/r + 2
rf?/-
- rfs. By (C)
dO.
But tan ^
/
= p -7-
P
Therefore = p-p
dp
hence PT = Vrfp- + L>
= rfs.
Solution. Differentiating, ^ = _.
aj: y
To find rfs in terms of a* we substitute in (/)), giving
Solution. Differentiating,
Substituting in (C)
ds'2 - a" (I - cos 6}~d6" -f a 2
sin- dO* - 2 a-(l - cos 0}dQ'2 .
Solution. Differentiating,
-
(
= a sin 6.
du
Substituting in (/) gives
cte = LaHl-cos0j- + a 2
sin- 0]adt? = a^
PROBLEMS
For each of the following curves find ds- in terms of jr and dr.
1. 2 y = .r
2
. Ans. ds- = Vl + j* dr.
2. 7/
2 = 2 px. (/.s - ^ dr.
3. &
2
x2 -f a2 //
2 - a 26 2 . ds - \
\
>,
4.
c
6 x?y = a*
4 ,
-f 3.
o ;
d^ = --
(^ -f-
-
5. ?y
~ In sec jr. ds- = sec jr djc.
6. a 2 // = JT\ 9. 2 ?/
= c
j
-f
J
.
7. a?/
2
a*
:?
. 10. //
= sin jr.
For each of the following curves find ds- in terms of ?/ and dy.
:j?y
= <is =
J J
14. x^ 4- ?y^ a*. d?/.
^J~
2
15. a ?y = x3 .
16. ?y
2 - 2 .r
- 3 ?/
= 0. 17. 2 x// 2 - y
2
-4 = 0.
For each of the following curves find ds, sin r, and cos r in terms of
t and dt.
18. x =2 f -f 3, y t
2
2. 20. x a sin /, y a cos J.
19. x = 3 /
2
, ?y
= 2 P. 21. x = 4 cos f, ?/ 3 sin /.
146 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
For each of the following curves find dx in terms of 6 and dO.
4
27. p^sec 2 ^- 32. p =
+
'
Z 1
1 cos i
3 cos i
4
29. p = 2 4- 3 sin 0. 34. p =
1
- 3 cos 6
- = d-%-
By (C) and (D) in Art. 83, r, >
r,
a/ a/
Substituting in (1), using differentials and (C), Art. 95, the result is
(1) lim^-l.
JLX-O W?/
we may write
^=
-AT
/'(.r) + /, if lim
Aj- .0
i = 0.
A// = dy + i A.r.
dy _ 1
-
AJ
i ^
_^
A?/ A//
Hence lim
Ar -,
^=
A'//
1 ,
or also lim
Ax-0"?/
^= 1 Q. E. D.
by i.
Chord PQ by PQ
arc - As, and As by ds A// by ety and Ax by dx. ; ;
2 - 2
Then (1) becomes ds dx- + d?y that is, (C). ,
148 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
99. Order of infinitesimals. Differentials of higher order. Let i and
= = 1 =
[hm(^) Iim^-l) hmj- O.j
Therefore, by division,
1 < "
chord PQ chord PQ chord PQ
Now chord PQ = sec </> A.r, PT = sec r AJ, TQ = Ay - dy,
PT A//
- dy
and hence
chord PQ sec <' chord PQ Ax
lim /_Z^_\ = lf TQ \ = . / PQ \
=L
^limj ^
Jim ^rc
defines the second differential of //. If //" neither vanishes nor becomes
d-y is of the same order as Ax and therefore of higher order
2
infinite,
than dy. In a similar manner d*y,
- -
,
d ny may be defined.
PROBLEM
In triangle ABC the sides a, b, c are infinitesimals which simultaneously
ordinates, then
(B) /; = __,,
where y' and //" are, w>/w/?/W//, the Jirst and second derivative* of y
with respect to jr.
(-)
Y- (1 -h //''-' A l>.v (o>, Art. 95
- "*"
(O A' ,
2
(1 4- *' )*
j
where and jc" are, respectively, the first and second derivatives
j
Solution. ii' v
' ^-(:) 2
// dx\ij/ y
(a) When x = 1 and // ^ 2, then //'
= !, y" =-L Substituting in
"
= 8 \2~ 0.177. Hence at (1, 2) the curve is concave downward and the
RADIUS AND CIRCLE OF CURVATURE 151
inclination of the tangent is changing at the rute 0.177 radian per unit arc. Since
0.177 radian = 10 7', the angle between the tangent lines at P( 1. 2) and at a point
Q such that arc PQ ~ \ unit is approximately 10 .
(b) At the vertex (0, 0), //' becomes infinite. Hence use (C).
'
I '
" I J-ll ( 1
r 1
2 2 dy 2 2
Hence -
1 +?/'-- T
1 cos
_ 1
'
c(} ~ (>(>s 0)
~
Substituting in (B),
1 1
2 a\ 2 2 cos 4 a sin \
djr d-y
dtdf2 dtdl'2
f
,- dy "^^ '
(lj ~j
(ft)
Whence, using (B), Art. 82, and substituting in (B), Art. 102, and
reducing, we obtain
2
dx d x di/ ,, ~ d-y~
'?'
w*
,
Ti
. x ,,
** lj'
t II
'*
,
]i
11
' 7i'>
dt dt 2 di dt~
(E) K= P
p2 ^^
.
2 P' 2 PP"
*f-,
(P
2
+ P'
2 2
)"
152 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
where p' and p" are, respectively, the first and second derivatives of p
with respect to 0.
Hence
Then, by (1),
Substituting in (),
p\ 1 -f a-
from (),
(F) Jf =I == (l2l.
y
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find the radius of curvature at any point of the
/ _ i\
catenary y =- -\r a -f r / (figure in Chapter XXVI).
2
- - r
/ -\ / \
'
= I\ ._ " = J_ \ = JL.
Solution.
a .
?/ (
,
,,
uj
.
y ffl ^_ tf a)
2 2 a a-
1 -fl/' 2 ^ 1
+7\f"-f / =Mfa+f = -
Ans.
a
circular track. This curve should have zero curvature at its point
of junction with the straight track and the curvature of the circular
track where it joins the latter. Arcs of cubical parabolas are generally
employed as transition curves.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. The transition curve on a railway track has the shape
of an arc of the cubical parabola // = J ,r At what rate is a car on this track
l
.
changing its direction (I mi. = unit of length) when it is passing through (a) the
point (3, 9)? (b) the point (2, J)? (c) the point (1, J)?
Solution. ^
dx
= ^. ^=
dx 2
2x.
(a) At (3, 9), K= radian per mile = 28' per mile. ATM.
(812)2
(b) At (2, 5), K = -~ radian per mile = 3 16' per mile. Ans.
(17)3
- Am.
(c) At (1 ,
I \ K = -^ = U radian per mile 40" 30' per mile.
(2)2 V2
107. Circle of curvature. Consider any point /' on the curve (\
The tangent line drawn to the curve at P has the same slope as the
curve itself at P (Art. 42). In an analogous /0
manner we may construct for each point of the
curve a tangent circle whose curvature is the /
*-*
which also equals the curvature of the curve itself at P. The circle
so constructed is called the circle of curvature for the point P on
the curve.
In general, the circle of curvature of a curve at a point will cross
the curve at that point. This is illustrated in the above figure.
(Compare with the tangent line at a point of inflection (Art. 57).)
Just as the tangent at P shows the direction of the curve at P, so
the circle of curvature at P aids us very materially in forming a geo-
metric concept of the curvature of the curve at P, the rate of change
of direction of the curve and of the circle being the same at P.
154 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
In a subsequent section (Art. 114) the circle of curvature will
be defined as the limiting position of a secant circle, a definition
analogous to that of the tangent
given in Art. 28.
~ i * dy
- - d^y
~~l - 2 v
*.
Solution.
ax dx- jr*
For W. 4).
ix .'J dx'2 9
.
K Jl^lLi*j=5..v
-4 M
Hence, by (F), U - ?|
\/5. .\.s.
of .r) can often be used to advantage when only the numerical values of ?/' and y"
are required, and not general expressions for them in terms of x and y.
PROBLEMS
Find the radius of curvature for each of the following curves at the
point indicated. )raw the curve and the corresponding circle of curvature.
I
1. 2 //
-- .r
j
; i(), 0). An*. 7i = 1.
2. 6 //
= .r
;
; (1, 1).
4. // sin .r ;
^ TT, 1).
5. //
= r
j
; (0, 1).
6. .r
2 -4 =9 //
2
; (5, 2). 8. y = 2 sin 2 x ; ( J TT, 2).
7. //
2 = ^-f8; (1,8). 9. y = tanx; (| TT, 1).
RADIUS AND CIRCLE OF CURVATURE 155
10.,, = ^. A,:,. K=
(>
11. jr'
= 2 JU-.
15. j-3 + 2/
S = aI A* = 3 (an //,)*.
17. ?y In sec x. A*
~ sec jv
18. If the point of contact of the tangent line at (2, 4) to the parabola
?/* 8 x moves along the curve a distance As ().l, through what angle,
approximately, will the tangent line turn? (Use differentials. )
- K=
21. The spiral of Archimedes p ad. (Fig., p. 5:M)
-^ _^ 2 ^
22. The cardioid p = a (I - cos 0). (Fig., p. 5153;
#= 3^ a Pi-
a2
23. The lemniscate p 2 =a 2
cos 2 0. (Fig., p. 5.'52) A' =
^-^
24. The parabola p = a sec 2
J 0. (Fig., p. f>:J7) R = 2a sec 3 J 0j.
-
25. J 0. 4
j
26.
m
The tnsectnx p = 2 a cos a. ^r> _flf5-4cos0,)
7
(
fi
.3
27. The equilateral hyperbola p
2
cos 2 = a2 .
- e 2 )' aft
oo
28.
TU
The
-
conic p = - a(l p
-
1 e cos fl -' cos L )
{
156 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Find the radius of curvature for each of the following curves at the
point indicated. Draw the curve and the corresponding circle of curvature.
29. jr = 2 /, ?/
= t
2 - 1 ;
/ = 1. A MS. ft = 4>/2.
30. jr = 3 t
2
, //
= 3 /
- /
: <
;
t = 1. tf = .
31. .r = 2 r ', //
= 2 f '
;
/ = 0. 72 = 2 V2.
33. jr
~ 2 /, ?/
=- ;
/ - 1 . 36. jr = 2 sin /, ;//
= cos 2 /
;
t = TT.
34. .r - /- -f 1, //
= t
' - 1 ;
/ = 1 . 37. x - tan /, //
= ctn / ;
/ - \ IT.
35. x 4 cos /, ?/
= 2 sin /;// = !. 38. r / sin /, //
1 cos /
;
/ TT.
/, // a sin :!
/. ,4//,s. ft ;i a sin /i cos /i.
//
~ a (sin / t cos /). An*, ft at\.
point on the curve // ~ x Draw the curve and the circles of cur-
4
2 .r L>
.
vature. Find the points on the curve where the radius of curvature is a
minimum.
46. Show that at a point of minimum radius of curvature on the
curve y = f(x] we have
'^Vl
,dx) \
erty; namely, x, y, y', and //" have the same values at P for the
circle of curvature and the curve.
DEFINITION. The center of curvature (a, /j) for a point P(x, y) on
a curve is the center of the circle of curvature.
Theorem. The coordinates (a, /j) of the center of curvature for
P(x, y) are
y y
Proof. The equation of the circle of curvature is
(1) Cr-a^+fo-jCO-^/i'-,
\\here K is given by (F). Differentiating (1),
/ x a ,,
=- R~
(2) "
?/"
y-P (y
- '
,
y* I
/3
=y -f- R cos r, etc.)
EXERCISE 2. If x' and x" are, re-
a ~
x" x"
-j-
Therefore (a) (
3 x -f 2 p, ~~~^ }
t
Ls the center of
V 4 p-/
curvature corresponding to any point on the curve.
(b) (2 p, 0) is the renter of curvature corresponding
to the vertex (0, Oj.
Formulas (G) and (77), Art. 108, give the coordinates of any point
(a, /3) on the evolute expressed in terms of the coordinates of the
corresponding point (x, y) of the given curve. But y is a function
of jc ; therefore these formulas give us at once the parametric equation
of the evolute in terms of the parameter x.
RADIUS AND CIRCLE OF CURVATURE 159
tangular coordinates.
of a and /3.
First Step. a= 3 ar + 2 p, =-
Second Step.
Third Step. (4
1
./ <* \*
Second Step, x
"\a
2 - b' )
z
Find the equation of the evolute in parametric form, plot the curve and the
evolute, find the radius of curvature at the point where / = 1, and draw the cor-
responding circle of curvature.
By (B), Art, 82
(2) ^^^1 -f 3 t
calculate x, ^ from (1) and a, j8 from
(2), and tabulate the results.
Now plot the curve and its evolute.
point (J, 0) is common to the
The
given curve and its evolute. The given
curve (semicubical parabola) lies en-
tirely to the right and the evolute
entirely to the left of x J.
The circle of curvature at A ( ) Ji ,
Jl
,
AA' = "
By (1), Art. 3
COS/).
2
d// _ sin / d' y 1
2
dx 1 cos/ dx~ a(\ cos/)
equation of the evolute OO'Q* referred to the axes O'a and O'fi.
The cocirdinates
of with respect to these axes are (~ mi, - 2 a). Let us transform equations (4) to
the new set of axes OX and OY. Then
a x ?ra, ft
= y 2 a.
given cycloid.
162 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
110. Properties of the evolute. The evolute has two interesting
properties.
Theorem 1. The normal at P(x, y) to the given curve is tangent to
the evolute at the center of curvature C(a, p) for P. (See figures in the
preceding article.)
We show now that the slope of the evolute equals the slope of PC.
Note that j/j
Slope of evolute =-
da
since a arid fi are the rectangular coordinates of any point on the
evolute.
l^et us choose as independent variable the length of arc on the
given curve then ; x, //, R, T, a, are functions of 8. Differentiating
(1) with respect to s gives
(8)
da d'jr
-- # cos r dr __ sin T dR
)
J
as ds as ds
= dy . dr rf/2
(4)
rf/i
j j
~~ ^ sm T T" H- cos r ~T~'
,
ds ds ds ds
But ~r
(
= cos T, -^ = sin r, from Art. 95 : and - = .
rf.s ds ds R
Substituting in (3) and (4), and reducing, we obtain
(5)
da =
rfs
-
sin r
dR
r/.s*
~ = COST-T--
rf/J dR
(6)
= - ctn T - -- = slope of PC. Q.E.D.
da. tan r
fer erne between the radii of curvature of the given curve which are tangent
to this arc at its extremities, provided tfiat along the arc of the given curvt
R increases or decreases.
RADIUS AND CIRCLE OF CURVATURE 163
<"
(DXiNff-
But if s' = length of arc of the evolute,
ds'~ da- + dfi-,
by (C), Art. 95, if s = s', x = a, y = /i Hence (7) asserts that
dff
(8)
= ^T ' or i =
ds
= w = -
(9)
dR~ 4-1^ or ' -,~
dtf
That is, Jfee rate of change of the arc of the evolute with respect to R
i s _|_ i or _ i. Hence, by Art. 50, corresponding increments of s' and
R are numerically equal. That is,
V
Tfce length of one arch of the cycloid (as OO'Q )
/ eight times the
PROBLEMS
Find the radius and center of curvature for each of the following
curves at the given point. Check your results by proving (a) that the
center of curvature lies on the normal to the curve at the given point,
and (b) that the distance from the given point to the center of curvature
is equal to the radius of curvature.
1. 2py = x'
2
; (0, 0).
Am. (0, p).
= ~
2. x'
2
+ 4 y' 2
25 ; (3, 2). (iVb H)-
3. r -i/ '=
j ;
19 ; (3, 2). (W, 5?)-
5. //
= <"; (0, 1). (- ~ 3 )-
6. y = cosr ; (0, 1). (0, 0).
= 3 ~ 2) -
7. ?/ lnr; (1, 0). (
13. ?/
= tan2o-; -?, J). (-J TT,
4
15 4
a 4 ?/ - 9
15. ^ = a^. a= a -f
2
?/
-
.
,.
P= 4
16. 6 2 x
2 - a 2 ?/ 2 =a 2
52 . a=
2
+
18. Find the radii and centers of curvature for the curve xy 4 at the
points (1, 4) and (2, 2). Draw the arc of the evolute between these cen-
ters. What is its length ?
__
Ans. At (1, 4), A>, = V Vl7, a = V, = V ;
19. = 3/
x 2
,
= 3f-? :i
. Am. a = %(l + 2 t'
2 - /*), =- 4 <.
20. x = 3 t, # = - 6. f
2 a =-J =3 - f
:l
,
/-'
jj.
21. x = 6 - *
2
,
=2 y f. t* = 4 - 3 = - 2 P. /
2
,
22. =2
a- /, i/
= - 2. J
2
a - - 2 /*, =3 2 f .
23. x = 4 f, y = 3 4- 2 J .
= - /\ 0=11 + 3 2 / .
24. =9-
a- f
2
,
=2 ?/ f. =7-3 = - 2 P. /
2
f
27 + 4
- 12/ + 9
4 4
3 . /
= a sin
?y
:i
f.
= '* " cos 2 / sin / + a sin :{
iL
29. x = 4 - = 2 /
2
, ?/ /.
30. =2
JT
= 16 - /, ?/ /
2
.
31. x = = i ^.
/
2
, ?y
32. x = 1 cos y =
- f, t sin /.
33. x = cos
4 = sin /, ?/
4
/.
35. x = cos y= t, .
y = 2 sin + sin 2 ? ^.
166 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
(+ 0)1
- (a- 0)3 = 2 a*.
112. Transformation of derivatives. Some of the formulas derived
above independently can be deduced from others by formulas which
establish relations between derivatives. Two cases will be presented
here.
dx d 2x
x'
,
= ,
,,
x" = dx' -, z
.
etc.
dy dy dy
By IX, Art. 29,
XT
Now y"
// 'f
-~~ = -7
dx x'
dy"
Again, = = *3L.
y'" *f
dx x/
A,tt ,y.r~rrf ~ Q
=-
,
Using (/), ?-
dy x' 4
'
v '"
v X -*x
O v "|
= -i
'
.-.y'"
Y '5
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Transform (B), Art. 102, into (C) in that article.
1L
x"
m '
By formulas (1), (2), (3), equations in j, ?/, x', ?/, r", ?/" may be
transformed into equations in p, 0, p', p".
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Derive (), Art, 104, directly from (/)), Art. 10,'J.
PROBLEMS
In Problems 1-5 interchange the dependent and independent
variables,
2
4 d 2* /dx\ =0.
A
Ans. z -?/(-7-)
rf V(]f
4
168 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
dy ~
6. Transform by assuming x = p cos 6, y = p sin 6.
2
A~<. P
d'2 ij
A
Ans. -7*7 ~
.
4- a v v
= A
0.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. Given the curve or 3 cos f 4- cos 3 t, y = 3 sin t sin 3 t. Find the
as a parameter. Find the points of the parabola for which the correspond-
ing centers of curvature are also points of the parabola. Hence find the
length of the part of the evolute inside the parabola.
Ans. (2, 2V2); - l). 4(V7
4. (a) At every point (jc, y} of a certain curve, its slope is equal to
?/
and the curve passes through the point (2, 0). Verify that the
(b) Find the curvature of the curve at this point and draw a small
portion of the curve near it. Ans. K = oVVH.
(c) Draw the circle of curvature at this point. Ans. cv = f ft = |. ,
given by -jr-
= - where .s is the length of arc (measured from some fixed
R=
a2
CHAPTER XI
once that for at least one value ofx between a and the tangent
b is par-
allel to the x-axis (as at P) that is, the slope is zero. This illustrates
;
U) ?/=/(*);
and let xi, x>> be the abscissas of the points Po, PI, Po respectively,
x ( ,
(a', fi )
passing through the three points. Then the equation of the circle is
and since the coordinates of the points P , PI, P-2 must satisfy this
equation, we have
(2)
)
= 0, F(X!) = 0, F(x 2 ) = 0.
Hence, by Rolle's Theorem (Art. 113), F'(x) must vanish for at
f
leasttwo values of x, one lying between xo and x\, say x and the ,
F'(x') = 0, F'(x") = 0.
Again, for the same reason, F"(x] must vanish for some value of
x between x' and x" say x-^ hence , ;
F"(z3 ) = 0.
THEOREM OF MEAN VALUE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 171
(4) (x
- a) + (y - - 0, ]8)'//' differentiating (3).
(5) 1 + if + (y
2 - J3)y" = 0, differentiating (4).
(6) x a = >
7/ rf
~ ^-
?/ , '//
Solving (6) for a and 0, the result, is identical with (G), Art. 108.
Substituting from (6) in (3), and solving for R, the result is (F),
Art. 105. Hence the osculating circle is identical with the circle of
curvature.
In Art. 28 the tangent line at P was defined as the limiting posi-
tion of a secant line drawn through P and a neighboring point Q
on the curve. We now see that the circle of curvature at P may be
defined as the limiting position of a circle drawn through P and two
other points Q, R on the curve.
115. Limiting point of intersection of consecutive normals
(1) =/(*)
The equations of the normals to the
curve at two neighboring points Po and
^ ^
D are A'.^o'l/o)
Oo - y) + ('//o - ?/)/'Oo) = 0,
and f"(a', 0') will approach as a limiting position a point C(a, ]8)
on the normal at /V Dropping the subscripts and accents, the last
two equations are
(x-a) + (y- &)y' = 0,
1 + y' 2 + (y - fry" = 0.
Solving for a and /3, the results are identical with (G), Art. 108. Q.E.D.
116. Theorems of Mean Value (Laws of the Mean). For later appli-
cations we need the
Theorem. ///Or) and F(x) and their first derivatives are continuous
throughout the interval [a, 6"|, and if, moreover, F'(x) does not vanish
within the interval, then for some value x xi between a and 6, =
--
Proof. Form the function
~ /(a) r*/
THEOREM OF MEAN VALUE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 173
b - a
J v A>
(C) /(&)=/(<*) + (b
- <0/' (*0-
Let 6 = a -r Aa ;
then b a = Aa, and since x\ is a number lying
between a and 6, we may write
Xl =a + 6- Aa,
where 6 is a positive proper fraction. Substituting in (C), we get
another form of the Theorem of Mean Value,
PROBLEMS
1.Verify Rolle's finding the values of x for which f(x)
Theorem by
vanish in each of the following cases.
and/'fa)
= x 3 - 3 x. (e^ f(x) = sin irx
- cos TTX.
(a) f(x)
(b) f(x)
= 6 x2 - x3 . (f) f(x) = tan x - x.
(c) f(x)
= a + bx -f ex 2 . (g) f(x) = x In x.
(d) f(x)
= sin x. (h) /(x) = xe*.
174 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
2. Given tan x. Then /(O) =
f(x) = and /(ir) = 0. Does Rolle's
Theorem justify the conclusion that f'(jc) vanishes for some value of x
between and TT? Explain your answer.
3. Given (y -f l)
:i
= x2 Then y =
. when x = 1 and //
= when
x =+ 1. Does Rolle's Theorem justify the conclusion that y' vanishes
for some value of x between - 1 and + 1 ? Explain your answer.
4. In each of the following cases find x\ such that
f b) = /() + ( (b-a)f'(jci).
(c) /(x)
= 6", a = 0, b = 1. Xi = In (<?
- 1) = 0.54.
(dj /(x) - -, = 1, 6 = 2.
r;
5. Given f(x) = - a -
1,6 = 1. For what value of Xi, if any, will
x
f(b) = /() + (b- )/'(x!)?
6. Given /(x) = x^, a = 1, /> 1. For what value of x,, if any, will
/(ft) =/(*;) -f (fc-aWi)?
For this value of x our function is not defined and we may there-
fore assign to it any value we please. It is evident from what has
gone before (Case II, Art. 17) that it is desirable to assign to the
function a value that will make it continuous when x = a whenever
it is possible to do so.
118. Evaluation of a function taking on an indeterminate form. If
See also Art, 18. General methods for evaluating the indeter-
minate forms of Art. 117 depend upon the calculus.
119. Evaluation of the indeterminate form - (iiven a function of
ff.r)
the form
j~~-
such that /(a) and F(a) ~ 0. The function is
m=m- <<-<'>
If x >
a, so also .TI -> a. Hence, if the right-hand member of (1)
approaches a limit when r\ -> a, then the left-hand member will ap-
proach the same limit. Thus (E) is proved.
From (), if /'(a) and F'(a) are not both zero, we shall have
W
(2) ii
merator for a new numerator and the denominator for a new denominator.
The value of this new fraction for the assigned value of the variable will
be the limiting value of the original fraction.
176 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
In case it happens that /'(a) = and F'(a) = 0, that is, the first
derivatives also vanish for x = a, then () can be applied to the ratio
F'(x)
x .0 JT
Hm /(l = lim
1
Hl = Hm ncoanr = w -b
PROBLEMS
Evaluate each of the following indeterminate forms by differentiation.*
~2 ~ 1C
1. lim
z-4
x :4X 2
-f x-20
jr-a 1
2. lim M
c a" na"
3.
,.
lim -
In x- n
1.
4.
,.
lim
x -. o
e
sin
:
-- e~
.r
o
2.
2.
_ox sin
.
6.
v
hm -
In sin JT
- - ~ i
4-
2
x- -
7. lim ^-I= ln r
8.
,.
hm
0-*o
-
^ arc sin
sin-
1
6
-- - i
*
ev + sin y 1
tan 6 + sec - 1
15
15. hm
lim
^ _^e ^ + l
v r sin
,/>
hm
;
16.
. o
:i
x-,0 sin
* After differentiating, the student should in every case reduc the resulting expression
to its simplest possible form before substituting the value of the variable.
178 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
120. Evaluation of the indeterminate form ~. In order to find
lim
x-^a
when both f(x) and F(x) become infinite when x a, we follow the >
same rule as that given in Art. 119 for evaluating the indeterminate
form -. Hence
--n/r-
-
ILLUSTRATIVE KXAMPLE. Prove lim 0.
.r C-.C JT
-
Solution. In r, F(JT) .r. /(O) , F(Q) .
by the rule,
_
- -
I
L
.. .r
- .. siri 'j
,.
lim
f(jr)
$-L
- ,.
) im Jf'(jf)
-f~-
-
= hm --
lim
j , o f (jc) j ,<)/<'(>) j. ,
(, c'.-.c J ctn -i*
rni
Then, by
I /I^
(A),
j-
hm
1-
o JT cos
"
"
jr
-
,
I'
lim
o cos
"
j; J
-
:
sin
- '
x
- /I
0.
<-l
Q.E.D.
T7 T^
the two forms given. As a rule, one of these forms is better than
the other, and the choice will depend upon the example.
X -+ /, 7T
- -
-J ,
C()S 5 X
sec 3
o
.r
c
cos 5 J ~ 1
7-
c
cos 5 x =
cos 3 .r cos 3 j"
-3sm3.r
THEOREM OF MEAN VALUE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 179
form oo
122. Evaluation of the indetei ruinate oo. It is possible in
^ y o *
= 1 sni v -
~~
1 sin *"
= I - sin jc, F(rt = cos j-. Then/(\ TT) = 0, F(\ TT) - 0. Hence, by (E),
p
,. __
hm (.r)
^ 0;
~ '
Q.E.D.
X- '.TT ^H- - s in
PRO3LEMS
ctn x
2. lim 13. lim -4.
j , o ctn 2 r
,. tan 3 --^
3. hm
^ _ tan 6
4. lim
s
5. lim :
--
c
i-
x - .r. In x
, . ctn x
6. hm i-
In sin 2 x
7. lim
,o In sin .r
7T
rt -7T0
-
.
T
9. lim ---
tan
23. lim .
4 ^*
24. limf-4-
28 .
In order that the function shall take on one of the above three
forms, we must have, for a certain value of x,
Therefore - = = 1.
lim In y
' -*
0, and lim
X
y- lim x*
-
e O.E.D.
() X
THEOREM OF MEAN VALUE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 181
i
2
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE - tan 5 WJr *
2. Prove lim (2 j-) = f
jr-l
Let y = (2
- .r)
tttn * ^ ;
In i/
= tan i 7r.r In (2 - j) - oo .
0, when j = 1 .
ln (2 ~ ^ = hm L>
~ ' r
By Art. 119, lim
.T-.I ctn i TTJ .r-i - \ TT csc- .^
Trr TT
Therefore lim In y - -,
o
and - tan
i
^ = r2 "
3--1 7T
lim y
x
'
.1
._
j.
lim
.1
(2 .r)
^ 77
"
vE D
O
"
By Art. 121, In = ^^ =
csc j:
r
oo
,
whon x = 0.
- esc-
_ _
j*
= c = 1. Q.E.D.
- -
PROBLEMS
Evaluate each of the following indeterminate forms.
tanx
1. lim (sinx) . Ans. 1.
g ' i[ m / COS -V
x - z . r \
y/
I
Hm
2. lim
/|
+ lY. e*. 9-
(cos ^ .
10. Hm ?
S-limx^. J- (COB
a
4. lim fl -h -V. c .
11. lim (r^ + 2 x)^
x V
i/--* y/ T-. o
ctnT ctnx
5. lim (1 -f sin x) . r. 12. lim (x -4- l) .
x-O x-0
- /I \sina;
x x 2
6. lim (c -f x) . e .
13. lim '.
( j
1
lnr
7. lim
-
(1 + ntY. c\ 14. lim
J- -
(I -f r) .
/
182 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
124. The Extended Theorem of Mean Value. Let the constant R
be defined by the equation
F'(x)=J'(x)-f'(<i)-(x-a)R,
we get F'(Xi) =f'(xi) ~J'(o)
- (x - a)R l
= 0.
Since F f
and F'(a) = 0, it is evident that F'(r) also satisfies
(x\ )
and R=--f"(xJ.
' 2 "
a) /"(^). (a
(G)
/Or) -/(a)
will have the same sign for all values of x in the interval [a h, a + h],
and, moreover, same as the sign o//"(a).
this sign mil be the It there-
fore follows from our definitions (1) and (2) that
(6) f(x)
- /(a) = ,4 te - a)
3
/"W (a < a* < a-)
12
- f(a)
fi
/'Or) =3 - a;
2
18 z + 24.
Solving, 24 =
3 x2 -18x4-
gives the critical values x =2
= 4. /./'(2) = 0, and /'(4) = 0.
and z
/'(j) = - 2 sin x - e- 1 = 0,
<?* for x = 0,t
f"(x} = e 2 cos x -f <?"* = 0,
x
for x 0,
/"'(z) = g* -f 2 sin x - e~ = 0, = 0,
x
for x
PROBLEMS
Examine each of the following functions for maximum and minimum
values, using the method of the last section.
2. x3 + 3 x 2 + 3 x, x= - 1, gives neither.
3. x (x - 2)
3 2
. x = 0, gives neither,
x =L gives max. = 1.11,
x = 2, gives min. = 0.
4. x(x-l) 2 (x+l) 3 .
5. Investigate 4 x
6 - 15 x4 + 20 x 3 - 10 x 2 at x = 1.
6. Show
that if the first derivative of /(x) which does not vanish for
x = a is of odd order (= n), then/(x) is an increasing or decreasing function
=
when x a, according as /W (a) is positive or negative.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. If y = ex -f e~ x find dx in terms of ?/ and dy. Ans. dx = ^ .
,
V;//
2 -4
2. Prove that
T- In (3 x + 2 + V9 x2 -f 12 x) = .
Vi) jf- -f 12
3. Prove that
Vx- -f 1 i
= x 2 Vx 2 -f 1.
where and c are positive constants prove that the successive values
a, 6, ;
9. The curve x 2 y -f 12 y = 144 has one maximum point and two points
of inflection. F"ind the area of the triangle formed by the tangents to the
curve at these three points. Arts. 1.
drawn within the limits of this area. The width of the rectangle (measured
horizontally) is J and one of the diagonals has an extremity on each curve.
Find the area of the rectangle of maximum area which can be constructed
in this way. Ans. 0.019.
13. Rectangles are drawn with one side along the ./--axis, a second side
along the line x = and one vertex on the curve ?/ = c~ r \ Find the area
*
INTEGRATION ;
RULES FOR INTEGRATING STANDARD
ELEMENTARY FORMS
The student is already familiar with the mutu-
126. Integration.
ally inverse operations of addition and subtraction, multiplication
and division, raising to a power and extracting roots. In the ex-
amples which follow, the second members of one column are, respec-
tively, the inverse of the second members of the
other column.
y = a*, x = log,,// ;
-f A') =/'(*),
'
dx
operation, namely :
(1) /'(*)
- 4>W
is given.
(3) } ,
ff'(x)dx=f(x
read the integral of f'(x)dx equals f (or). The differential dx indicates
that x is the variable of integration. For example,
(a) If /(x) =x a
, then/'(x)dx = 3 2
x' dx, and
/r
(c) If /(x) = arc tan x, then/'(x)rfx = .,, and
1 "T~ X"
-
arc tan x.
+ x~
Let us now emphasize what is apparent from the preceding ex-
planations, namely, that
(4)
dff'(x)dx=J'(x)dx.
(5)
fdf(x)=f(x).
i
/*
Therefore, considered as symbols of operation, 3- and /
-
dx are
dx J
inverse to each other ; or, if we are using differentials, d and / are
inverse to each other. J
r
When d is followed by I
they annul each other, as in (4), but
when I is followed by d, as in (5), that will not in general be the
case. The reason for this will appear at once from the definition of
the constant of integration given in the next section.
* Historically this sign is a distorted S, the initial letter of the word sum. See Art. 155.
INTEGRATION 189
snce rf(:r
3
)
= 3 x 2 dx, we have f 3 .r~dr = x3 ;
f3 a-
2
rfjp = a-
3
+ C.
/Or) +C
f
is called the indefinite integral of f (x)dx.
evident that if </>(#) is a function the derivative of which is
It is
of which is /(#), then all functions having the same derivative f(x)
are of the form ^ _j_
(1) F *(x) =
190 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
But from the Theorem of Mean Value (Z>), Art. 116, we have
F(x + Ax) - = Ax F'(x +
F(x) Ax). (0 < 6 < 1)
.-.
F(x + Ax) - F(x) = 0,
[Since by (1) the derivative of F(x) is zero for all values of x.J
F(x) =
does not change inall when x takes on the increment Ax,
value at
that is, <t>(x) and
\f/(x) only by a constant.
differ
In any given case the value of C can be found when we know the
value of the integral for some value of the variable, and this will be
illustrated by numerous examples in the next chapter. For the pres-
ent we shall content ourselves with first learning how to find the
indefinite integrals of given differential expressions. In what fol-
lows we shall assume that every continuous function has an indefinite
integral,a statement the rigorous proof of which is beyond the scope
of this book. For all elementary functions, however, the truth of
the statement will appear in the chapters which follow.
In all cases of indefinite integration the test to be applied in veri-
fying the results is that the differential of the integral must be equal
to the given differential expression.
/ du + I dv I
dw,
(b) A constant factor may be written either before or after the inte-
gral sign.
Proof. Differentiating the expression
(2) I ad v =a I dv.
vn + l
/ V " dV =
^+l
+C ' (*-!)
192 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Cdv
(5)
J T = lnv+C
= In v + In c = In cv.
(6)
(7) C
= arc sin -v + C.
fffv
Va - x
2
v 2
INTEGRATION 193
we get I dx =x+ C.
/ V
n
dv = -
?
W+
,n-H
T
1
+ (7.
d(lnr+D =-f
v
X, Art. 94
we get f = In w + r.
J v
The results we get from (5) may be put in more compact form if
Formula (5) states that if the expression under the integral sign is a
fraction whose numerator is the differential of the denominator, then the
integral is the natural logarithm of the denominator.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES*
Work out the following integrations :
-6
7-6 +1 r
1.
/
Cx^dx = 7-
r + C = *- + C, by (4), where v = x and n = 6.
J -j-
o + 1 /
3 '
Cdx
J y*
= r .
J
x 3dx = ^ + c = _J_
X
+ Ciby (4), where r =x and
= 2/x 3 dx - 5/x -
3/xdx + 4/dx by
2
dr (2)
we
NOTE. Although each separate integration requires an arbitrary constant,
write down a single constant denoting their algebraic sum.
only
- 2 rx^dx by
=f2 ax'^dx fbx~' dx -f/3 (1)
= 2 a fx~*dx - bfx~ dx + 3 2
cfx$dx by (2)
5
= 4 aVx -f
- + 15 rx
'
4- C.
./
= L %
+ 6x)l(26*zd I + C, = by
(a
)[=^ /*i* ^5
:
5
5 / (4)]
( fl
2
+ & 2 X 2)1
"^
3 ^
NOTE. The student is warned against transferring any function of the variable
from one side of the integral sign to the other, since that would change the value
of the integral.
By <2)
INTEGRATION 195
Hence 3 a
C x- dx
I
7
3 a C2c 2 xdx
= ^7 r^ I
2 o-j 6^ + c-jc
~ [ 3 a
= ^r~, Cdv
I
"~ 3 a
= ;r^ ,
ln p +^
, ,
b y ^/rv
,
5>
l
J 62 + c2x2 2
L 2 r-j v 2 c2 j
x -f 1 x + 1
Substituting in the integral, using (1), and integrating gives the answer.
2 ~
/ + 3 dx = x - In (2 2
-f T.
-
11. -f 3)
Jf 2 x
JT
I
Solution. Dividing, ^
9 3.
- _
--
J
r = 1
- ^
--
- Substitute and use (1) etc.
PROBLEMS
Verify the following integrations.
= = a?/ 3
^ + C.
2
1. fx* dx 6. a?/ d?/ 4- c:.
J*3
l* = _? +c .
t" t
3. / .r
5
dx = =- + C. * - " ~
/
8
5
= V2.r + r.
.
r
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
= ~- 6x 4- 5 In x 4- C.
2Va by
x -h I) 2 cfcr = ^r
4
4- ~
"^ 7 +c -
/* 4 x' 2
dx _
~
V Vx 8
:i
4-
r 6 z dz 1
V(5-32r 2 )
2 S-Sz^"*"
4- C\
r /
2
rf/ __
"J (a 4- 6/ 3 ) 2
4- C.
INTEGRATION 197
36 = 3"
+C
/f* x* '
'/ a"
"
^QlTl 1*^3
= Rin*^T"
sin 2 x cos x dx = I
(sin x)
2
cos x dx = l
;
-f C ^-^ -f C,
/ o o
HINT. Use (4), making v = sin x, dt> = cos x dx, n = 2.
r sin 2 aj^
oo
38. / sin
-
j
ax cos ax ax = ,
h
/,
C .
J 2 a
-f C.
Jsin ^
44 Cr'<i* = ln(2 + r)
V2+ a-
:!
3
.
5> f
f d< _
~ In (a +M z
) .
J ^+1^ 26
= In (^ + 3
In (;/" + 4 ?/)
> L-.
-
'
lie
.
- In
~ (a + be 9 )
+ .
+ be e b
Ar r sin x dx
.
49>
i
i
In (1
/-
cos x)
N
+ , /-t
T .
j 1 cos x
^ s
n (a + b tan ^ 4- C.
(
50. f^/tan =li
f
J a o-h o ?/
(2 ^ + = 2 x - In (x + 2) -f C. )rf:r
51. f
x +^
.
J 2
= - + 3 In (X + 1) + C.
62 .
/Lt|* f
55. d = 2 In
6
198 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
r 2xdx
56.
> 177===;.
V 6 - 5 x2
Solution.
/6 - 5 x*
Verification, d [- ft (6
- 5 x*)l + ('[
=- -ft 3S(6
- 5 x 2 )4(- 10 x)dx
2 x dx
58.
66.
/ X(/J '
67,
v Vi^^ 5
' <lt
68 C
-J ITFT1
esc 2 (&fr
72
130. Proofs of (6) and (7). These follow at once from the corre
=
x *
we then
By
insert the factor
(2)
= .
+ C. By (6)
INTEGRATION 199
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
= =
2.
JV dr nr " + C. 5.
JV* <///
^^ + C.
xZ
dx = I c
r2
+ C.
*-ffC
12. V? (// = 2 VP -f T.
13. dx = + C.
1 -f In a
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
200 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
131. Proofs of (8)-(17). Formulas (8) (13) follow at once from the
corresponding formulas for differentiation, XIII, etc., Art. 94.
r dv
Proof of (14). f tan v dv = f'sin
cos v
C sin r dv
COS 7'
_ r r)
J COS V
In cos v +C by (5)
= In sec r + r.
Proof of (15).
J
fctn v d, =
J f**^ = Jf
sin v
^^ sin v
- In sin v + C. By (5)
sec v + tan ?;
/, sec r dr ~
J
Tsec
I
r tan
+ tan r
sec* v
(sec r + tan r)
?' +
!
sec 2 v ,
dv
ctn
Proof of (17). Since esc v = esc v esc r r
esc r ctn r
esc v ctn 7
1
+ esc 2
v
esc r ctn v
+ esc" 2Mv dv
/,
2
esc v ay = f I
esc r ctn ?'
!
J esc r ctn v
?> ctn v)
esc r
/(/(esc ctn v
- - .
2 a 2 (i
Solution. (tan 2 x
- 1 )* = tan-' 2 x - 2 tan 2 s + 1 .
tan 2 2 x = sec- 2 x - 1 .
By (2), Art. 2
Hence, substituting,
|
(tan 2
F
.S 1 )- ds
|
(sec'-' 2 *? 2 tan 2 ^-V/x / sec" 2 x dx 2
|
tan 2 d.
Now let r = 2 x. Then d?' 2 ds. Using (10) and (14), the steps are as follows.
r dr -- \ tan ? = ^ tan 2 x.
PROBLEMS
Verify the following integrations.
r ds sin rns -h C.
m
tan bs ds = - In sec bs
/^
2. / -f ( \
8./U
sec as djc - In (sec as -f tan + C.
<ur)
a
/I
Y
4. f esc v dv In tan J r -f ^ .
7. fcsc 2 3 j: ds =- J ctn 3 j- + C.
8. fctn dr = 2 In sin + C.
I ^
9.
2
sec 2 J dx :i
- J tan x :i
H- C.
fs'
10. =- ctn x -f C.
sin- x
202 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
11. f-^--X =
J COS-
tan x + r.
14 J
LL = ctn jr + esc J -f C.
'J 1 -f OOB.T
Sin **
16. ( .
=- In (1 -f cos ) + C.
./ 1 -f cos ,s
. .
./ 1 -f tan jr
J
18. I j
-
2
19. f(.r 4~ sin 2 .r)(/.r i(.r cos 2 .r) -f C.
20. /"
^l^^L, = 2V4-COS.,- + C .
J jr -f sin j^
22. /
-J^L^L^ = Vl -f 2 tan fl -f r.
;
V 1 -f 2 tan 6
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
b -f flj-V/x.
30. dr.
24. ( Jtan |
Jcos
r - ^i
01 f f//
ftw r </>
.
a</>
1 7
, 33.
27. I esc ctn (/0. J ctn 7 ?/
y- -y
28.
/>
r
x
ctn f rfj. M
Q
J
.
-
/"sin V.T c/j*
J y^
INTEGRATION 203
O.T
37. I
-
f a rfjr
J cos" bj"
45.
J(V-^
sin 1 .r
38.
|
(sec 2 0- csc^ "./ 3 -f cos !2 .r
/ f
47. f 0? (
.
rcsc
csc ctn
c (10
42. I
(sec / I) 2 (//.
(II
- 1
-
d(- arc tan a + rW ~a ^^ - -r^-:, by XXII, Art. 60
\a /
r + r^
1
i
arc ian "
rf'
"= " 4
??
i
we get
./
-n+
?'~
-
"
' a
Proofs of (19) and (19 a). We prove (19) first. By algebra, we have
1 1
v a r -f a a2
Hence
1 1
_J LI.
/) a r -f a \
Then by(1)
= 7T- ln (
??
- a )-7r- ln
^1 d Ll (I
J r2 J a'
'-'
v'
Hence either formula can be applied in any given case. Later we shall see that
one form must be chosen in many numerical examples.
*(-
\a
arc sin- + (j = =>
by XX, Art. 94
a,
>K )'
v .
arc sin -
,,
+
.
we -^
get
/dr
Va - 2
r'
2 a
( .
J P*+= = V?' 2 a-
ln(*+
\
/ir
^ a~
In (r + Vr + a~) 2
In a + c.
Placing r= In a + r, we get
I
= In (v + Vtr' +a + 2
) C.
= In
\
J va'-sec^z
,
a L
J
\ sec z ar
= - arc tan -- -f C.
o <>
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
1 r-^_ = larctanf3 + C.
J x2 -f 9 3
dg = In + V.s^ - 16)
f ,
2 -
(
6
_ ln EL +C .
or
f ax dx a
= arc tan |!2 4. C .
2 &2
'
J x4 -f 6 4 ?>
i f. ^ =- arc tan (
T-^ )
+ C.
J (
- 2)
2
-f 9 3 \ o
206 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
dy = i In
15.
Jf Vl a
(ay + Vl + ay) 4- C.
+ aV 2
<**
18. f = arc sin
("*\ + C .
J V4 - (u + 3j
2
\ 2 y
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
= 1 arc tan
^4_1 + (\
+ 2 x -f 5
Solution. x'-' +2 x + 5 = x- -f 2 j- -f 1 + 4 - (x -f I)
2
-f 4.
"
.
r ^ = r ^
J jr 2 -f 2 j + 5 J (r + I)
2
+2 2
This is in the form (18). For let r =x + 1, and a = 2. Then dt; = dx.
Hence the above becomes
- =- arc tan - -f C~ - arc tan ~t y C.
r2 +
/-;
;
a* a a 2 2
/9+x /fv. y.
1
^- 2 arc sin :1-:i
+ C.
V2 - x' 2 *
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3.
J
f-
3 x2
-~- + 4 x 7
= ~ In 3 x
10
~~
3x4-7
3
+ C.
Solution. 3z 2 +4x-7 = 3(x 2
+ 1 x - j) =3 + J * + I - V)
(or
3
= 3[(:r+{jV-Vl.
<* T - C dx \ C dr
.
f - =
3j r 3 - a-'
'
'J 3 x
2
+ 4 x 7 J 3[(x -f J)
3 - J
by form (19), if r = x -f ,
a = *j, since also dr = (ir. Then wo have
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
4.
J
f
Va
.
x
dj<
- jc*
=- 2
= arc sin (2 s - 3) -f C.
'
J o
2 x2 2 x
dx
arc sin (x 1) -f C.
/2 x - x2
= = ln
/2 as + s'
2
~ A "
+ 3 y + 1 V5 \2 I/ -f 3 + V5
^ = 2
arc tan
/2 + l\
l-fx-fx 2 V3 \ V3 /
208 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
16 = 1 arc tan + C.
.
f
J4x Jfa J
4-4x4-5 4 (2^tl)
\ 2 /
= arc tan =
Vll \ Vll
* = arc sin + C.
17.
Jf V2
.
- 3 x - 4 x2
|
2 (*Z*\
\ V41 /
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
10 jc 4(^
' 09 f
V Vx - 4 x -f 13 2
.,
31 . I
r _
J Vi> 2
.
-
a
Vl - - t 2 P
r* 4- 4x4-1*
2 w2 4-2 w 4- l"
2
r x dfx
36
-J 9 j.o
_ 3 ^ _ i"
37.
15 4- 4 t
- t
2
S8./ V9 x 2 :
12 x 8
=
4- -f
dx
*' f
28 39 -
r
J r2 _ 2 r - 3 ^ V4 x 2 -
y
12 x + 7
3x " 1
r = V4^-4-9-lln x 9) 4- C.
(2
C 3x-l r 3jdr r dJ
J V4 x 2 -f
^ = __
J ^4 jr 2
9 > V4 x a -h 9 -f 9
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.
- 1 r 2 r (/r _ 12 r ^'~ _
~aj f - v 9 J r - V' 5
a
Using (5) and (19), and substituting back = + 3, we have the above t> jr
result.
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
-f 2
10
1U f(2x
'Jx 2 +
210 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
I
_ ,_
12.
-!^J
6x 9 r2 6
ln(1 6 9:r2)
+ C.
4
\3 x -h 1 + V2
13. = Vx 2 + 2 a- -f 2 In (x + 1 + Vx 2 + 2 x) + C.
15. .
= - V27 -f 6 x - x2 + 3 arc sn
si
/27 -f 6 x - x2
B. f fy-+ ~')</x _ ,.
'J Vl9 - 5 x + x 2
-I- V In (r - -f Vl9 - 5 x -h .r
2
) + C.
17 ' rjyizjjd
J V4 x2 - 4 x -f 5
- :|
In (2 x - 1 + V4 x2 - 4 x + 5) -f C.
^J ^ ~ ^^'r ~
1* ..
^ - = 2 Vl2 x 4 x2 5
'J Vl2x~4 x 2 - 5
Q /9 r X 3\
+ ~arcsinr- )
-f C.
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
(3
- 4
19 27.
-/^T^' V3 x - -2
a-
2
20 28
(5^ + 2)^ .
Jf Vx- + 2
.
jCi^-4V/x. a- 4- 5
21 '
'jT-:ij- 2
2g
- 3 x)<ir
30 f(8a
-/yo-^' J x
'
+x+1
4 - lw r
- r -
QI r (J" + 4)dr
23 r( .
^ V3 + 5r-
+ (2r
24. r^4-
J X- -
32.
+ 2 x -h 1
2 x2
25 r(i4J^. o, f (3a-
33
(3 + )riJ-
J 9 x* - 3 x - 1
'
^ V3j'-x 2
(6
- r)(fa
34 f.
2 -
V4x 12 x + 7
INTEGRATION 211
Hence
a "~
z = arc sin - and sin 2 z 2 sin z cos z = 2 -
??
a a a
Substituting, we obtain (22).
(3) fx/V + a 2 d -
I
V?- + a + ~ In
2
(r + v/r-' + a-) + C' 9
(4) vV 2
a 2 dv = a tan z a sec z tan z dz = a2 tan 2 z sec z dz
I | j
= a2 ( sec 3 2 dz a2
J
sec z dz.
2
we obtain (23) for the negative sign before a .
212 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Prove the following:
f \/4 - 9 x'2 dx = 7 f V4 - 9x 2
3 dx = - f v a* - t>
2
d0.
,/ 3 J <> /
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.
f \/3 x 2
-f 4 x - 7 dx
= 1(3 x / 3x* + 4z-7- 25-^2 In (3 x 4- 2 -f V9 x 12
+ 12 x - 2l) -f C.
-f 2)\
1
18
Solution. By Illustrative Example 3, p. 207,
3 x 2
-f 4 x - 7 = -f
2 - V] = 3 ( r2 - fl2 )
3[(x I)
if v = x 4 <j ,
a = /}
. Then d?? dr.
PROBLEMS
Verify the following integrations :
1.
JVl -4x*dx
= ^ Vl - 4 .r
2
4- arc sin 2 x 4- C.
1
3. /\ /~ - 1 cij: = 7 Vx -4 - 2
In (a- 4- V.r L> - 4) 4- C.
J \ 4 4
24
4. 9 x 2 dx 7 9 x'
2
+ t> o
4- C.
/ 2t
5. fV4 :r
2
4- 9 dx = - V4 x2 4- 9 4- 7 In (2 x 4- V4 x2 -f 9) 4- C.
./
7. TV3 -2x- x 2
dx = 21--l V3 - 2 x - x2 4- 2 arc sin ^- -f C.
4- 2 In (x
- 1 -f V5-2x4-x 2
) 4- C.
x 2 dx = 2 x - x2 + arc sin (x - 1) 4- C.
~
2
dx = 2J 1
VlO - 4 x -f 4 x 2
10.JVlO-4x4-4x 4
+ 5 In (2 x - 1 4- VlO-4x-4-4x 2 ) 4- C.
INTEGRATION 213
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
11.JV16-9
x 2 dx. 16. fV5 - 4 x - J a dr.
JV4 + 25 x
2
12. dx. 17.
JVs 4 2 JT +7* dr.
2 - -
13.
JV9 r 1 rfr. 18.
(Vr- 8 .r + 7 dr.
14. - 3 .r
2
dr. 19. f V4 - 2 - .,- dr.
JV8 .r
Example I. \ sin"
it- -T
sin
m ?/ = sn m ]
u sin u.
Then, since m
1 is even, the first term of the right-hand mem-
(1) I
(sum of terms involving cos ?/) sin u du.
substitution cos ?/ = 1
2 2
sin u. Then the integral becomes
J sin
Solution. I sin
2
x COB* x dx I sin 2 x cos 4 x cos x dx
= I (sin
2
x 2 sin 4 x -f sin" x) cos x dx
= f (sin x)'
2
cos x dx 2 I (sin x)
4
cos x dx + (sin x)
fi
cos x dx
|
sin'
1
x 2 sin fl
x
-
By(4)
5
J x - 2 cos J x -f C.
Using this result in the right-hand member of (3) and substituting back u x,
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
1. fsin :<
j- dx = ?,
cos : '
JT cos JT -f C.
3.
|
cos 2 sin (/> d</> i cos :<
$ + C.
7. 51
Jf COS 2 ^ rf0
= sec + cos + C.
12 r COBUL d,
.
= 3
sin
s
, /!
i
sin , ,
i
Bin ,
A r
2 V 2 /
''N/riin
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
/j ^
"
14. fcos 3 d0. 19. sin-'
1
r </j-.
J
n
Example II. To ^?irf I tan" u du or \ ctn u (in.
or ctn n
u = ctn r'
" a
?i ctn w 1' - ctn ri L>
?/ (esc- w 1 ) .
By (2), Art. 2
(4)
fctn 2 x dx :i
= U ctn :i
u du.
216 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Now / ctn a u du = I ctn u ctn 2 u du
2
I ctri w(csc u l)du
= ctn u esc u du
/
2
I ctn u du
= - \ ctn u - In sin2
u + C. By (4) and (15)
Using this result in the right-hand member of (4) and substituting back u = 2 z,
we have the answer.
n
Example III. To find I sec^udu or I csc udu.
sec 'u
r
= sec"" 2 u sec-w = (tan-w + 1) sec 2 2 w- ;
n-2
or csc
n
w = csc"~ 2
?/, csc 2 ^ = (ctn
2
w + 1) esc 2 2
w. By (2), Art. 2
f- =
//
4 4
sec .j
j* r/j 2 / sec M dit.
sec 4 w d?/
~ I sec 2 w .
sec 2 u du
= 2
(tan M -f 1 ) sec 2 M d?z by (2), Art. 2
I*
- J tan u '
= (tan x)
8
sec 2 xdx+ Ct&n*xsec 2 xdx
I
= (sec- j-
- 1 )* sec- .r sec x tan .r dr by (2), Art. 2
j
= / (sec
ft
j 2 sec 4 j 4 sec- .r) sec .r tan J fir
= ^! _!** + **lr +
< o o
Ci (4)
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
1.
J
tan 3 xdxl tan 2
x + In cos jr + C.
2.
Jo
fctn 3 | dx =- ~ ctn-
1
O
- U In sin
^
'>
4- C.
5.
5
30d6 = TV tan 4 3 - i tan 2 30+ J In sec 3 f? + C.
Jtan
-- cos4
sin 2 2 x cos 4 2 x
= tan 2 j + \
6
tan 3 2 x - \ ctn 2 x
2
+ C.
220 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
r A ,
= 3 x mn 2 x sin 4 x .
n
c
cos 4 x dx
,
3. / -f 1 i" -
/x
1
-:y 48 64
or
sin 2 ax dx = s- sin
h C
.,
.
L* 4a
x
7.
r
/
. x o x
sin 2 - cos- -
,,
7
dx =x~ sin 2
+
/ tL M 8 16
r 3 x sin 2 ax sin 4 ax ^
.
=
-|^- +
.
+
. .
8.J
S1 n^arrL:
T C.
8 ^ n:< 4 x sin 8 x
9.
Z_ _i_ __ C.
~~16 96 128
.
n sin 2 .
sn 4 cos h T.
10./(2
cos 2 x cos 6 x
12. . fsin2x
x cos 4
12
4
t> x
,
13.
T
I sin 3
o o j
x sin 2 x dx = sin~ x :r sin 5 ^
h C.
r sin x sin 7 x ^
14. I
.
cos 4 x cos 3 x dr
o j
= 7;
.
1 rr
.
h C.
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
3
15. cos 2 ax dx. -fcosx) dx.
J
18. fsin
4 - cos 2 - dO. 24. 2 x - sin 3 x) 2 dx.
J ^ ij
/(sin
Va a' sir\~z = =a
22
(1) sin L> r cos z;
(2) Va 2 + a 2 tan = a Vl 4 1
':: tan- z
~
a sec z ;
du _ r a cos z dz / ck _ J_ /'^..j.^,
= j_ '
a 2_ w 2)f J a cos^ :i
fl-.' cos-r r/*.'
j-\ 4 j- } 9
_
; ,\ ,1
^
'
/*
J y\ 4 j 2
(/J*
__
-f 9 ~/ J u \ 7/*
/
jj_//^ ____
-f
-'
r JTJ^/
^ wx'w 2 -I- a 2
/rf?/
uVu -f 2
a2 ~^ a tan -
'
w se(> - ""' tan c (/t ' sin
= 1
--
fcsc z dz - - In (esc z - ctn z) -f r.
o ./
Since tan c =- draw a right triangle and mark the sides as in the figure. Then
.
f = -
u
/du
V u
/ ..
u2 -\- a
9
= 1
~
o
In
C dx __ x
i. I ... ,= ~r i-
r f2 df __ I -
4 /-' -f 2 arc sin ^-f r.
2 x
r ir dx
a
o. C I
?/2(/ "
"
.;
- 1L arc sin h C.
v9 -
,
J _ W 2)& v/
2
(9
7. r.
.rVj' 2 -f 4 2 4. V.r 2 -f 4
\2
./*
-f c.
5
\5 -f V25 - .r
2
9,
.f
J //
2
V/y
^ 2
7
^^~ ^ .'/
7
+ r.
10.
2 /
/
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
r
13 .
A/
2 - 9 <///
l*.f j -;
9 fa
- 2 - 5
VlOO - ?/
2
du
INTEGRATION 223
(A) I u dv - uv - I v du y
called the formula for integration by parts. This formula makes the
integration of u dr, which we may not be able to integrate directly,
depend on the integration of dr and r du, which may be in such form
as to be readily integrable. This method of integration by parts is one
of the most useful in the integral calculus.
To apply this formula in any given case the given differential must
be separated into two factors, namely, ?/ and dr. No general direc-
tions can be given for choosing these factors, except that
applied :
Substituting in (A),
u dv u v v du
du=: and
then ^ v
Substituting in (A),
dx
; x
224 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Solution. Let u = c
aT and dv = xdx;
r
then du = c ai a dx and r = |
x dx = x*
J
Substituting in (A),
Cxe 'dx tt
=- c ax -
^ -f ~ >ar
< a dx
u =x and dv e" r dx ;
-- ai
/xioz
dx c
d
Substituting in (A),
I
,.
xc ar dx x - -- J
f,<ir
i'('
I
(lx
dx
J a a
2 f
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 4. Find
f
x' c" dx.
Substituting in (4),
fc c
(lj
dx =
ax
The integral in the last term may be found by applying formula (4) again,
which gives
a a2
Substituting in (A),
sec :i
zcfc = sec tan -
J
r c
|
see- rdc + In ^sec r -f tan z) + C.
Transposing the integral in the right-hand member and dividing by 2, we have the
required result.
r
'
(/' 4 n~
then dw = w a
'd.r and r = - ^Ji.
/i
(
.
()s ^^
-' N ,/
Let u e
ax
and t/r = cos nx djr ;
(3 )
/>* cos nx dx = I^'JJIIL^ _ 1!
/>, sin nj f/ x>
/ n J
/C
11
The two integrals in (4) are the same. Transposing the one in the right-hand
member and solving, the result is as above.
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
2. x dx = x(ln x
- 1) + C.
Jin
226 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
3. sin ^ dx 4 sin ~ 2 cos ~ + C.
J\x
or
A
.
J
C
x cos nx dx
I
cos -nx
n2
7 - sin
n
nx .
h C.
,,
5. 2
/ w sec u du ~ u tan ?/ + In cos u + C.
6.
J
v sin 2 3 v dr = \ r'
2
^ r sin 6 r ^ cos f> r + C.
8. a' (Y^-
- =-4-1 +r -
[
In a In 2 a j
9. In x <Lr - In 4- r.
-f -j-
11.
J
arc tan .r dx x arc tan r I In (1 + j~~) + C.
13.
|
arc cos 2 x dx ~ x arc cos 2 x -~
J Vl 4 .r
2
+ C.
15.
17.
18.
/x fare esc -
^ arc tan x dx
\ JT-C x
^/.r =
dl
^
c
t arc esc ^
2
(x
'(2
+
-
+
+
1
2 x
+
arc tan x
1) arc
+
2 In
.r
tan
L>
)
(/
+
W
+ V/
r.
^
- +
2
Vx +
c\
4) +
r.
C.
In x ~ In (x + 1) + C.
= 2 V [In (x + 1)
- 21 + C.
INTEGRATION 227
Work out each of the following integrals and verify your results by
differentiation.
-h .r*)-' dr.
J
29. fare ctn ^ dr. 40. / r ''
cos ^ (/fl.
./ - 7 !L
'
"'
arc sin .r dr r
/.r /^ _ 2 46. / csc' ;
dO.
J ^ - 4 r
'
33. - ctn x) 2 dx.
J"(x
14. sin 2 ax cos ax dx.
j 34. tan x) 3 dx.
y (1 -f
'^ Vx + 2
l 39.
j
sin sin 4 d</>.
CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION
138. Determination of the constant of integration by means of initial
conditions. As was pointed out on page 1 90, the constant of integration
may be found in any given case when we know the value of the
integral for some value of the variable. In fact, it is necessary, in
order to be able to determine the constant of integration, to have
some data given in addition to the differential expression to be
Thus = .H - JT-
-
-f T,
where C is the constant of integration. From the conditions of our problem this
result must equal 12 when .r = that is, 1 ;
12 = 1
- 1 -i 54- <\ or r= 7.
Hence x :$
x2 +- 5 j* -f 7 is the required function.
'
cfc
dy = 2xdx.
Integrating, y = 2 Cx dx, or
(1) y = x'* + C,
All the parabolas (1) have the same value of that is, they have the same
^;
direction (or slope) for the same value of x. It will also be noticed that the difference
229
230 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
in the lengths of their ordinates remains the same for all values of j. Hence all the
parabolas can be obtained by moving any one of them vertically up or down, the
value of r in this case not affecting the slope of the curve.
If in the above example we impose the additional condition that the curve shall
pass through the point (1, 4), then the coordinates of this point must satisfy (1),
fciving 4
~ or r~ M.
1 -f r,
Hence the particular curve required is the parabola y y'2 -4- 3.
Integrating,
or
This, we see, represents a family of con centric circles with their centers at the origin.
If, in addition, we impose the condition that the cur\<> must pas.^ through the
PROBLEMS
The following expressions have been obtained by differentiating certain
functions. Find the function in each case for the given values of the vari-
able and the function.
of
Answer
Junction vnlnc of junction
1. IT
- 3 9 \j- - 3 JT+ 13.
2. 3 4- r - f> S- -20 304 4- 3 J- 4- i .r
2 - f;
jr\
O n n\ 1\ '2 ii
\ .V
1 - 2 ^ L1
//
2
+ 2 62 - 4.
M-J-h
6. sec 2 4- tan tan </> 4- In sec </> 4- 5.
X 7T
*
2 2
:r 4- (i a 4 a
3
8. for 4- a.r 4- 4
9. Vt 4- r
Vt
10. ctn 6 - esc 2 6
2 '2
11. 3fe
CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION 231
Find the equation of the family of curves such that the slope of the
tangent at any point is as follows.
13. x. Parabolas,
- k j-
2
-f (\
//
14. - (\
Parabolas, A //-'
.r -f
x2
15. Semicubical parabolas, \ //'-' J,
.r
l
-f C
16. L -
Seinicubical parabolas, -. .r~ -f (\
^ ;\ //* .J
JC
-- ~~ 2
19. Equilateral hyperbolas, \r J"' C.
21. - 2
a 12 1
r.
Hyperbolas,
-'
b-jc //
a 2 //
In each of the following examples find the equation of the curve whose
slope at any point is the given function of the coordinates arid which
passes through the assigned particular point.
26. 2 In u
~ s~ - 9.
JT//; (8, 1).
f''
27. y = 2 r ^
-jry; (0, 2). .
29.
-
- ; (0, 0). ^ + y* - 2 f<s - (
1 ky = 0.
y k
32. 4^.
152
(2fl) 4^-^-15.
4 j*
232 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
(1, 9).
;
3g
Q
35. ~~
*3C
"
____L__ /'I O \
' '
,4r?*. g ;?
2
.
the curve if it passes through the point (1, 0) and is tangent to the line
6 x + y 6 at that point. Ans. xy + 6 x = 6.
48. Find the equation of the curve at every point of which ?/" = /
and which passes through the point (1, 1) with an inclination of 45.
49. Find the equation of the curve at every point of which y" - and
which passes through the point (1, 0) with an inclination of 135'\
50. Find the equation of the curve whose subnormal is constant and
equal to 2 a. Aws. y'2 4 ax -f C, a parabola.
52. Find the curve whose subnormal equals the abscissa of the point
of contact. Ans. y 2 x 2 = 2 C, an equilateral hyperbola.
CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION 233
53. Find the curve whose normal is constant (= /?), assuming that
y =R when JT = 0. An*, a* 2 + ?r = A>2 ,
a circle.
56. Find the curves in which the angle between the radius vector and
the tangent at any point is n times the vectorial angle. .4 ;/s. p" = c sin ?/0.
<* _ ,
or dv=.fdt. Integrating,
To determine C, suppose that the initial velocity is ?><>; that is, let v - p, when
1 = 0.
These values substituted in (1) give
p () =. -f C, or C = Vo.
Hence (1) becomes
(2) v=ft + v .
=
Since
^ ^c > Art" 51) we ^ ct from (2)
*=/ + *,
or dx = ft dt + vodl .
Integrating,
(3) s = \ // 4 ?'o/4
2
r\
To determine C, suppose that the initial distance is ; that is, let =o when /=0.
These values substituted in (3; give
s = -h -f C, or C=8 .
(4) B = J/J
2
+ (,/ + *U.
234 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
By substituting the values / 0, vo = 0, 8 = 0, = h, in (2) and (4), we get the
laws of motion of a body falling from rest in a vacuum, namely,
?' = (//, and h ^ gl*.
dx
~- = ?,' () cos a and
,
-~
<///
= yt
.
,
-f- ?
(
o sin a,
d/ d/
-'
-f ?;,, sin cv / 4- ^4.
To determine r 3 and (\ we obser\e that when / = 0, x and ^/
= 0.
Substituting these values in (G gives
( \ 4
- arid C , 0.
Hence
(7) x = 7>o cos a -
/, and
(8) y \ f/'~ + ''o sin <x
-
t.
(9) y = x tan a
'2 r<>- cos 2 a
which is the equation of the trajectory and shows that the projectile will move in a
parabola.
PROBLEMS
In the following problems the relation between r and / is given. Find
the relation between s and Mf s = 2 when / = 1.
Ans. s = a(t
- 1) -f b(t
2 - 1) + 2.
3. r =^ -f -
CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION 235
In the following problems the expression for the acceleration is given.
Find the relation between r and if r 2 when = 3. / t
4. 4 - f2. An*, r = 4 f
- J /'
- 1. 5. V/ -f 3.
7. - 32. An*, s = 20 t
- 16 /-'. 8. 4 - /. 9. - 16 cos 2 t.
10. With what velocity will a stone strike the ground if dropped from
the top of a building 120 ft. high? vl = ;?'J.) An*. 87.61 ft. per second.
/
11. With what velocity will the stone of Problem 10 strike the ground
if thrown downward with a speed of 'JO ft. per second? if thrown upward
with a speed of 20 ft. per second? Ans. 89.89 ft. per second.
12. A stone dropped from a balloon \\hich was rising at the rate of
15 ft. per second reached the ground in 8 sec. How high was the balloon
when the stone was dropped? Ans. 904 ft.
13. In Problem 12, if the balloon bad been falling at the rate of 15 ft.
per second, how long \\ould the stone have taken to reach the ground?
%
.4//,s .
7j' (
<
sec.
14. A train leaving a railroad station has an acceleration of 0.5 -f- 0.02 / ft.
per second per second. Find how far it \vill move in 20 sec. AHS. 126.7 ft.
15. A
particle sliding on a certain inclined plane is subject to an ac-
celeration downward of 4 ft. per second per second. If it is started up-
ward from the bottom of the plane with a velocity of 6 ft. per second,
find the distance moved after / sec. How far will it go before sliding
backward? An*. 4.5ft.
16. If the inclined plane in Problem 15 is 20 ft. long, find the necessary
initial speed in order that the particle may just reach the^tpp of the plane.
Aits. 4 VlO ft. per second.
17. A ball thrown upward from the ground reaches a height of 80 ft.
(a) If a 45, find the height of the point struck on the wall.
An. 192 ft.
(b) Find a so that the the base, of the wall.
projectile will strike
Anx. 18 or 72.
(c) Find a. so that the projectile will strike 80 ft. above the base.
AUK. 29 or 70.
(d) Find a for the maximum height on the wall and this height.
Ana. 59 ; 256 ft.
236 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
19. If the acceleration of a particle moving with a variable velocity r
is kv 2 ,
where k is a constant, and if r is the velocity when / = 0, show
F *-
A/
terms of /, knowing that r when / 0. Ans. v (1 c ).
K
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. The temperature
of a liquid in a room of temperature 20 is ob-
served to be 70", and after 5 min. to be 60 Assuming the rate of cool-.
the length of the corresponding radius vector, and which passes through
the point (a, 0). Ans. p = ac" e .
4. A
particle moves in the .r //-plane so that the components of velocity
parallel to the .r-axis and the //-axis are ky and kx, respectively. Prove that
the path is an equilateral hyperbola.
5. A particle projected from the top)
of a tower at an angle of 45 above
the horizontal plane strikes the ground in 5 sec. at a horizontal distance
from the foot, of the tower equal to its height. Find the height of the
tower (g = 32). AUK. 200 ft.
6. A
particle starts from the origin of coordinates and in / sec. its
x-component of velocity isP 4 and its //-component is 4 t.
(a) Find the position of the particle after / sec.
.r- / - 4 /, = 2 / 2 Atis. i :i
i/ .
Ans. jr = c\n (
c ?/"
)
- Vc 2 - y*.
\ V /
8. Find the equation of the curve for which 2
(Art. 96) a ds = 3
p dO t
y = 0(x)
be the equation of the curve An. Let CD be a fixed and a MP
variable ordinate, and let u be the measure of the area CMPD.
When x takes on a small increment Ax, ?/ takes on an increment
Aw (= area MNQP). Completing the rectangles 1\1\KI> and MNQS,
we see that
142. The definite integral. It follows from the theorem in the last
article that if the curve AB is the locus of
then du = ?/ dx, or
(1) dw = <f)(x)dx,
* In this figure MP
is less than NQ ; if MP happens to be greater than NQ, simply
'erse the inequality signs,
reverse
237
238 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
where du is the differential of the area between the curve, the x-axis,
and two ordinates. Integrating, we get
(2)
o=/(o)-f r,
and hence r = /(a;.
Then (2) becomes
(3) w -/(.r) -/(a).
Hence we have
(A) Area CEFD = f(b) - f(a).
gives the area bounded by the curve whose ordfnate is y, the x-axis, and
the ordinatex corresponding to x = a and, .r = b.
called integration between limits, a being the lower and 6 the wpper
limit.f
Since (4) always has a definite value, it is called a definite integral.
For, if
I
c/)(.r)dr-/(.r) + T,
t/
r h
= -
then I 0(.rW.r- /(r) + T [/(&) + T] [/(a) + C],
Ja
or
j <t>(jc)djr or I
n df
'a J
as the numerical measure of the area bounded by the curre //
~ </>(>),*
the x-ajris,and the ordinates of the curre at j ~ a and JT h. This
definition presupposes that these lines hound an area; that is, the curve
does not rise or fall to infinity and does not cross the .r-uj/.s, ami both
a and b are finite.
Solution, f
*
JT~ djc - I
~ 1
4
- -- -- -
1
-
12 1 . \ ws.
J\ I 'Hi '* ^
/7T
Solution. I
rn
sin j- djr ~
i
- cos /
I? 1
I
( 1 )
111 '
" -- ^ nK -
J<
Jo l I J i J
- -
ILLUSTRATIVE FA AMPLE 3. Prove / .
,/ a- -| f- 4 <i
1 1 7T
'
- arc tan - -
arc tan
i
- -
arc tan
A /,
Solution
ion. / 7 1
Jo
*:
-f JC* a a 4 a
rj r ~ ]
~
/o ]
V~
4 J - Q
.>
"-
v>
1
' T1 f)
""
' 134 -
- 2 r, - ^- 2
Solution. Comparing with (19) or (19 a), r ry :j f
r/?> c/j.
Todecide between the use of (19) or (19 a), consider the limits. The values of
x increase from - 1 to 0.
Then v (= 2 x) increases from 2 to 0.
Evaluating in (1) gives the answer. The result is negative because the curve and
the bounding ordinates lie below the j%axis.
Solution. Assume x z
1
.
Then dx - 4 z
'
r* dx _ r2 z 4 z'' dz
1 + X*
The relation between the old and the new variable should be such that to each
value of one within the limits of integration there is always one, and only one, finite
value of the other. When one is given as a many-valued function of the other, care
must be taken to choose the right values.
PROBLEMS
a
1. Prove that f V(.r)dr '
=- f f(x)dx.
Ja Jl>
0.3167.
-2x
# ~ ln 2>
9 -
W
12. f ^/2 + 2 cos 6 d6 = 4.
g i
*
.
i<
-v _ ^ i^ o ^o
'() X + 1 3 7T
in 3 x cos 3 x dx =
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 241
20. jcc
" dr.
I
21. /
'"cos- (3 J0.
Jv
23.
145. Calculation of areas. On page 238 it was shown that the area
between a curve, the j-axis, and the ordinates
x = a and x == b is given by the formula
rb
(B) Area= I
y dx,
Ja
where the value of y in terms of x is substituted
from the equation of the given curve.
Area ABDC =
by (22)
)
=39.3.
y-axis. In the figure 242) the point P' on the parabolic arc PP" is chosen so
(p.
that AO = OB. The ordinates of P, P', P" are, respectively, y, y', y" Prove that .
the area between the parabola, the z-axis, and the ordinates of P and P" equals
i h(y +
4 y' + y"} if 2 fe is the distance apart of the ordinates of P and P".
242 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Solution. Take the ?/-axis along the ordinate of P', as in the figure. Then
AB = 2 k. The equation of a parabola with axis parallel to the #-axis is, by (7),
z
p. 4, (x h)' 2 [>(y k). If this is solved for y,
the result takes the form P"
(1) //
~
as* + 2 bx + r.
H- (ax- + 2 bx + r)ds = *
ah' + 2 ch.
J("h
(2)
y'
if x - 0, ?/'
- O/'' r ;
Therefore ',
//(// + 4 ?/' + ?/" )
-;
/?
(
-f 2 r// = M. O.E.D.
146. Area when the equations of the curve are given in parametric
form. 4 Let the equations of the curve be Driven in the parametric form
jr -/(/). y/
= (/>(/).
We then have //
--
</>(/), and djr J'(t)dt. Hence
[!> fh
CD Area-- / // <1 x = / </>(/)/'(/)</*,
./a .//,
When j- --=
0, </>
=--
i IT ;
as f
I
,
ah sin"
.
., ,
<p ad)
, ,
~ irab
4 Jo Ji>7r 4
PROBLEMS
1. Find by integration the area of the triangle bounded by the line
y = "2 .r, the .r-axis, and the ordinate .r = 4. Verify your result by finding
the area as half the product of the base and altitude.
2. Find by integration the area of the trapezoid bounded by the line
jr -f //
= 10, the .r-axis, and the ordinates jr = 1 and x 8. Verify your
result by finding the area as half the product of the sum of the parallel
sides and the altitude.
* For a more advanced
rigorous proof of this substitution the student is referred to
treatises on the calculus.
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 243
Find the area bounded by the given curve, the j-axis, and the given
ordinates.
3. y
3
.r ;
.r = 0, jr = 4. Aw. 64.
4. ?/
= 9 -.r = 0, = 3. 2
;
.r .r
'
18.
5. y = r< + 3 .r- -f 2 = - .r ;
.r 3, .r = 3. 54.
6. ?/
= j-2-f j-f 1; = 2, = .r j- 3. 9-;.
7. .r//
= = a, =
A-
2
; jr j- fc. F In f~)-
10
9. //
= , ;
.r = 0, j- - 5. 20.
Vj- 4-4
10. a// = .r V J - .r
1
'
;
a* = 0, .r
- a. \
;
-.
11. ?/- + 4 .r = ;
JT = - 1, = 0. .* 14. //
= 4 .r
- .r
L>
;
jr -- 1, .r = 3.
13. y = .r
2
+ 4 jr ;
.r = - 4, = - 2. j- 16. 2 //
- .r
{
;
./ - 0, .r -= 2.
Find the area l>ounded by the given curve, the //-axis, and the given lines.
17. ?r =4 jr ; //
= 0, //
- 4. AH*. 5.\.
18. ?/
-4- j-- ; //
= 0, //
= 3. 4;|.
- :{
3. 21.
:i - rrV - 0,
- a.
19. jc 9 ?/ /y ; y 0, ?/ // ; // //
= 4. 22. - .r^
~
0,
- a.
20. jry 8 ; y 1, // <//r ; // //
Sketch each of the following curves and find the area of one arch.
= -8
24. ?/
2 sin \ irx.
1
25. ?/ cos 2 jr.
26. ?/
= sin \x.
4.
27. Find the area bounded by the coordinate axes and the parabola
Vx -f V?/ = Va.
28. Prove that the area of any segment of a parabola cut off by a chord
two thirds of the circumscrib-
perpendicular to the axis of the parabola
is
ing rectangle.
29. any two points on an equilateral hyperbola xy
P and Q are
= k.
Show that the area bounded by the arc PQ, the ordinates of P and Q,
and the x-axis is equal to the area bounded by PQ, the abscissas of P
and and the
Q, 7/-axis.
= n
^
30. Find the area bounded by the catenary y %a(c + c V, the
x-axis, and the lines x = a and x = a.
^ ns a ^( e _ 1\
\ e)
244 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
31. Find the area included between the two parabolas t/
2 = 2 px and
x' 2 = 2 py. Am. f p
2
.
y
2 - x'2 (jr'2 - 1) and by the line x-2. Ans. 2\/3.
35. Find the area inclosed by the loop of the curve whose equation is
37. Find the area inclosed by the loop of the curve whose equation is
2
7/2 x(x 2)' . Ans. ^|V2.
38. Find the area inclosed by the loop of the curve whose equation is
41. Find the area bounded by one arch of the cycloid x = a(0 sin 0),
43. The locus in the figure is called the "companion to the cycloid."
Its equations are
x = aO, Tl
y = a (l COS 0).
x = a cos 3
0,
y = a sin
3
0,
-9
c *
-
being the parameter. Ans. that is, three eighths of the area
of the circumscribing circle.
is the speed curve of the motion, and the area under it and between
any two ordinates will represent the distance passed through in the
corresponding interval of time.That is, the number which denotes
the area equals the number which denotes the distance (or value of
the integral). Similarly, a definite integral standing for volume, sur-
face,mass, force, etc. may be represented geometrically by an area.
148. Approximate integration. Trapezoidal rule. We now prove two
rules for evaluating
Jo
by the curve
(2) y=f(x),
the x-axis, and the ordinates
x = a, x = b. This area may be
evaluated approximately by add-
ing together trapezoids, as follows.
Divide the segment b a on
OX into n equal parts, each of
length Ax. Let the successive
abscissas of the points of division
be x (= a), xi, x2 , -, x n (= b). At these points erect the correspond-
^ _ a _f
>
Solution. Here
]
-^11 ,
]
1 = Aa*. The area in question is under the
n
curve y ~- x~. Substituting the abscissas x 1, 2, 3, ,
12 in this equation, we
get the ordinates 1, 4, 9, -, 144. Hence, from (T),
//
PROBLEMS
Compute the approximate values of the following integrals by the
trapezoidal rule, using the values of n indicated. Check your results by
performing the integrations.
rio/
io/ r
1 .1 ; w = 7.
^3 X
2. f x V25
- x 2 dx; n = 10.
/o
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 247
7.
f \/125-a'
2
(ir; n = 5. 44.17. 12. T vT^'TiT^ cir ;
= 5.
/o Ji
6 4
8. r Vl26-o^dr; n = 4. 34.78. 13. ( --^L^ ; n = 6.
9. = 6. 9.47.
VIO ~f .r
2
(1) in Illustrative Example 3, Art. 14f>, and the values of the con-
stants a, b, c may be determined so that this parabola shall pass
through three given points. In the present investigation, however,
this is not necessary.
We now divide the interval from x a = OA/o to x =b OM n
into an even number (= n) of parts, each equal to Ax. Through
each successive set of three points /'<>, ]\, P 2 /^, /'n, /*4 etc., are ; ;
MoP P2 M
P n n is thus replaced by a set of "double parabolic
strips" such as MoPvP\P<2M<2 whose upper boundary is in every
,
of this example.
For the first one, h = Ax, y 2/0, y' = yi, y" z. Hence
248 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
parts into which MuM n is divided, the closer will the result be to the
area under the curve.
rl()
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Calculate I jc
:{
dx by Simpson's rule, taking ten
intervals.
^
Solution. Here
>
= = 1 = Ax. The area in question is under the
n 10
curve y - .r\ Substituting the abscissas x 0, 1, 2, -, 10 in y = x'\ we get the
ordinates y = 0, 1 8, 27, -, 1000. Hence, from (S),
,
Area = Jj(0 +4 + 1 6 4 108 -f 128 + 500 + 4 32 + 1372 -f 1024 +2916 4- 1000) =2500.
f {
dr = " 2500, so that in this example Simpson's rule
By integration, ^' I
1 "\/4 -f a-* dx
by (S), taking n = 4. Jo
\
Compare this result with that given by (7) when n = 10, namely 4.826.
In this case formula (S) gives a better approximation than (T) when n = 4.
PROBLEMS
Compute the approximate values of the following integrals by Simp-
son's rule, using the values of n indicated. Check your results by perform-
ing tbe integrations.
_ .
n =6 .
Ja 4 -f x
2. jV25-r 2
dx; n = 4. . f Vl6 + x 2 dx ;
n =6
*/4
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 249
4
f dx
*
5. / ;
n = 4. Ans. 1.236.
Jo >/4 _j_ j-a
6. rVl + .r'dr
Jo
= 4. 3.239.
5
7. f Vl26 -.r'dr; n = 4. 35.68.
9.49.
9. / V6 + X 2 dx; n = 4. n. ,r
*
jr (Lr ;
n 4 .
r5 ~ri A*
10. 12. -
'*
VTT^' - V5 -f j-
{
Jz V3 -f r 3 ^o
f <fr(x)dx=f(b)-f(a),
/a
(/>(x)dx
=- I c/)(x)cfx.
Xb Jb
integral. Since
Tl
h
r
and I <t>(x)dx=f(b)-J(xi),
Jx\
we get, by addition,
rh
But <t>(x)dx=f(b)-f(a)',
I
Ja
therefore, by comparing the last two expressions, we obtain
r
From I
<p(jc}dx= /(?>)- /(a)
'a
= lim
X / <t>(x)dx,
/- b
4>(jc)dx = lim I
<t>(x)dx,
/t> oo <i -* - oc
t /a
Solution. f
x2
= lim
f x2
fr
^= lim
|-1]"= lim
\-}+l\=\. Ans.
J\ b- -i xJi b ,
f oc I
.r 1
1 /, .
i oc L & .1
x '
n = = r
m \
i -
= lim 4 a'
2
arc tan 4 a'
2
"2 7R7". .Arts.
8a :{
y
x 2
+ 4 a2
=4 a .
?
arc tan -
,
Then as the ordinate bQ moves indefinitely to the right, the area OPQb ap-
1
/-f 00
^3. '
Jj x
Solution. = Hm :c
=: lim (ln
X b--foo
The limit of In b as b increases without limit does not exist ; hence the integral
has in this case no meaning.
f*b
(t>(x)dx
= \im I
4>(x}dx.
(1)
Xb e->OJa+t
252 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Likewise, when <fr(x) is continuous except at x = b, we define
rb r*>-<
(2) I 0(z)az = lim I
<t>(x)dx,
Ja - Ja
provided the limits exist.
dx
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Find
o2 x'2
-
.
\ a2
= lim arc sin /I -- -\ 1 = arc sin 1 = ? Ans -
* - o L \ a/ J 2
J x2
Solution. Here becomes infinite for x = 0. Therefore, by (1),
In this case there is no limit, and therefore the integral does not exist.
then, e and e' being positive numbers, the integral between a and 6
isdcjirwd by
a
= limf 3(z
2 - a 2 )*l
'
+ lim \S(x* - a2
*-oL Jo '-*oL
= lim [3S^(a c)
2 - a2 + 3 a^J + lim o + c')
2 - a 2]
t - o *'-* o
= 3 o* -f 6 a* =9 a'. Ans.
To interpret this geometrically, let us
plot the graph, that is, the locus, of
= 2x
v
(x*-a*rt
and note that x = a is an asymptote.
--< 2xox
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 253
Then as PE moves to the right toward the asymptote, that is, as c approaches
zero, the area OPE approaches 3 a^ as a limit.
Similarly,
2 J dx
Area E'QRG -
/
a 4- e') a - aa
5
approaches 6 a as a limit as QE' moves to the left toward the asymptote, that is,
( r
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 4. Find \ f
-
./o (.r a^-
Solution. This function also becomes infinite between the limits of integration.
Hence, by (3), 8
^ (z-a)
o
rf_ = lim
J
-.oJo
f V^
(x-a)-
+ lim f "-^-
'-,o-'a+t'(-r
- ")-
t
PROBLEMS
Work out each of the following integrals.
C+ dx _ TT
Jo x 2 -hl"2 7.f
Jo
7T =
V2.
1 z
9. ira
4
r+ dx _
~~ ^TT_ 10.
o a2 2
4- 6 x
2
2 a6 x2 + 2x + 2
oo x dx _1
(1 +x 2
)
2
~4*
CHAPTER XV
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION
155. Introduction. Thus far we have defined integration as the
inverse of differentiation. In a great many of the applications of the
(1) <t>(x)dx=f(b)-f(a)
f
gives the area bounded by the curve
y =
(/>(/), the j-axis, and the ordinates
erected at x a and .r = b.
Ail ',; \
(c)
-----h
lim [<Kxi)Azi
-
+ 0fejAx + 0fe)Ax
2 ;{ H
(A) f (f>(x)dx
= lim [^(xi) Axi + ^(
Ja n^
This equation has been derived by making use of the notion of area.
Intuition has aided us in establishing the result. Let us now regard
then be stated as
(A) simply as a theorem in analysis, which may
follows.
256 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Then the limiting value of this sum when n increases without limit,
and each subinterval approaches zero ax a limit, equals the value of the
definite integral
f
Ja
<t>(x)dx.
(3)
C
I
h
(p(x)dx = ^
lim 2,(/>0\)Aa%-.
Ja n oc*_ t !
The importance of this theorem results from the fact that we are
able to calculate by integration a magnitude which is the limit of a sum
of the form (2).
It may be remarked that each term in the sum (2) is a differen-
tialexpression, since the lengths AJI, A;r 2 Aj approach zero as , , ri
fei a
or, since fei a == A.TI,
(2)
(formed as in last article) does not also give the area, nevertheless we
may show that the two sums (2) and (3) approach equality when n in-
creases without limit and each subinterval approaches zero as a limit.
For the difference </>(x\) 0(x ) does not exceed in numerical value the t
<t>(jr)djc
= lim
'<i n+K*-
in which the" interval [a, l>\ is subdivided in any manner whatever and x t
Area
Hence the area between a curve, the //-axis, and the horizontal
lines y = c and y = d is given by the formula
(C) = r xdy,
Jc
the value of x in terms of // being substi-
tuted from the equation of the curve.
Formula (C) is remembered as indicating X
the limit of the sum of all horizontal strips
(rec tangles) within the required area, jr and </// being, respectively,
the base and altitude of any strip. The element of the area is one
of these rectangles.
Meaning of the negative sign before an area. In formula (B), a is
less than b. Since we now interpret the right-hand member as the
limit of the terms resulting from //, A.r, by let ting i = 1 2, :*,
sum of ti
,
?/, then,
, y if each term of this sum will be negative,
is 'ticyatire,
and (B) will give the area with a negative sign prefixed. This means
that the area lies below the .r-axis.
r
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Find the urea of
one arch of the sine curve y sin jr.
Substituting in (B),
ment
Solution.
of area
By
= xdy
(C) above,
a V" dy substituting the value
and the
f
figure, the ele-
7vN
?(*,y)
of x from the equation of the curve MN. Hence
Area BMNC = f
Ja
%V dy
- I
2
(^2 - l)= 1.304 a 2 . Ans.
Solution. The curves intersect at A (2, 2), B(8, 4). Divide the area into
horizontal strips by a system of equidistant lines parallel to OA' drawn from the
parabola AOH
to the line AH. Let
their commondistance apart be dy.
Consider the strip in the figure whose
upper side has the extremities (xi, y),
(x<2, y}. From these points drop per-
pendiculars on the lower side. Then
a rectangle is formed and its area is
given by
(1) dA = (x 2 -xi)dy. (x-2 > x,)
in which x^and x\ are functions of y determined from the equations of the bounding
curves. Thus, in this example, from x y 4 we find x X* 4 + y from ;
y* 2 x we find x Ji = \ y'
2
. Then we have, by (1),
(3) dA = (4 + y
- I y'^dy.
This formula will apply to the rectangle formed from any strip. The limits are
r = - 2 (at A), d = 4 (at B}. Hence
Area = - i y'
2
)dy = 18. Ans.
In this example the area can be divided also into strips by a system of equidis-
tant lines parallel to OK. Let A.r be their common distance apart. The upper
end of each line will lie on the parabola
O7>. But the lower end will lie on the
parabola OA when drawn to the left of
A, but on the line AH when drawn to
the right of A. If (x, y>2 ) is the upper
extremity, and (x, y\) the lower, the
rectangle whose area is
(4) dA = (y,
- y,)dx (y, > y,}
isthe element of area. But in this ex- X
ample it is not possible to find by (4) a
single formula to represent the area of
every one of the rectangles. For while
y.2
= V2 x, we have ?/i = V2 x or
?/!
= x 4, according as the lower ver-
tex of dA is on the parabola or on AB. Thus from (4), we have two forms of dA
and two integrations are necessary.
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 261
the definite integral (3), Art. 156, is zero. The interpretation of this
result using areas appears from Illustrative Example 1 above.
PROBLEMS
Find the area bounded by the hyperbola
1. x\i
= a 2 the
, .r-axis, and
the ordinates x = a and x 2 a. Ans. 2
a' In 2.
4. Find the area bounded by the parabola V.r + V# - Va, and the
coordinate axes. A u*. { a 2 .
Find the areas bounded by the following curves. In each case draw the
figure, showing the element of area.
6. y - 6 x' = 6 y. A HK.
2
.r,
2
12. 10. ir = 2 .r- -f 2 = 4 x.
.r, ?/
7. y'
= 4 x, x 2 - 6 y.
2
8. 11. //
= 6 - x~, y - x.
.r
8. y'
2 -
4 2 x - y = 4.
JT, 9. 12. //
= -- 8 x, = x.
.r
'
/y
9. y=4
- x 2 y - 4 - 4 x. , lOg. 13. y- = 4x,x = 12 + 2
- ?/ //
2
.
2
Find the area bounded by the parabola y
14. 6 -f 4 a- -r and the
chord joining (- 2, - 6) and (4, 6). An*. 36.
16. Find an expression for the area bounded by the equilateral hyper-
bola x 2 y
2 = a2 ,
the .r-axis, and a line drawn from the origin to any
point (x, y) on the curve. Am"2 ^ q^_
ix + y\
\ a )
17. Find the area bounded by the curve y - x(l Vx) and the line
r = 4. Aw. -4*.
18. Find the area bounded by the curve
2
x' y = x'2 1 and the lines
y = 1, x = 1, and x = 4. ^s. f .
20. y = x2 . ATMS. 2.
= sin ~-
26. y -
Ans.
21. y = x*. 3. 7T
- 2
22. y = x
4
. 4. 27. ?/
= jrc
J
y* = x
2
23. .
24. Vx + 5.
x8
32-3 TT
25. + ir* 29.
3 7T
For each of the following curves calculate the area in the first quad-
rant lying under the arc which extends from the //-axis to the first inter-
cept on the .r-axis.
30. jr -f // + 2
y' = 2. An*. I}-. 34. ?/
= e- cos 2 j\
x
31. ?/
= ^-8r + 2
15 j. 15J. 35. ?/ 4 r - cos J
T
32. y = r
c sin .r. 12.07. 36. y sin (j- + 1).
33. = (4 - x)\
2
of the sectors is
n
pr A0i + % p 2
2
A0 2 H h i Pn
2
A0 7t
= VJ Pl
-'
A0,.
For the area of a circular sector = J- radius X arc. Hence the area of
the first sector
A0j o pr' A0i, etc. J PI p\ =
THIRD STEP. Applying the Fundamental Theorem,
lim 4
= f A
p
2
rfff.
./a
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 263
Hence the area swept over by the radius vector of the curve in mov-
ing from the position OP\ to the position OD is given by the formula
(D)
*- v/<i Jo
that is, the area of both loops equals the area of a square constructed on OA as
one side.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the area bounded by the circle p = a cos and the lines
= and = 60. An*. 0.37 a 2 .
2
2. Find the entire area of the curve p a sin 2 0. 4n,s. i Tra .
3. p
2 = 4 sin 2 0. An.s. 4. 10. p = 3 + cos 3 0.
4. p = a cos 3 0. i Tra
2
.
1 1. p
- a cos -f 6 sin ^.
16. Find the area bounded by the parabola pfl + cos 0) = a and the
lines = and = 120. Am. 0.866 a 2 .
-
a2 .
20. Show that the area bounded by any two radii vectors of the hyper-
bolic spiral pO a is proportional to the difference between the lengths
of these radii.
a 2 sin 2 6
2
o.' b'
-f b'
2
2
:
cos 2 6
Ans. irab.
22. Find the entire area of the curve p = afsin 20 + cos 2 0).
2
Ans. ira' .
c\
23. Find the area below OA' within the curve p = a sin-^
-
o
&(io 7r + 27V3)a 2
.
2 2 2
24. Find the area bounded by p' a sin 4 0. Ans. a .
Find the area bounded by the following curves and the given lines.
Calculate the area which the curves in each of the following pairs have
in common.
29. p = X cos 0, p 1 -f cos 0. Ans. TT.
30. p - 1 -f cos 0, p - 1. - .
32. p 2 = 2 cos 2 0, p = 1. i TT
- Vs.
+ 2
33. p
2 =
cos 2 0, p 2 = sin 2 0. 1 - J V2.
34. p = V6 cos 0, p = 9 cos 2
2
0. i(?r + 9 - 3V).
35. p = V2 sin 0, p = cos 2 0. 2
( TT -f 3
- 3V).
p = V2 cos 0, p - V3 sin 2 0.
2
36.
39. Find the area of the inside loop of the trisectrix p = a(l 2 cos 0).
For figure, see limayon, Chapter XXVI. Ans. \ a (2 2
TT
- sVs).
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 265
cylinder generated by the rectangle AEFD will be iry\~ Axi, and the
sum of the volumes of all such cylinders is
iry 2- Ax 2 ry n
-
Ax =
rt
V
THIRD STEP. Applying the Fundamental Theorem (using limits
OA = a and OB = b),
-. pi>
lim ,
JIa
Hence the volume generated by revolving about the x-axis the
area bounded by the curve, the x-axis, and the ordinates x a and
x b is given by the formula
(E) Vx =n f y* dx,
Ja
where the value of y in terms of x must be substituted from the
equation of the given curve.
This formula is easily remembered if we consider a thin slice or
disk of the solid between two planes perpendicular to the axis of
revolution and regard this circular plate as, approximately, a cylin-
266 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
2
der of altitude dx with a base of area Try 2 and hence of volume Try dx.
This cylinder is the element of volume.
Similarly, when OY is the axis of revolution, we use the formula
(F) Vv - TT x* dy,
jf
where the value of x in terms of y must be substituted from the
~ 4-
#_ i about the x-axis.
a2 b2
Solution. Since 2
y'
=^ (a
2 - x 2 ), and the
^L = 7T/Jo 2
y' dx = TT
Jo
^(a'-
a-
2 irab*
is only a special case of the ellipsoid. When the ellipse is revolved about its major
axis, the solid generated is called a prolate spheroid when about its minor axis, an ;
oblate spheroid.
If the equations of the curve CD in the figure on page 265 are given
in parametric form _ /,,\ .
y =
,
</>(/),
/A
t = /, when x = a, t = / L. when x = b.
= rb
(3) V; TT
Ja
y>> are functions of x (= OM) found from the equations of the curves
.-. dV - ir(y 2
2 - 2/1
2
) Ax = 4 irb Va - x2 2
Ax.
By (3), Vx = 4 irb x 2 dx =2 7T
2
a 2 6. Aw.
268 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
A may be divided into cylindrical shells by
solid of revolution
passing through a system of circular cylinders whose common axis
it
= rb
(4; 2ir
Ja
\ (y>> -y } )xdx,
PROBLEMS
1. Find the volume of the sphere generated by revolving the circle
2 2 2
x' -f y' r' about a diameter. Ans. f Trr*.
generated by revolving about its axis the arc of the parabola y' = 2 px
2
6. ay'
2
.r\ ?/
= 0, .r = a. TTO 3
8. The hypocycloid x$ -f y* = cA
16. ?/
2
(2 a
- x) = JT*, y = 0, = a. jr 0.2115 wa\
17. y = a-
2 - 6 x, = 0. //
18.
2 =
j/ (2
- .r) = 0, = 0, = 3
, ?/
jc j- 1.
19. i/
2
(4 + .r
2
)
= 1, //
= 0, jc = 0, a* = oo.
20. Cr - 1 )y = 2, ?/
= 0, j- = 2, r = 5.
21. y = .r ',
:
?/
= 0, x = 2. Aw.s. V TT.
22. 2 y 2 = x\:
?/
= 0, T = 2. TT-
23. ?/
= <
>T
, //
= 0, x 0. 2 TT.
24. 9 JC
2
-f 16 2
y'
- 144. 64 TT.
25. (-
26. y 2 = 9 - a% = 0. a-
27. x 2 = 16 - y, y = 0.
28. ?/
2 = GLT, ?/
= 0, j- = a.
An.s. | ?ra 2 6.
32. = 3; y = 4 x - x 2
. Ann. jf TT.
33. x = 4 = y*. ; ?/
2
*%$* *
34. y - - 4 = 4 + 6 x - 2 x2
; T/ .
-i^p TT.
35. y = r; y = j-
a
.
gig ;rV2.
= # = 4 j - x
2
36. JT ; .
54 TT V2.
37. ?/
= +7 =9-x
.r ; ?/
2
.
4 TT Vi
38. s -f = V7 + \/T/ = 1.
?/ 1 ;
^ 7r\/2.
39. r -f = 7 .n/ = 6.
?/ ;
40. Find the volume generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
T \
"
(I
c" 4- f "/
about the .r-axis from x = to r 6.
A4 w.
7T^'
5
(
V<'
?-"
f ?)/
(/ _L
-f-
^ 2
^
y/
2
42.
-
L
- Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the cissoid
jT
rt
r<
jc
about its asymptote jr 2 (/.
--
.4//,s. 2 TrV.
the volume of the solid generated by revolving it about OX. An*. ?ra
:
'.
}
y = a sin : *
6,
46. Find the volume generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
x- a(0 - sin 0),
= ad cos 6}
about its base OA". Ans. 5 ?r
2
a3 .
Show that if the arch be revolved about ())', the volume generated
3
is 6 7r a3 .
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 271
47. Find the volume generated if the area bounded by the curve
y = sec \ TTJC, the .r-axis, and the lines jr = } is revolved about the .r-axis.
Ans. 4.
to a* TT is re-
volved about the .r-axis. Find the volume generated.
49. Given the curve x 2 =4 -K / , ?/ t Find (a) the area of the loop
and (b) the volume generated by the area inside the loop when revolved
about the x-axis. Ans. (a) vV ; (b) 67.02.
51. Revolve about the polar axis the part of the cardioid p 4 -f 4 cos
between the lines 6 = and =^ and compute the volume.
Ans. 160 TT.
Since this limit will also be the measure of the length of some
straight line, the finding of the length of a curve is also called "the
rectification of the curve."
The student has already made use of this definition for the length
of a curve in his geometry. Thus the circumference of a circle is
defined as the limit of the perimeter of the inscribed for circum-
scribed) regular polygon when the number of sides increases without
limit.
272 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
The method of the next article for finding the length of a plane
curve is based on the above definition, and the student should note
very carefully how it is applied.
162. Lengths of plane curves; rectangular coordinates. We shall now
proceed to express, in analytical form, the definition of the last article,
making use of the Fundamental Theorem.
Given the curve
P'(x
f
, y
f
P'P" = V(A:r')-
But from the Theorem of Mean Value (Art. 116) (if Ay' is denoted
by /(ft) /(a) and A?' by b
- a), we get
f^'
= /W (x
f
< x { < x' + Ax')
Xi being the abscissa of a point Pi on the curve between P' and P" at
which the tangent is parallel to the chord.
p()Q -
+/'(j M )2]*Aj = length of nth chord.
[i
fw)
The length of the inscribed broken line joining P' and Q (sum of
1=1
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 2755
= f
Ja
(G)
where y
f
= must be found in terms of x from the equation of the
-^
given curve.
Sometimes it is more convenient to use y as the
independent vari-
able. To derive a formula to cover this case, we know from Art. 39
that
= -7- ; hence dx ~ x' dy.
dx or
dy
(H) *= rV+l]dy,
J c
(1) ds = (I + y' 2 )* dx
gives the differential of the arc of a curve. If we proceed from (1)
as in Art. 142, we obtain (G). Also, (H) follows from (E) in Art. 95.
Finally, if the curve is defined by parametric equations
(2) *=/(*), =
it is convenient to use
(3) 8
Solution. *-& -
Differentiating,
(Is y
Substituting in (G),
Arc BA =
dx.
Jo I y
2 = r'2 2 from the
[Substituting y'
jr' equation of the i
4 <-/- sin j I 6 (W 2 .
By (5), Art. 2
Using (,'}), ,s .
j
2 (/ sin ^,
^r/fy 8 . Ana.
'o
The limits are the values of at and 1) see figure, Illustrative Example 2,
Art. SI ), that is, = and = 2 TT.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE ,'i. Find the length of the arc- of the curve 25 y 2 - x5
from x to x ~- 2.
(4) = (1 f j
jc*)*djr = \ I "(4 -f a-'M'^dr.
f
163. Lengths of plane curves ; polar coordinates. From (/), Art. 96,
by proceeding as in Art. 142, we get the formula Nj >
c
then
dp
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 276
Substituting this in
2
[p d6- + dp 2 ]*
gives
\dp.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find the perimeter of the cardioid p u([ 4- cos 0).
= a r
,/o
('1 -f 12 cos 19 >2 dO = 2 a f "cos -
,/(i li
</0 =4 a.
.% = 8 a. Ans.
PROBLEMS
Find the length of the curve whose equation
1. is ?/
:{
= jr~ between the
points (0, 0) and (8, 4). AUK. 9.07.
2. Find the length of the arc of the semicubical parabola ay* x from :i
y3 1
5. Find the length of arc of the curve y 2 = x 3 from the point where
x to the point where x \.
Ans. .]|.
the point
(~
In 2\ Am. In (2 + Vs).
'
2 ^
x = r arc vers - V2 ry
- y'
1
. Ans. 8 r.
V =
HINT. Use (//), Art. 162. Here = 9 _
'
Ans.
a 2 -f ab + b'
2
a -f
16. Find the length between x = a and x = 6 of the curve fjy = c*x 4-
-~-1
1
C 2h 1
Ans. log
Ha + a b.
1
17. The equations of the involute of a circle are
(x
= a (cos + 0sin 0),
= c sm *
= =-
18. Find the length of arc of curve !* f from to
I // << cos 2
19. y = In (1
- .r
2
) from .r = to x - \.
2
x
20. y = -1 In x from x = 1 to x ~ 2.
n
26. Find the length of the curve p = a sec 2 -
from = to =
Aw*. [V2 + ln (V2 + i)] a .
p = from = to = -7-
1 -f cos 2
V + ln (V2 + 1).
28. Find the length of the hyperbolic spiral
p0 = a from (p lf 0i) to (p 2 02). ,
- a In ' (a + .
4- Va'-' -f p, 1 -)
29. Show that the entire length of the curve p = a sirr* ~ is -> Show
that OA, AB, BC (see figure) are in arithmetical progression.
30. Find the length of arc of the cissoid p = 2 a tan sin from =
to e =f '
(2) A/,,
(3) /V A/ = //!-,.
2 TT(//,
- 6, )[1 + /'(*] )~J> A.ri
= lateral area of first frustum.
Similarly,
Hence
rr
(4) 2 2 iry^ - IT
1=1
* The lateral area of the frustum of a cone of revolution is equal to the circumference of
the middle section multiplied by the slant height.
t The student will observe that as A.TI approaches zero as a limit, ci also approaches the
limit zero.
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 279
(TT\ Q 9
* .
(A; OJT
(I) S =2 TT y ds.
J(a
Similarly, when OY is the axis of revolution we use the formula
(M) S - 2 TT f x ds.
Jc
In (L) and (M) ds will have one of the three forms (C), (Z)),
of Art. 95, namely,
v~> i i
between x = and x = a is revolved about OA', Find the area of the surface of
revolution generated.
* This is easily seen as follows. Denote the second sum by S n If equals the largest of
the positive numbers f
d |, |
62 I, ,'!, then
7?
Sn ^
t^[l+f'(r
1=1
The sum on the right is, by Art. 162, equal to the sum of the chords CE, EF, etc. Let
this sum be In Then S n = d n Since lim c = 0, S n is an infinitesimal, and therefore lim S n = 0.
280 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
X-2
Solution. From (5), y' =3 Hence
a2
= (1 + : = (a
4
-f 9 dx.
O i
-I)" 1 =
'
3.6 a 2 .
27
Hence, using the new limits u = 1, w = 0, and interchanging the u limits (Art.
150), the result is
- 2 - du.
(a (a>6)
Working this out by (22), we get
i . 2 irab . . .
2 TO- H
,
= 1
1 4-
.
d.r
,
=-. -
.r 4- V
X*
T~-
/
- fl
X*
dx.
f^ = 27ro^ JorV
This isan improper integral, since the func-
tion to be integrated is discontinuous (becomes
_ 6 va 2 12
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 281
PROBLEMS
1.Find by integration the area of the surface of the
sphere generated
by revolving the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 about a diameter. Ans. 4 irr 2 .
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving each of the follow-
ing curves about OX.
10. 9 y = x*, from y = to x = 2. Am. jj J TT.
12. 2 = 24 - 4 from x = 3 to = 6.
// jr, .r
'$ w.
- = f820 -
13. 6 // j-2, from .r to .r = 4.
81 In
3)^
72
14. y = c~
r
, from j- - to r = oo. 7r[V2 -f In ( 1 -f \/2 )].
18. ?/
2
+ 4 jr = 2 log y t from ?y
= 1 to y - 2. -\? TT.
X = a "" sin
19. The cycloid \
y = ff
a(l cos J-
6).
22. x2 + ?/
2 = 4, from x = 1 to x = 2.
23. x 2
+ 4 ?/
2 = 36.
2 =
24. 9 x2 + 4 ?/ 36.
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving each of the fol-
y = = = 3.
3
26. x ,
from // to ?/
27. 6 a 2 .r// jr + 3 a 1
,from = a to x = 3
jr a. (20 + In 3)?ra 2 .
28. 4 ?/
= .r
2 - 2 In .r, from x = 1 to = 4. a- 24 TT.
29. 2 ?/
- .rvV' - 1 + log (V
- V.r 2 - 1 ), from x = 2 to j- - 5.
Am. 78 TT.
30. ?/
2 = jr
{
,
from x to x 8. 713.
31. 4 //
= .r-, from //
= to y = 4. 33. 4 .r
2
-f /y
2
64.
b curves.
lowing A About OY
35. The ellipse ^
a-
+ f! = r>-
1. 2 vra
2
-f ^lnl
r 1
^j-(^
(Figure, [). 532)
-h3 = 6x//,fromx^ltoa* = 2.
4
37. r H w. ?
7r(V -hln2).
40. The slope of the tractrix at any point of the curve in the first
-2 =
~y
quadrant is given by Show that the surface generated .
Of. Vc 2 - //-'
by revolving about OX the arc joining the points (xj, ?/i) and (x 2t 1/2) on
the tractrix is 2 TJT(//I // L ). (Figure, p. 537)
41. The area in the first quadrant bounded by the curves whose equa-
tions are y x* and y = 4 .r is revolved about OA'. Find the total surface
of the solid generated. Ar?s. 410.3.
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 283
42. The area bounded by the ?/-axis and the curves whose equations
are x 2 =4
y and x 2 y -f 4 = is revolved about OY. Find the total
surface of the solid generated. Ans. 141.5.
Find the surface generated by revolving about
43. OX the arc of the
X3 1
*
44. Find the entire surface of the solid generated by revolving about
OX the area bounded by the two parabolas y'2 = 4 x and // 2 .r -f 3.
165. Solids with known parallel cross sections. In Art. 160 we dis-
cussed the volume of a solid of revolution, such as is shown in the
if 2/ =
(/>(x) is the equation of the
dent that the required volume is the limit of this sum ; hence, by the
Fundamental Theorem,
n
lim
n-^
Y A(x )Ax l l
= I
A(x)dx,
t:= ,
J
and we have the formula
(N) V
were A(x) is defined in (2).
The element of volume is a prism (in some cases a cylinder)
whose altitude is dx and whose base has the area A(x). That is,
civ = A(x)dx.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. The base of
a solid is a circle of radius r. All sections
perpendicular to a fixed diameter of the
base are squares. Find the volume of the
solid.
RM = V2 rx - x~
(found by solving + ^ - 2 the.r
2
r.r, equation of the
circle ORAQ, for //) and
MP = a,
the area of the section is a
This is one half the volume of the cylinder of the same base and altitude.
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 285
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3. Calculate the volume of the ellipsoid
by a single integration.
,
-n-b'c'
, ,
- irbc ,
(a
.,
2 - j-') ,,.
--
.
A(x}.
,
N
Substituting in (W),
"
, r TTbc
- C*
\
,
(a-
,
PROBLEMS
(c) an isosceles right triangle with one leg in the plane of the base ;
An.s. $ r\
2
(d) an isosceles triangle with its altitude equal to 20 in. Ann. 10 ; ?rr .
(e) an isosceles triangle with its altitude equal to its base. Am. r3 .
2. A solid has a base in the form of an ellipse with major axis 20 in.
long and minor axis 10 in. long. Find the volume of the solid if every
section perpendicular to the major axis is
(a) a square ;
An*. 1,333 cu. in.
(b) an equilateral triangle ;
577.3 cu. in.
(c) an isosceles triangle with altitude 10 in. 785.4 cu. in.
286 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
3. The base of a solid is a segment of a
parabola cut off by a chord
perpendicular to its axis. The chord has a length of 16 in. and is distant
8 in. from the vertex of the parabola. Find the volume of the solid if
every section perpendicular to the axis of the base is
(a) a square ; Arts. 1024 cu. in.
(b) an equilateral triangle; 443.4 cu. in.
(c) an isosceles triangle with altitude 10 in. 426. 7 cu. in.
4. A
football is 16 in. long, and a plane section containing a seam is an
ellipse,the shorter diameter of which is 8 in. Find the volume (a) if the
leather is so stiff that every cross section is a square; (b) if the cross
section is a circle. Anx. (a) 341 : \ cu. in. ; (b) 535.9 cu. in.
5. A wedge
cut from a cylinder of radius 5 in. by two planes, one
is
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and the other passing through a
diameter of the section made by the first plane and inclined to this plane
at an angle of 45". Find the volume of the wedge. Ans. *%
Q cu. in.
6. Two
cylinders of equal radius r have their axes meeting at right
angles. Find the volume of the common part. Ans. -^ ra .
9. A
rectangle moves from a fixed point, one side being always equal
to the distance from this point, and the other equal to the
square of this
distance. What is the volume generated while the rectangle moves a
distance of 2 ft.? Am. 4 cu. ft.
11. z = .r'
2
+ 4 y* ; z = 1. Ans. \ TT.
12. 4 x'2 + 9 c2 + ?/
= ; # + = 1 0.
& TT.
13. a-
2
+ 4 y2 = 1 + *2 ; z + 1 = ; z - I = 0. i TT.
14. 25 ir + 9 z2 = 1 + .r- ; .r = ;
.r = 2.
ft TT.
INTEGRATION A PROCESS OF SUMMATION 287
15. .r
2
-f 4 ?/
2
+ 9 z
2 = 1. Ans. $ w.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. Find the area of the loop of the curve
y*
- (jr -f 4)(.r
L' - jr -f 2 y - 4). AUK. vV'-
from the vertex to one end of the latus rectum in 1 sec., what will be its
position at the end of the next 8 sec. ?
Ans. Distance from focus latus rectum.
same arc bounds with the ?/-axis and the line y = ?/, an area Prove that />'.
the volumes obtained by revolving A about the .r-axis and tt about the
?/-axis are equal.
at the point (12, 16) is revolved about the r-axis. Find the volume
inclosed. Am. 1J)
#4 *.
ellipses whose foci are on the given ellipse. The major and minor axes of
each section are proportional to those of the given ellipse. Find the
volume of the solid. Ans. *-& TT.
8. Let (r, y) be a point on the curve of Art.
159, O being the origin
and <)A the x-axis. Show that (D) may be written
Area = (x dy - y ds),
\
j
by using the transformation (5), p. 4. The limits are determined by the
coordinates of the extremities of the curve.
and the .r-axis produced to the left, in the figure of Chapter XXVI,
p. 537.
j
j' = 2 r cos -f r cos 2 6,
1
?/
= 2 r sin - r sin 2 6.
2
(See figure.) Ans. 2 ?rr .
1 +/<
* at ~ 2t
\, and dx = \ ;\ 3 a dt.
(1 -f
== j2 _|_ x __ 3 _|_
r
T + <* .
Case I. When the factors of the denominators are all of the first
degreeand none are repeated.
*See Chapter XX in Hawkes's "Advanced Algebra" (Ginn and Company, Bonton).
289
290 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
To each nonrepeated linear factor, such as x a, there corre-
sponds a partial fraction of the form
A
x a
v
x(x - 1)U 4 2) x x - 1 x42
where A, K, r are constants to be determined.
Clearing ( 1 ) of fractions, we get
Since this equation is an identity, we equate the coefficients of the like powers
of x in the two members according to the method of Undetermined Coefficients,
and obtain three simultaneous equations
r A 4 7? +T= 0,
cn -;
A 4 2 /? - r -2,
2x4 a 3 5 I
r(x-l)~
>;
= In -~
,
A HS.
t
.r'^Cr 42)"
A shorter method of finding the values of A, B, and f from (2) is the following:
* In the
process of decomposing the fractional part of the given differential neither
the integral sign nor dx enters,
FORMAL INTEGRATION BY VARIOUS DEVICES 291
Case II. When the factors of the denominator are all of the first
(x-a)" (x-a)"" 1
x-a
in which A, B, ,
L are constants. These partial fractions are
readily integrated. For example,
C X* 1
+ 1
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find J _ 4
ctr.
4.
cr-1) 2 ar-1
Clearing of fractions,
x< + 1 = A(x- 1) + B;r + Or(j-- 1) + />j(j- I)
;< 2
.
A + />= 1,
- 3 v4 4- C - /> - L* 0,
3 A -f B - T + D -- 0,
- A = 1.
y(jr 1)" x (x
' ,.
ln LH^L a
+
Cr-l)-'
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
2.
JT* X
Q / (4 x -r o;ax _
~~
J- i
1
^
/0 "
i r*
'
r
3
-f 8 x 2 -f 3 x 2 (2 x + N ' v
292 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
r(lr* + 2.r 2 l
)n
(2 x + l)(2or- I)
2
c
J 4 rr 1 - 2 r2
{
.
-
J ?/
J
+ 2 ?/< 2 ?/
4 3
" f -t v o c
3
i
J] x* -f x^ <:
10.
^ -3)^ a
= i n 1 _ =_ o.4K!9.
JLCllk = 5 i n n _ 4 = 1.4930.
2 " ^ 10
f( 5j
'
9)(
lb
i " 2^
'J ^-9.r
~
17 ' f ^<] - + 7v/ ___ 24
n
y f
'./ (2 j- + 8)(4 .r^-
1
- 1)
/
4 ~ 3 y*)dy
20.
r(^
2 - J - 5)(ir (2 /
4
-f 3 /
- 20 /
- 28)d/
01 <wO. f
OR
"" *
*
J^x.
'
I I
Let x +\ p = u. Then x =u
\ p, dx = du. Substituting these
values, the new integral in terms of the variable u is readily integrated.
Solution. Assume
4
= A + Ex .
-f C "
J) * ~xMT
Clearing of fractions, 4 = ,4(x 4- 4) + x(Bx 4 C )
2 = 1
M 4 ft)x* 4- Cx +4 A.
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x, we get
A +B- 0, C= 0, 4 A = 4.
= 0,so that
/- 4 rfar _ rdx _ r xdx
"J 4) ~J x J x 2 -f 4
2
x(x -f
C*
= In r - - In Or 1
-'
4 4) 4- In c = In Ans.
2 Vx 4 2
4
r_&E--i
~ n
^^ 2)2 ^4-^-V^arctan^
+ 8 24 x - 2 x 4 12
J xa V3 2
-f
Solution. Factoring, x
<
-I- 8 = (x + 2) (x
-2 2
x -f 4).
1
~~
Ax -f B C '
x :<
+ 8 x2 - 2 x + 4 x 4- 2
= (A 4- Ox + (2 A + B - 2 C)x -f 2 B -f 4 C.
1
2
Then A=- ^
B = J, C = ^7-
Now x 2 - 2 x + 4 = (x - I) 2 -f 3 = w2 4- 3, if x - 1 = w.
Substituting back u =x- 1, using (4), and reducing, we have the answer.
294 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Case IV. When the denominator contains factors of the second degree
some of which are repeated.
n
To every n-fold quadratic factor, such as (x 2 + px + q) there ,
A* +B I
+DCx . .
Lx+M _
(~22 J_ /n^ _L n n ~
I
(x
2
+ px + q) n , \n
'
(x' + +
px q)
\ 1
l ^22
x + px + q
To carry out the integration, the "reduction formula"
C du 1 I
u
(0)
J 2
(u' + a2r
Solution. Since x
2
+ 1 occurs twice as a factor, we assume
2 x-* + x 4- X __ Ax
~ 4- 7* ,
O 4- />
*
(x- -f \)'
z
(^ + I)
2
x2 + 1
Clearing of fractions,
L J :<
4x-f3 = >lxfB4- (Car + D)(x 2 -f 1).
The first of these two integrals is worked out by the power formula (4), the
second by (5) above, with u - x, a - 1, n = 2. Thus we obtain
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
f + = - +
L
(*"*
^^ In (j- 1) -h arc tan j- C.
2 f
2 - 8 /
- 8)rf/ 4>
, /
2
-f 4 ,
_ .., . .^, - in -+ ( .
r(^ + = i
4
J (2x- ^-iQ)^
3)(jT-H-4) 12
ln
fii + arctan
2J--3 12
-
5 = In + arc tan -f C.
4^-f9o- ^L 6 :J
(2?/:
'? + ^+t
2)% - ln v+ >2) + arc lan
7 r__^_ - _ 2
1 __ arc tan z + C.
J z 4 -f z' z
-h ^2 tl
I)
J - 1 In 2-^|
or x + 1
1
=2 , (z + 2) _ arc tan (z + 1) + C.
296 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
r
r-'
1
+ 4 jr
f
'
= *=
n I + 0.667.
U -f 14^
19. l
2
Jo 2) Or -f 1) 9 4
u *> T^ ^ i j ;n.< i ^ j
/i
___ rt $ 71
2
r
o U" -f 1)(^ -h 1 j 4
22.
23.
J ^
I)
I 1 : t .
30. I
' i
2
J (z + l)(z
2
-h 1) ^o (2 y -h 1)(4 i/ -f
+
^
:t
r(3 r'
J
4- 3 a- l)(Lr 01 T 1
(2 jr 4)dj
'I o 31- v IN/ r~r^*
2
J .r
4;
+ 3 J- 2
I
./o
/
(x
2 ,
H- l)(j -f I)
f(3
^ -f jc'
2
-h 3)<ijr '
32
r 3
(x -f 10)dj
J j*
4
-f3^ *Ji x3 -h2r 2 -h 5x"
3
.
f(5 ^
I '"
2
-f 12 + .r 9)dr QQ
5O.
f I
a
(2 x -f 18
^
terms of z.
J ***
-
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1 . Prove f = | x* 1 In U + x% + C. )
J 1 6 6
+ .r*
Solution. Here n - 4. Hence let x - ?.
Then x* = z 2
,
x* = z-<, da- = 4 A
z' dz.
= +
l''- 1 '-in-rt
r.
=!/(''- rfp)"
Substituting back 2 = x*", we have the answer.
--
For x, dx, and each radical can then be expressed rationally in
terms of z.
Solution. Assume 1 4- x z2
fdx
-
.
(1 -fx)'
_
2
-f (1 +x) 2
-.
2zdz _
2
r <* 2 s
l
J
V7 - 1 V3
r
3.
J/ x x
ij + C.
1 -x
= x" " 2
+c
I? B* -
-^ 6 r^ + 6 x + 1
c
;;
) 12(4 j+1)'
do* 2(2 a -f
8. /v'aH- // (///
= -~
t (4 ?/
- 3 )(a -f //)" -h C.
9. __
+ -
/.( 1 1
10. ^ = ~ u -f )'
!
- 3(x -f
: '
-f 3 In (1 + Vx 4- a) -f C.
*frrjk
V
/
1 -f .r -f a
)
2 arc tan 2
4
13 ./- _^r 4 -21n;j.
Jo l _j_ V.r
14 r
4
y w = L^ V5. r! ^^7r^4
16
''i V2 -f 4 //
2 *
Jo a- -f- 1 2 3'
d/ 1 r^
15. 3 9 arc tan l7 -
= 5.31.
r
-
1 2V? + V/
(.r
- 2) s +3
FORMAL INTEGRATION BY VARIOUS DEVICES 299
Work out each of the following integrals.
19. I
-^~ 23. f
- .
20
-/^fe' 4.
(.r + 5)Vr + 4
'-"
22.
/ t
.
M j(^-^rr+Tt:
27. Find the area bounded by the curve ?/ jr -f V.r -f 1, the .r-axis,
and the ordinates JT ~ 3 and .r = 8. AN*. 40 /
;
.
28. Find the volume generated by revolving about the .r-axis the area
of the preceding problem.
29. Find the volume generated by revolving about the .r-uxis the area
in the first quadrant bounded by the coordinate axes and each of the
following curves.
(a) y 2 Vx. (c) // a VJIr.
where a and b are any constants and the exponents m, n, p are rational
numbers, is called a binomial differential.
Let x = za ;
then dx az a
~
'
rfc,
xm + bx n
dx = az m " +
-
x m (a+ bx n )*dx,
where m, n, r, s are integers and n is positive.
In the next section we prove that (1) can be rationalized under the
following conditions.
m = an
CASE I. When integer or zero, by assuming
n
+ a bx n == z*.
+ bx n = n
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. f
J
a
(a
-
+
- bx'2 )l
=
J
z*x
fx*(a
.
_
~~
1 2a 4- bx'
2
c
b* \ a
+ fa-2
m
3,n = 2,r =
m= 3, 8 = 2; and here
"*"
Solution. 2, an integer. Hence
n
this comes under Case I, and we assume
J ""' I &
(a -f bx*)'*
= ~ az
~
= (z
p f (1
2
_
~ 1 2a -f bx
c
V \ a + bx*
x x ~~
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.
*
-
f f \
m "^ + - = - 2,
Solution, m=- 4, n = 2,
82
=
^
-
\ ;
and here
n s
an integer.
* The case where p is an integer is not excluded, but appears as a special case, namely,
r = p, = 1.
FORMAL INTEGRATION BY VARIOUS DEVICES 301
whence x2 =
also x = -
; and
i
u~ - D*
1
(^-1^ ( ;*_ }) \
J - I'd 4 2
- (2 -r' .r )
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
1.
._2(3r<-2)(
/VVl + x*dx=
J
i__L_i__
4 r.
r 5r/o -
_, ,,
xj
,
j- (8 4- h C.
3.J loTT
4 C.
( a _|_ f^)* 3 f>-va -
rfjr (1 4-
4 r.
djr -- (1 + 'r3)
^
r
6 r
fi - ~~ 4-
J1
J H1:
4-
r7
x 7 3 "> j-
^
)
4 C.
J -r2/1 4. r4 ^
(1 4-r")
-4 C.
rfr 1 4- 3 J3
4- C.
302 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Work out each of the following integrals.
(A) x m (a + bx n) ; dx.
CASE I. Assume a + bs 71
= z*.
1 r
Then (a + bx j
= 2, and (a + fxr" )
; = sf ;
also =(
/z*
^
a\" ) and Am ~( rm /z* -
a\ Tl )
;
j^ j
~
hence dx = 7^- 2* J
(
.
)' dz.
on \ o
~
hn V fe
'
^ fe s- b
r r
_ r
Hence (a + fex n V = a 8
(^ fe) *z
r
;
A
and J
dx
8 ^
a^*" U(z8 1 M--
fe)
n
1
^
dz.
n
Substituting in (A), we get
+
+ bx n )*dx = - n- a~
4
x m (a *(z*
- fe)'^"^"
"^ 1 )^^*-
FORMAL INTEGRATION BY VARIOUS DEVICES 303
is
The second member
an integer or zero.
of this expression is rational when 2?L
us
f-
-
x m (a + bx n )*dx
(1) tan = z,
|
Proof. From the formula for the tangent of half an angle in (5),
Art. 2, after squaring both members, we have
o 1 1 cos ?/
,
tan- -u ^T1
2 + cos ?/
one of the formulas (2). The right triangle in the figure shows the
relation (3) and gives also sin u as in (2). Finally, from (1),
u 2 arc tan z,
2 dz
and hence du .. :
2
-
Art. 167).
304 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Prove f
J 5
--
-f
-
4 sin 2 x
= - arc tan 5tanx + 4 \ + C.
3
/
\ 3 /
/' _ _
/544sin^j-
jfr = I f
2 ./
-f
f/ "
4 sin M
=i
~2 8 ; ~. 5 2- + 82 + 5
PROBLEMS
Work out th< following integrals.
4
/ df) / n
,
l- = ln 1 + tan -
. 4 4- 5 cosr 3
__..
tanf-3/
5.
/^-7'-
>
- - - -: arc- tan (- tan ~ -f C.
v )
--
*> 3 -f- cos <v '3
V
Vu ~ '
-
j* ~f \
7.
r
7
cos- ^
--- <1Q
- - 0.5
-
4- ^ arc tan
. /
0\
2 tan -
.
,
C.
7, -f
;
o :? cos ^ 3 6 ^
2/
c.
.'o 2 + sin x
10
1U
o
_'
1'J 4-
<
13 cos
-
~
r
n -
In
2
19
12 '
',o 3 -f 5 sin a
-
4
FORMAL INTEGRATION BY VARIOUS DEVICES 305
Work out each of the following integrals
n.f
J 1 -f
^
sm x cos x
16 r j
.'13 cos /
- 5
d dx
14 C t* r
'J cot 4- esc 6 \l 2 cos x -f 1*
15.
Jf 13 -
^
5 cos
18 *
J
/'_jrf<L_.
<
i> -f sin a
19. r
J I f.
2 sm x
. 21. /v-^ -
J 5 sec
23. r" ~
-f f 4 .' 3 -f 2 cos
0. f
sin ^ ^ og r
~ *
djr
24 T
2 rf<y
z z'
Qa (a 2 -
/v I
^- j
, .,-_
3 fl2
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
d = Let x =-
I./ ^
In
(__^===).
2
- x -f 2 V2 \Vx 2 - T -f 2 -f x -f
3 f
rfj
= 2 arc tan (x + Vx^T 2 x - 1 )+ C.
'
xVx 2 + 2 * - 1 x/^TTTT
T*t Vx^
Let -f2x-l=z-x.
306 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
dx - * / V2 4- 2 x - V2 - x\
4 C ~~ C.
"J xV2 4- x - x 2
V2 W2 4- 2 x 4- V2
- x/
Let V2 4- x - x 2 = (x -f 1)2.
x- 6-
Let V5 x - 6 - x2 = (x
- 2)z.
dx =- arc sin 14- C. Let x =
/ xV3 x2-2 x - 1
-dx -f 2 x 4- Vl -f 4 x -f 5 x 2
'
^ xVl 4-4x4-5x 2
Let x = -
d-
.r . C. Let x = -
J xVx 2 4- 4 x - 4 rV2/ 2
dx
=-..-_ Vl
2
-f 2 x -f 3 x
8.f
J x 2 Vl
y
4- 2 x 3 x2
4-
In
Vl -f 2 x -f 3 x 2
-f C.
Let x = -
z
10.
r^
J -r2x/ >7 <
-r^
V27 x 2 -f 6 x - 1 r
3 arc sin (
\ 6 x
f
^i -f C.
/
Let x = -
z
-
1
18.
f Let x = a sin 2 ir.
/0 ax x2
14. /
2
d/ = V3-^ In (2 Let / 4- 1 = z.
(m-n + I x n n
(a-f bx )t>dx.
+m+
(np l)b,J
+ - m+-
np + lj
C X m (Q + fort
x
/ r
b ,
B( fr
J
m+ i /a
+ 4 1
/ *~ (a + wy dx = - x n [p
4.
+1)
bx")''
>
l
r x m (fl + bx ny
n(/> -f l)a J
307
308 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
While it is not desirable for the student to memorize these for-
'mulas, he should know what each one will do and when each one fails.
Thus :
r
r "(a + bs n )
J>
dx
~n+ = ~
by placing u = zm ' *
and dv (a + ftr
n
;
7>
rn J
da* ;
m~ n =
/,
du n + and
+\
then -
(m 1 )/ dx v
'
?/.&(/> l y
Substituting in (1),
r m n i \
( n _[_ /, rn \ /' -f 1
~m(n
J j JL
(tt -f- 0.
C
J
But Cx m
'n m-n
(a + bxn )^ dx= [
r.r
=a "
I x m n (a + bxn )*dx
o
/
Uar m-
nb(p ) J
hence we can apply the method of Art. 169, and the formula is not
needed.
II. To derive formula (B). Separating the factors, we may write
(3) Cx m (a + bx n )
" dx = m
(a + bx n ) "~ (a'
+ bx) dx
jx
= a I x m (a + bx") p ~ l
dx
xm p ~ l dx.
+b j
* n
(a + bxn )
Now let us apply formula (^4) to the last term of (3) by substi-
tuting in the formula m + n for rn, and p I for p. This gives
/ x^ np
'-
(a+bx n ) J l
dx,
We apply reduction formula (4) in this case because the integration of the dif-
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. f ^^ -- /I T ;
+ i8 a ^\ Va -
j
2
; a
-a- a )44 ^ 4 /
(a
+ -a cS
4
arc sin- -f C.
a
HINT. Apply (A) twice.
-f x*
-f
^ In (x -f V^T
Him 1
. Here w = 0, n = 2, />
= .J,
a = -', b = 1. Apply (B) once.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 4.
f
^ a-'
1
PROBLEMS
Work out each of the following integrals.
/^3
/
Va + 2
,] T
.r
2
=
1
*
(a-
2 - 2 a2) Va
_
J
2
-f x2 -f C.
/V
r5
t-
1
r/ r
.r
-
2 l^
1
= -7r(3x4 + 4r 2 + 8) VT^ + r.
f^ 2 Va 2 - x* df =^ 2 - a 2) Va 2 - -
.
J o
(2 .r .r
2
-f ^8 a r<* sin
a
+ C.
J
*
/ o .no
= ^ .,/ T ^ 4- TT^T arc tan
- -f C.
/
J(a- + ,
Qc
2
Y 2 a-(a 2 -f
.
x2) 2 a- {
a
REDUCTION FORMULAS 311
g - Va 2
-f C.
j3 Va - 2
x2 2 a x 2 2
2 a ;<
x3 dx x2 -f 2 a2
2 "
(a -f x2 )
J/ -x
(a
2
1
-x 2
)* 3a 4
(a
2 2
)
2
9. f(x
2
4a 2
)^ dx = J x(2 x
2
4 5 a 2 )Vx- 4a 4 2
3 a'
1
In (x 4 Vx 4a 2 ) 4
2
C.
C x 2 dx (x 4- 3 a)V2 ax x2 . 3 a2 /- x\ .
,,
11 arc cos 1 4- ( .
V V2
^ ax - x2 2
1
2 V a)
HINT,
yl> rf>C
=r ?
(2 a
- idr. Apply twice.
Jf fx
. .r) i
V 2 ax - x 2
'
l2.f^M= = - r 0/
L>
+ 5 ?/ + 30)V4//- ^ 4 20 arc cos (l - 1
A -f C.
r ds K 3 -
2 2
3_^ 4- r
'^ (a 2 -f s 2 ) 4 a 2 (a 2 4- 8 a (~ 8 a
:* l 1
^' ) 4- s'") a-
14 =~ wV9 -
-
4 ?/a +
S arp sin +c -
5
-/vfirp
'J 24
Vl 4- 4 /
3o - / ^
17
1 81 Vl 49/ 2
'^(1+ 9/ 2 )
2 -
18.
2
Vl 4- 4 /
2
r// = T/2 /(I -h 8 /
2
)Vl +4/ ^ In (2 / + Vl-f4/ 2 + ) C.
dx
r Va + ig-
'
2
20. y
26
Jf
23.
x 2 (l +x 2
)
2 '/;
24
fa-*' 27.
dx
V x
l
28. 29. d|/.
312 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
175. Reduction formulas for trigonometric differentials. The method
of the last article, which makes the given integral depend on another
integral of the same form, is called successive reduction.
We shall now apply the same method to trigonometric differen-
tials by deriving and illustrating the use of the following trigonometric
reduction formulas :
sin"
(E) I sin
m x cos n x dx =
m -f n
n - 1 C m
xcos n ~ 2 ;tcte.
.
sin
si /
m-h nj
sin m
~
f sin m x cos n xdx =
. _,
(F) I
m -f n
i /*
-f I sin m 2
xcos n xdx.
m-j- n J
_. sin m f l
x cos n j *
x
sin m jtcos n
.
, . ,
(G) I xdx=
fi+ 1
sin m f *
x cos n f 1
x
/ m-f 1
m+ 1
Let u = cos"" 1
x, and dv sin" x cos
7
x dx ;
,. ,
= / 1 x > ; j = sin "^^
7
i /*
^
+ T~T sm m+2 xcos n ~-
?/i +1J I
REDUCTION FORMULAS 313
u = sin
m~ l
and dv = cosn x sin x dx,
x,
we obtain
f O^" "^ X
=-
1 ^
/ClTl"* -~^
m x cos n x dx '/
sin
+ ^f
n+lj
S in-,o a
sin m + -x cos
2
But n
~-x dx I sin"'/ (1 cos 2 /) cos" x dx
|
C C
I sin'
J
'/cos '~~xdx r
I sin"'/cos"xdx.
mx
I sin cos"xdx, we get ().
**
Making a similar substitution in (3), we get (F).
Solving formula (E) for the integral on the right-hand side, and
increasing by 2, we get (G).
?/
sin
m x cos xdx 7J
r?* cos' r dx = -
** !
'*
+ **SS* + (sin * cos x + x) + G
/i
Solution. get
[Here w = 2, w = 4.]
314 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Applying formula
/c\
(5) I
()
C cos 14 x dx
j - --
to the integral in the second
& m x -cos3 x i
1-
3 C
- ,
cos- x dx.
I
member
.,
of (4), we get
[Here m= 0, n - 4.]
Now substitute the result (6) in (5), and then this result in (4). This gives the
answer as above.
.
Solution.
..
-
tan j -2 x
cos ^J jc
-
= sin-7-2 ---1
cos* Z
JP
x cos 2 x
-
sin" 2 x
cos 1 '
J j*
(7) / J / ?/ c?//.
^ S l
+ Tsiri^' u cos '
M c/u.
(9) / sin 2
/v cos J
u du = sin M + / cos J
u du = sin // + In (sec w -f tan ?0.
Substituting from (9) and (8) into (7), reducing, and sotting M = 2 x, we have
the answer.
PROBLEMS
Verify the following integrations.
2. ftan-'
5
f dr = 4
2
^ tan f -f 3 In cos + r.
%/ AJ O t>
/ctn OdO=-
^~
p n
4
+ ctnO +
f ;{
/9
+ C.
4. Tsec :{
/ r// - \ sec / tan / -f J In (sec / + tan /) 4- C.
SC g ctn ^
6.
6
OdO =- ^ -f + In (csc (9
- ctn 0) + C.
J*csc 4 ('csc- j}) |
ctn2 2 B e
8.
Jf sin 2
f = - 47 ctn 2 esc 26-]4 In (esc 2
- ctn 2 (9) + C.
3 sin 3 x
+ c
'.' sin 4 * 3 sin .r
2
11. f sin<
Jo I o
13. r'sin2
Jo
fld = |f-
32
15.
Jn ^2^ =
4
sm-x
5
4
_ 3_7r
8
17. fcsc<
J 2
c/ff. 19. r--
J sin jl
cos J
21.
Jo
ZL ?
a
22. 3
f sin 6 cos
: <
c/0. 23. ('"(! + sin 6) 4 dO.
Jo Jo
search for a formula in the table by which the problem can be solved
without the use of any of these devices. Such a table is given in
Chapter XXVII. Some examples will now be given.
dx__ = J_ ,
/_i_ v ,
1
" r "
9 + 4:rO 18 \9+4:r7"
Solution. Use 22, with a = 3, b = 2, and ?/ = /.
This example, without the table, is solved as in Case III, Art. 167.
r dx _ 1 - 2
V4 + 3 r-- JT
-- ,,
I / ^ in . .......
-f ' .
JxV4-f3x 2 N/4+3J-+2
Solution. Use 31, with a = 4, 6 = 3, and a x.
This example, without the table, is worked out, by the substitution 4 +3 x = z2,
as shown in Art. 1 68.
Without the table the example would be solved by integration by parts. See
Illustrative Example 6, Art. 136.
In many problems
the given integral cannot be identified with
one in the table as easily as in the
preceding examples. In such cases
we search for a formula in the table similar to the given integral,
and such that the latter can be transformed into the former by a
simple change of variable. This method has been used constantly
in Chapter XII and in all integration problems hitherto.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 6. Verify, by the Table of Integrals,
1 O r
zV4 x~ ;=iln-
3
==l= + r.
-f 9 3+ V4 or
2
+9
Solution. Formula 47 is similar. Let u = 2 x. Then x - \ u, dx = J du, and,
substituting the values in the given integral, we obtain
C <fr
= r jdM = r du
J xV4^ 2 +9 J \ wVw 2 -f 9 J u^/u'2 +9
Hence, applying 47, with a = 3, and substituting back v =2 x, a = 3, we have
Jfx
Without tables we should proceed as in Illustrative Example 2, Art. 135.
REDUCTION FORMULAS 317
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 7. Verify, by the Table of Integrals,
J
r\ 9 J -4 . 2 (9 - x - 4
Substituting, we obtain
r\ '9ar-4
'
^ rVjj u -" 2
(/K
du.
J J J M
3 2
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
1. Vz + 2
5 dx = A (3 x1 - 10 )(x'2 + 5) + C.
= ^V9 x 2 - 4 -f
-
In (3 x -f V9 x -4) + C.
9
-/2 + 2t + ^ = arCtan(j:+1) + C -
10. fx :<
sin x 2 dx = \ sin x2 - \ x 2 cos x 2 -f C.
4 -f sin 2
.
37.
2
Jo (1 + J")
dT
35. 38.
V25 -
/
x 2 9 x2 25
dx _ 2
36.
(4x
2
-h 9)
>:j
39.
f \l<L^>du=ira.
J~a a w -f
REDUCTION FORMULAS 319
x2dX
40.
0. r f
- = 1.338.
1-3: 42.
J\ V9 2 x'2
43. / /V '
<// = 0.1605.
2 d" 3 dx
44.
.jf 2
46.
jf-^ ,
-
48.
jf
r~ *i
45. f 2 cos 2
Jo
sin 4 6 dO. 47.
/
Jo
e i cos A TT/ dt. 49 f
Vo
^ C os A d> dd>.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. Verify the following results.
2. A parabola with its axis parallel to the //-axis passes through the
originand the point (1, 2). Find its equation if the area between the
parabola and the x-axis is a maximum or a minimum.
Anx. //
= 6 x 4 s'2 gives a minimum.
Sketch the curve y V!r = In jr. Find the volume of the solid of
3.
revolution formed by revolving about the .r-axis the area bounded by the
curve, the .r-axis, and two ordinates, one through the maximum point
and the other through the point of inflection. AUK. -^-^ TT.
4. A solid right circular is formed so that the density at
cone of metal
any point P per cubic foot, where r is the distance in feet
is 20(5 r) Ib.
of the point P from the axis of the cone. Find the weight of the cone if
its altitude and the radius of the base are each 3 ft. Am. 630 TT Ib.
NOTE. The weight of an element of uniform density is its volume times its
density.
5. A
hollow metal sphere has an inside radius of 6 in. arid an outside
radius of 10 in. The density of the metal at any point varies inversely as
the distance of the point from the center of the sphere, and at the outside
surface the density is 2 oz. per cubic inch. Find the weight of the sphere.
Am. 2560 TT oz.
6. If n is an even integer, show that
7T TT
/*2
/
sin" x dx.
Jo
CHAPTER XVIII
1x = Ck dA, M v
= f hdA.
320
CENTROIDS, FLUID PRESSURE 321
(2) x = %
2
y dx, M = v
/
xydx,
*Ja Ju
in which the value of y in terms of jr must be substituted from the
(3) x =
If A is not known, it may be found by integration, as in Art. 145.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Find the centroid of the area under one arch of the
sine curve
(4) y = sm x.
Solution. Constructing an elementary rectan-
gle, we have
(5) dA = ydx sinx dx,
dMx = k dA = I y' dx = \ sin x dx, dM v =
2 2 h dA = xy dx x sin x dx.
(6) A = f^sinzdz
J
= 2, M x =\
*'
f "sin 2 * do- = \ IT, M =C
^
V zsinzdz = 7T.
dA = x dy, h = \ x, k = y.
Using (4), dMz = kdAxy dy,
Hence x = .
y =7 b. But x = a, y = 6 satisfy the equation i/
= 2 px.
20 p 4
Hence 6 2 = 2 pa, and x = 3
r ^ a. The centroid is therefore ( T
'
{
a, J b). Am.
322 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
Find the centroid of each of the areas bounded by the following curves.
1. y
2 = 2 px, x = h. Ans. (f h, 0).
y = x'\ = = 1
2. jr 2, y 0. (, - ^).
3. y /*, y 4 x. (First quadrant.) (j|, f^).
5. y
2 = 4x, 2.r-0 = 4. (, 1).
8. j/
= .f
2
f i/
= 2.r + 3. (!,)
7. ?/
=x 2 - 2 x - 3, = //
6 jr
- j2 - 3. (2, 1).
8. y = /*, ?/
= 8, .r = 0.
9. //
= 6 x .r
2
, // jr.
10. ?/
= 4 jr
~ x'2 , y = 2x- 3.
H
11. ?/ j- 3 jr, y r. (First quadrant.)
12. y
2
a- cur, jr= 0, y = 0. (First quadrant.)
13. =^
- ^= 1, //
= 0, x = 2 a. (First quadrant.)
a- fr
14. Find the_centroid of the area bounded by the coordinate axes and
the parabola V.r -f V// = Va. /b?x. 7 ]/
= I a.
15. Find the centroid of the area bounded by the loop of the curve
y* 4 .r
2
r*. 4/f.x. J = 1
/' 7/ ^-
2
y' 1
Aws. x = -4 //
= 4 b
o
O" /> t5 7T J 7T
30
Find the distance from the center of the circle to the centroid of
22.
the area of a circular segment the chord of which subtends a central
an le261 2 r sin-^
'
Am -
3(6 sin flcos 6)'
CENTROIDS, FLUID PRESSURE 323
24. Find the centroid of the area bounded by one loop of the curve
= 128aV2
p a cos 2 8.
Ans. Distance from origin
105 TT
25. Find the centroid of the area bounded by one loop of the curve
p = a cos 3 0. 81
AHS. Distance from origin -
80 TT
through OY perpendicular to OX is
(1) dM v x dV = 7TX// 2 Ax.
=
The moment of volume for the solid is then found by the Funda-
mental Theorem, and x is given from
(2) Vx = M y I irxy-
dx.
y = AB ^r or = --
x OA h'
!,
Hence M v
= f
Jo
TTX ^~
h*
dx = -
4
irr 2 h
2
.
Since V= 3
2
Trr' h, x \ h. Ans.
324 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
Find the centroid for each of the following solids.
1. Hemisphere. (See
figure.) Ans. x = I r.
2. Paraboloid of rev-
olution. (See figure.)
Ans. ~x%h.
The area bounded by
OX and each curve given
below is revolved about
OX. Find the centroid of
the solid of revolution
generated.
2 2 2
3. x' y' a' ,
x 2 a.
4. 2 xy = a'
2
, x - J a, x - 2 a.
ay = x' x = a. Ans.
2 jr a.
5. , jj
6.
2 =
i/
4 x, x = 1, x = 4.
7. x 4- 2 = 4, x = 0, x =
2 1. ? = f J.
8. ?/
= a sin x, x = ^ IT.
The area bounded by OY and each of the curves given below is re-
Tolved about OY. Find the centroid of the solid of revolution generated.
9. y'
2 = 4 ax, y b. Ans. y = | 6.
10. jr
2 - ir = 1, y = 0, ?/
= 1. y = A-
11. a// 2 = /', ?/ a.
12. The radii of the upper and lower bases of a frustum of a cone of
revolution are, respectively, 3 in. and 6 in., and the altitude is 8 in.
Locate the centroid.
13. Find the centroid of the solid formed by revolving about the ?/-axis
the area in the first quadrant bounded by the lines ?/ = 0, x a, and the
14. Find the centroid of the solid formed by revolving about the r-axis
that part of the area of the ellipse + = 1 which lies in the first
a2 |r,
quadrant. Ans. x = a.
15. Find the centroid of the solid formed by revolving about the z-axis
the area in the first quadrant bounded by the lines y 0, x 2 a, and
2 2
the hyperbola
x' ~=
t/
1 .
CENTROIDS, FLUID PRESSURE 325
17. Find the centroid of the solid formed by revolving about the .r-axis
18. Find the centroid of the solid formed by revolving about the x-axis
the area bounded by the lines .r = 0, .r = a, // = 0, and the curve // e
r
.
19. The area bounded by a parabola, its axis, and its iatus rectum is
revolved about the Iatus rectum. Find the centroid of the solid generated.
Am. Distance from focus fa of Iatus rectum.
179. Fluid pressure. We will now take up the study of fluid pressure
and learn how to calculate the pressure
of a fluid on a vertical wall.
Let ABDC represent part of the
area of the vertical surface of one wall
of a reservoir. It is desired to deter-
mine the total fluid pressure on this area.
Draw the axes as in the figure, the
//-axis lying in the surface of the fluid.
Divide AR into n subintervals and
construct horizontal rectangles within D
the area. Then the area of one rec-
tangle (as EP) is y Ax. If this rectangle
was horizontal at the depth x, the fluid pressure on it would be
W xy A j,
pressure of a fluid on any given horizontal surface equals the weight!
of a column
of the fluid standing on that surface as a base and of height
equal to the distance of this surface below the surface of the fluid.
[The J
where W = the weight of a unit volume of the fluid. Since fluid pres-
sure'is the same in all directions, it follows that Wxy A.r will be ap-
proximately the pressure on the rectangle EP in its vertical position.
Hence the sum n
im
lim V Wxflt Ax, =J
-oo i = 1
/ Wxy dx.
326 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Hence the fluid pressure on a vertical submerged surface bounded
by a curve, the /-axis, and the two horizontal lines x = a and x = b
is given by the formula b
Fluid pressure - W yx dx,
(D) \
Ja
where the value of y in terms of x must be substituted from the equa-
tion of the given curve.
We shall assume 62 Ib. ( W) as the weight of a cubic foot of water.
ILLUSTRATIVE KXAMPLE 1. A circular water main
6 ft. in diameter is half full of water. Find the pres-
sure on the gate that closes the main.
2 2
Solution. The equation of the circle is x' + y' 9.
Hence y= \ 9 - x~,
The equation of AB is y = 2 x 8.
PROBLEMS
In the following problems the //-axis is directed vertically upward, and
the .r-axis is at the surface level of a liquid.
Denoting the weight of a
cubic unit of the liquid by ir, calculate the pressure on the areas formed
by joining with straight lines each set of points in the order given.
1. (0, 0), (3, 0), (0,
- 6), (0, 0). Ans. 18 \V.
5. Each end
of a horizontal oil tank is an ellipse of which the horizontal
axis is long and the vertical axis 6 ft. long. Calculate the pressure
12 ft.
on one end when the tank is half full of oil weighing 60 lb. per cubic foot.
An^. 2160 lb.
across the top and 5 ft. deep). Calculate the pressure on the end when the
trough is full of water. A//,s. 1302 lb.
9. A
horizontal cylindrical tank of diameter 8 ft. is half full of oil
weighing 60 lb. per cubic foot. Calculate the pressure on one end.
Ans. 2560 lb.
10. Calculate the pressure on one end if the tank of Problem 9 is full.
11. A
rectangular gate in a vertical dam is 10 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep.
Find the pressure when the level of the water (
(a) 62.5) is 8 ft. above W
the top of the gate (b) how much; higher the water must rise to double
the pressure found in (a). Am. (a) 41,250 lb. (b) 11 ft. ;
12. Show that the pressure on any vertical surface is the product of
the weight of a cubic unit of the liquid, the area of the surface, and the
depth of the centroid of the area.
13. A vertical cylindrical tank, of diameter 30 ft. and height 50 ft., is
full of water. Find the pressure on the curved surface. Ans. 3682 tons.
328 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
180. Work. In mechanics the work done by a constant force F
The work done in lifting all such cylinders to the top is the sum
The work done in emptying that part of the reservoir will evi-
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Calculate the work done in pumping out the water
filling a hemispherical reservoir 10 ft. deep.
&+ 2/-
= 100.
Hence =
y* 100 - *-',
W= 62,
h = 15-y,
dw VT(15 y}irx~ dy.
x = y. Substituting,
dw = 7rW(15 - u
z
<ly
= T
7rH (15 2
y'
- y*)dy.
|/)J i
The limits are y = and y = 10, since the water is 10 ft. deep. Integrating,
10
w= $ irW f n5 2
it'
- y"')dy
= 216,421 ft.-lb. An*.
'
Jo
(G) Work = I
p
JvQ
(2) pv por ()
= piVi.
per cubic foot. The oil is pumped to a height of 10 ft. above the top of
the tank by an engine of } H.P. (that is, the engine can do work at the
rate of 16,500 ft. II). per minute). How long will it take the engine to
empty the tank ?
6. Find the work done in pumping out a semi-elliptical reservoir full
of water (W 62). The top is a circle of diameter 6 ft., and the depth
is 5ft. Ans. 3487 \ TT ft. Ib.
per cubic foot. The top of the reservoir is a circle 8 ft. in diameter. Cal-
culate the work necessary to pump the liquid to the top of the reservoir.
-4ns. 15,360 TT ft. Ib.
CENTROIDS, FLUID PRESSURE 331
Determine the final volume and the \\ork done if the isothermal law holds,
that is, pr = C. -4//s. :i7.f> on. ft. ; 72:5,000 ft. Ib.
11. Determine the final volume and work done in Problem 10 if the
7' ~
adiabatic law holds, that is pr (\ assuming n 1.4.
An*. 60 cu. ft.; 648,000 ft. Ib.
14. A quantity of gas with an initial volume of 16 on. ft. and pressure
of 60 Ib. per square inch expands until the pressure is ;}() Ib. per square
inch. Determine the final volume and the \\ork done by the gas if the
law is pr = C. An*. :*2 on. ft. 95,800 ft. Ib. ;
quantity of air with an initial volume of 200 cu. ft. and pressure
16. A
of 15 Ib. per square inch is compressed to 150 cu. ft. Determine the final
pressure and the work done law
if the is pr ~- (\ -
A inch and
gas expands from an initial pressure of 80 11>. per square
18.
volume ft. to a volume of 9 cu. ft.
of 2.5 cu. Find the work done if the
n
law-is pr 0, assuming n 1.0646.
Solution. Suppose the rod to be divided into equal infinitesimal portions (ele-
Force of attraction -
/-./M
I
-'o
J -^
r'-r-mdx
(j + aj-
,
2
=
f
C
J
l dx M
21. Determine the amount of attraction in the last example if P lies
in the perpendicular bisector of the rod at the distance a from it.
Am. 2mM -
22. A vessel in the form of a right circular cone is filled with water.
If // is its height and the radius of the base, what time will
r it require
to empty itself through an orifice of area a at the vertex?
Solution. Neglecting all hurtful resistances, it is known that the
velocity of dis-
charge through an orifice is that acquired by a body falling freely from a height
equal to the depth of the water. If, then, x denotes the depth
of the water, -
v = \ 2 gx.
a \
(1)
Denoting by S the area of the surface of the water when the depth is x, we have,
from geometry, '' >
, ,
' or
VI
h~
But the volume of water discharged in time dt may also be considered as the
volume of a cylinder AB of area of base S and altitude dx; hence
Therefore t = JL =
2 gx 5o\
^. 2 g
Ans.
CENTROIDS, FLUID PRESSURE .
333
(2) y = </>(/).
(3) y (approximately) =^ ,
__
ydx
f
Ja
(4) x2 + y
2 = r2 .
C Vr 2 - x 2 dx = I Trr
2
. Then y = \ irr = 0.785 r. Ans.
Jo
334 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
(b) Since y r sin 0, and the limits are 6 = = a, 8 \ IT b, the numerator
in (/) is
A* = - = = 2 r = 0.637
I r sin 6 d6 r. Since b a \ TT, we have y r. Ans.
JO 7T
Ch
I ydx
x
b a
in order to indicate explicitly the variable with respect to which y
is averaged.
Thus, in the Illustrative Example, we have ~y x 0.785 r, and y ft
= 0.637 r.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the average value of ?/
= s~ from jr = to x 10. Ans. 33f 3
.
(d) during the first 100 ft., starting from rest; Ans. 53 J ft. per sec.
(e) during the first 100 ft., starting with an initial velocity of 60 ft.
The formulas ~ ~
I x ds I y ds
'
(6) *
where (x, y) is any point on a curve for which ds is the element of arc,
define the centroid of the arc. They give, respectively, the average
values of the abscissas and ordinates of points on the curve when
distributed uniformly along it. (Compare Art. 177.)
12. Show that the area of the curved surface generated by revolving
an arc of a plane curve about a line in its plane not cutting the arc equals
the length of the arc times the circumference of the circle described by
its centroid (6). (Theorem of Pappus. Compare Art. 250.)
HINT. Use (L), Art. 164.
2
13. Find the centroid of the arc of the parabola y 4 x from (0, 0)
to (4, 4).
Am. 7 = 1.64, y = 2.29.
A ns.
15. Find the centroid of the perimeter of the cardioid p = a(l -f cos 0).
Ans. ~jc = I a, y == 0.
16. Find by the Theorem of Pappus the centroid of the arc of the circle
2
x' + 3/2 - r w hich lies in
2 the first quadrant, ^^ x = T =
336 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
17. Find by the Theorem of Pappus the surface of the torus generated
-f y = a (b > a) about the |/-axis.
2 2 2
by revolving the circle (x b')
A
rectangle is revolved about an axis which lies in its plane and is
18.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
3. Find the centroid of the area bounded by y = x n (n > 0), the x-axis,
and x 1. Discuss the locus of the centroid as n varies.
_
AUK. x =
n-hl-
y
n+ 1
n + 2 2(2 n-f 1)
4. Find the equation of the locus of the centroid of the area bounded
by the .r-axisand the parabola y = ex 2
x' when c varies. Ans. 5 y = 2 x'2 .
6. Let P
be a point on the parabola // x 2 and let C be the centroid ,
of the area bounded by the parabola, the .r-axis, and the ordinate through
P. Find the position of P so that the angle OPC is a maximum.
4ns. Ordinate = -f%.
vertical axis a parabolic segment cut off by a chord 8 ft. long, perpendicu-
lar to the axis and at a distance of 8 ft. from the vertex. The cistern is
filled with water weighing 62.5 Ib. per cubic foot. Find the amount of
work required to pump over the top of the cistern one half the volume of
-
fo = 6937 ft.-lb.
water it contains. AnSm 16,000 (\/2 1)
A
hemispherical cistern of radius r is full of
8. water. Two men, A
and pump it out, each doing half the work.
B, are to If A starts first, what
will be the depth d of the water when he has finished his share of the work ?
CENTROIDS, FLUID PRESSURE 337
then raised at a constant rate of 5 ft. per second to the top. Neglecting
the weight of the rope, find the work done in raising the bucket if it is
discovered that the water is leaking out at a constant rate of 0.01 cu. ft.
per second. (A cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 lb.) An*. 12,156 ft.-lb.
11.The area OAB is divided into elements such as OPQ by lines from
O. Show that the area A and the moments of area
M x and M v are given by Y j
r r
\\ (xy
r
y)dx, M x =
JJ y(jcy'
My = 3
I
^ n/ y)djr.
opposite side.)
12. Find the centroid of the hyperbolic sector bounded by the equi-
lateral hyperbola x a sec 6, y a tan and radii from the origin to the
points (a, 0) and (x, y).
2 tan - _ 2 sec
An*. x - a V
3 in (sec + tan 0)
CHAPTER XIX
SERIES
182. Definitions. A sequence is a succession of terms formed ac-
cording to some fixed rule or law.
i,_ 3, _,__.,_,__
are sequences.
A scries is the indicated sum of the terms of a sequence. Thus
from the above sequences we obtain the series
1+4 + 9 + 16 + 25
X2 X*
1 _
X* X*
+ .__._ + -~.
.
, !
and :r
,
T
When the number of terms is limited, the sequence or series is
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. In the second example given above, the nth term,
except for n = 1, is
^ : -
?il
If the sequence is infinite, this fact is indicated by the use of dots, as
- -
1, 4, 9, -, r/-, -.
In general, [w
= lx2x3x---x(?i-l)xw
is n factorial. It is understood that n is a positive integer. The
called
expression [n has no meaning if n is not a positive integer.
338
SERIES 339
(1) Sn = a + ar + ar + 2
+ ar n ~\
it is shown in elementary algebra that
n _ or ^ r)
_____
the first form being generally used if \r\ < 1, and the second form
if \r\> 1.
(3) limS^T-^--
- T
n l oo
(5) Sn = 1
It is interesting to dis- *
cuss (5) geometrically. To
1-
6l
+;
'
Sj! -5
^
do this, lay off successive values of S n on a straight line, as in the figure.
n 1 2 3
Sn 1 1-2- ij
Each point thus determined bisects the segment between the preceding point and
the point 2. Hence (6) is obvious.
340 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
In each of the following series (a) discover by inspection the law of
formation (b) write three more terms
; (c) find the nth, or general, term. ;
3. - i + + + + +
J jj -jj
6 *
~
f f f f *"'
2 2.4~ 2-4.f>~ 2.4.6.8~
6
3579
^_l'j_^ 5L
1
+ . . .
y
2 n
**'
+ 1
Write the first four terms of the series whose nth, or general, term is
given below.
n " 1 .
? ,
3 _4_ ,
-^Q^o^97^
,
.
J
^7i
O O C/ i-j <
V^ V^ V3 V4
X X X
__}___{
' '
- - ( 1 ) . X'* ,
llt .
..
n -M
>
[w 2"[n Vn~T2
Sn = Ui + U 2 + Us + + Uny
the variable Sn is a function of n. If we now let the number of terms
(= n) increase without limit, one of two things may happen.
CASE I. Sn approaches a limit, say u, indicated by
(1) lim S n = u.
SERIES 341
--- ---
a) 1 + 1+ rL2 + rnh) + + +
[i
is convergent.
Solution. Neglect the first term, and write
Sn = 1 + + + ' * *
+
(2)
2 JT^l 1 -2-3---n"
Consider the variable sn defined by
no matter how large n may be (see Art. 1H3). Hence S w as defined by (2) is a vari-
able which always increases as n increases but remains less than 2.
Hence S n ap-
proaches a limit as n becomes infinite,
and this limit is less than 2. Therefore the
less than 3.
infinite series (1) is convergent, and its value is
We shall see later that the value of (1; is the constant e = 2.71828 the ,
Ijet the points determined by the values S'i, .S\>, Sz, etc. be plotted
on a directed line. Then these points, as n increases, will approach
the point determined by ?/ (terms in S n all of the same sign; or
cluster about this point. Thus it is evident that
(A) 1imM M = 0.
it oo
That is, in a convergent series, the terms must approach zero as a limit.
On
the other hand, if the general (or //th) term of a series does
not approach zero as // becomes infinite, we know at once that the
series is divergent.
(A) is not, however, a suflicient condition for convergence; that
is, even if the //th term does approach zero, we cannot state posi-
1 + 2
+ a
+ 4
+ ' " '
+ w'
that is, condition (A) is fulfilled. Yet we shall show in Art. 186 that
the series is divergent.
We shall now proceed to deduce special tests which, as a rule, are
easier to apply than the above theorems.
186. Comparison tests. In many cases it is easy to determine
whether or not a given series is convergent by comparing it term
by term with another series whose character is known.
Test for convergence. Let
raw be found whose terms are never less than the corresponding terms in
the series (1) to be tested, then (1) is a convergent series and its value
does not exceed that of (2).
SERIES 343
(3) 1 + -;
(4) 1 +|+ r*
+
if-
+
? "'
which is known to be convergent. The terms of (4) are never less than the corre-
sponding terms of (3). Hence (3) also is convergent.
(7)
1 + i + .4 + 1 +
is divergent.
Solution. Rewrite (7) as below and compare with the series written under it.
We observe the following facts. The terms in (8) are never less than the
1+ i
+-L + -L + ...
\/2 V3 V4
344 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Solution. This series is divergent, since its terms are greater than the cor-
responding terms of the harmonic series (7) which is divergent.
(10; 1-
Proof. Rewrite (10) as below and compare with the series written
under it. The square brackets are used to aid in the comparison.
(11) M J^
2"
i
1 + !
(12)
2"
If p > 1, the terms in (12) are never less than the corresponding
terms in (11 ). Hut, in (12), the sums within the brackets are
1
.
'
1_ 2. _~
" . .]_
/> ;)
2'' 2 ;
'
<" '+^+(rO'+(F
When p> 1, series (13) is a geometric series with the common
ratio less than unity, and is therefore convergent. Therefore (10) is
also convergent. When p 1, series (10) is the harmonic series and
is divergent,. When p ^ 1,
the terms of series (10) will, after the
be greater than the corresponding terms of the harmonic series
first, ;
(14)
2-3-4
-f
__
4
3-4-54
,
5-6 (n
2n
is convergent.
Solution. In (14), or -u n < ;
that is, u n is less than the general term of the /) series when p =
.],
2. Hence the
series each of whose terms is half the corresponding term in (14) is convergent
and therefore (14) also is convergent.
SERIES 345
PROBLEMS
Test each of the following series.
126
-,
/"/'A/// JAtf //w?'/ o/ /r/,s tes/ ratio when n becomes infinite. Let this be
p
l-
lim
W<n
--4 1
n -
cr W'n
-'
I. H7/cw p 1, the scries is convergent.
II. M ;
//r/? p > 1, ///r scries is divergent.
III. H/7/r// p = 1, ///r test foils.
?/,,,r ; //, ,
- '"
//, ,
\r < n ,,,r'2 ;
wm , ;?
<-
w,,,r* ;
and so on. Therefore, after the term each term of the ?/ series (1)
as in I, the series (1 )
may be shown to be divergent.
III. When p = 1 ,
t he series may be eit her convergent or divergent ;
that is, the test fails. For, consider the p series, namely,
The test,
st, ratio is ^ nn
= (-^-rY=
\H. + 17
(l
\
-
-^)"
n + I/ ;
Thus it appears that p can equal unity both for convergent and for
divergent series. There are other tests to apply in cases like this,
but the scope of our book does not admit of their consideration.
For convergence it is not enough that the test ratio is less than
unity for all values of n. This test requires that the limit of the test
ratio shall be less than unity. For instance, in the harmonic series
the test ratio is always less than unity. The limit, however, equals
unity.
The rejection of a group of terms at the beginning of a series
will affect the value but not- the existence of the limit.
188. Alternating series. This is the name given to a series whose
terms are alternately positive and negative.
Theorem. // MI ML >
+ M : < M } ~f
(1) Sn = (MI
- M L.) + (M.I
- MI) -f -f (n n ,
- ?/),
(2) S tt MI (M L >
~ M.O (M, t 2 M,, i
)
M, t .
Thus, the sum of ten terms in the above Illustrative Example is 0.646, and the
value of the series differs from this by less than one eleventh.
!
1,1 1,1 ____
1-9+3-4+5
is conditionally convergent, since the harmonic series is divergent.
When it an alternating
is series whose terms never increase in numer-
ical value, and 'if lim w w =-
0,
Tl '00
lim = p.
I. When | p |
< 1, the series is absolutely convergent.
II. When | p i
> 1, the series is divergent.
1 + ~~ + O + ^ +
*j
-~~
~r
J (P > 1) (P series)
divergent, as l
1 + + l + l+... ; (harmonic series)
1+ + r~ + + (p<l) (P series)
SERIES 349
Solution. Here Mn = ,
-
n +i=r
1
Mn+lsJ"- = 1
un [n n
p = lim - = 0,
n-oc K
and the series is convergent.
Ji + .yL + Ji +
Solution. Here
10"
= n + 1
-
T7 ~io~
P= nlim -* oo ,
J U
-"'
and the series is divergent.
_ (2
- 2 n 4 r?
2 -2n
7i ni i
~ r? 1 )
_
"" ^
wn (2ri -f lK2n-f 2) 4 n2 -f 6 n -f 2*
,. 4 n2 2 n - = 1
p lim 1,
77 , oc 4 w- -h 6 w 4- 2
we S ee that it must be convergent, since its terms are less than the corresponding
terms of this ;;series, which was proved convergent.
PROBLEMS
Test each of the following series.
2
*'
3 ,_l + A3 + .-H
4
. Convergent.
2 22 2 2
350 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
2
3
- 3
~-~ ~~
3 ;*
34
3. -f 2
+ + -~-^ + . An,s. Divergent.
212 1^13 2 :i
-i .
10. 1 -f -p- 4- -77- -f -rb1
|4
+ . 12. ^ -h
-4 -f
~- -f h -f ~ .
;V
13.
;;
-f
^ + .7~ir~i7 -f
jj.^.j^.jo
+
Mm (^A = L,
where L is a definite number. To see the reason for this, form the
test ratio (Art. 187) for (\], omitting the first term. Then we have
i<n a, t xn an
= hm A* \ /dni
JL-L1
p
i-
I-*
*
i
I
j) =xhm ,.
\- )
=xL.
SERIES 351
Hn .1 n'2
_-L-_L = ft''
~- jc.
A i
Also,
i-
lim = 1,
Un (/< + lr n . oc (n i- })'
2
- -
1
r^
+ -;
^+ -,
5. l-hx+|~-fr
l~_ UL
H . Arcs. All valuesof x. ^ L
o
-
02 04 ^r>
6. 1 r~-+ r~ rrrH . Ans. All values of 0. "^ L
7. 0-+ ,~ ,
+ . Anx. All valuesof 0.
5
^ 1 -
3 z 1
J 3 5
8vX .
_i_
-f-
1
-
2 3
-1_
~r
2-4
-T ~~
5
-i-
~r ^
2 -
:;
4
:;
6
(>
'
*
"^ ~r
<
I
*. .
I
|
5
ITJ
s. - 1 <z< 1.
9. x -f 2 x2 + 3 x 3 -f 4 x 4
H . Ans. - 1 < x < 1.
-1
10. l_:r +
i!-^ + .... gjr gl.
x
^. -*
r2
_
r .T ^r 4 ~ _ 9 <
1
i i i
. . . - \
<^ r -.
J>1 '
-I O
Jlfcrf
O
4-1
. 02
^
'
O-
J . 03 4
T*rf
. >4
' .* -
O r2 'J Wi /I r4
12. x 4- + + + All values.
1 Q 1 4_
z2
**
_L
.
l-3x 4
,
i
l-3-5z i
. . .
'
2
2 2 2 4 24 2 4 -
6 2
* End drawn
points that are not included in the interval of convergence have circles
about them.
SERIES 353
16. 1 + ^
92
Lfi
->.
+ ^
32
l
r2
-f
42
i^ Li
r3
4- -
All values.
17 ' + 2^3^ + + H
-6< x < 6.
3 22 .
33 03 .
34
18. x + 4 J 2 -f 9 x3 -f 16 x4 + -
.
2
* 2 * 3 J3 4 x*
19 , ,
1 2 2 2 3 22 3 4 2-<
-<
4 5
x2 13
- .r |2
10 i
|
100 j
|
1000 j*
; 23. r + ^' + ^+^
192.
/iv
(1)
The binomial
..
1 + mx + w(?w
,
^
,
series.
9
1)
~
This important series
J-
o
+ , in(m
^
l
\}(m
9 3 ;
- 2)
is
^...H----
w w 1 (w 2 (?w n + 1
) ) w
+
,
)
+i (
^
where m is a constant.
If (1 is a finite series of m -f 1 terms, since
m is a positive integer, )
1 -2-3- (w-1)
m(m l)(m 2) - -
(m n + 2)(m ri +
^^ ~
, 1) n
and J
Hence ^ un
= m-n +
n
1
x = tml
V n
(2) (1 + xr = 1 + mx
If m
is a positive integer, the series is finite and equals the value
of the left-hand member for all values of x.
Equation (2) expresses the special binomial theorem. We may also
write
(3) (a + b)
m = r
a "(l + x) w , if x = --
a
given below.
(1 -f ar)i = 1 4- ?, .r
- jj,
.r-' f ,V -r'
(
- T ? ft
x4 + %
-f
- 1 -f ().()04
~ O.OOOOOS -f ().0000()00:r2 H---- .
(1 1
.\
f| )i
(4) 25(1 -f T
= 25 -f O.i
^2 - 0.0002 4 0.0000008 =25.099S01 (to the nearest
figure in the sixth decimal place). Ans.
The series in (4) is an alternating series, and the error in the answer is less
than 0.0000008.
lim ^-i = M,
SERIES 355
II. If M is not zero, series (1) will converge for the interval
^
,
\-
. . .
for convergence.
n + 1
lim -
Also, ( )= 1.
w - oc \ N -f 1 /
PROBLEMS
1. Using the binomial series, show that
'
1 + jr
Using the binomial series, find approximately the values of the fol-
lowing numbers.
2. V98. 5. Yii5. 8.
-rp 11.
V990
^ 1 1
4 --7"
V412 V30 -x\16
4.^/630.
356 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
For what values of the variable are the following series convergent ?
23
t 1
I)
\ 2
2
j
/-..
fr-_l)
i i \a
3
{
/,.-
(x-l)
i
4
1 ^4
-. Ans. 2
^T
< x
<
< 0.
2.
X/2 V3 V4
16. 2(2. All values.
17. 1^(^-2)^ + ^
18. 1 -2(2jr- U) 4-3(2 jr - H) 2 ~ 4 (2 ^ - 3 )-
{
H .
jr
- 3 (.r,
- 3)'2
; ''./.. i ..'.-
' '
i
(x - 3) 4
19.
i -
a 2 -
3- 3 3 :t
4 -
34
CHAPTER XX
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
In this chapter the question of represent-
194. Maclaurin's series.
(1) /(*")
= 00 + J
J + a *r + ~
+ a,,/" + -
-.
(2) /(())
- oo.
etc.
| g
This formula expresses /(x) as a power series. We say, "the function
/Or) is developed (or expanded) in a power series in x." This is
Maclaurin's series (or formula).*
"
* Named after Colin Maclaurin (1698-1746), and first published in his Treatise of
Fluxions" (Edinburgh, 1742). The series is really due to Stirling (1692-1770).
357
358 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
It is now necessary to examine (4) critically. For this purpose
refer to (G), Art. 124, and rewrite it, letting a = 0, 6 = x. The result is
(Art. 14). That is, Maclaurin's series (4) will converge for x = x
and its value is/Oo). Thus we have the following result :
Theorem. /// order that the series (A) should converge arid represent
the function f(x) it is necessary and sufficient that
(G) lim 7? = 0.
n oc
certain number of decimal places are sought, and since the process
in question replaces a function perhaps difficult to calculate by an
ordinary polynomial with constant coefficients, it is very useful in sim-
plifying such computations. Of course we must use terms enough to
give the desired degree of accuracy.
In the case of an alternating series (Art. 188) the error made by
Stopping at any term is numerically less than that term.
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 359
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Expand cos x into an infinite power series and de-
termine for what values of J it converges.
/(jrt
= cos x. /(O) = 1,
f'(x) =
- sinx, /'(( ~-0,
/iv(j-)
= COST, /1V((
rr \ f
fv( x =
_ s in
) jr, /v(0) = 0,
/Vl(j)
_ COS J,zr:
/ vi (0) =- 1,
etc., etc.
Substituting in (4),
C08 - + --"
(7)
T=l-|-f^ jj
Comparing with Problem G, Art. 191, we sec that the series converges for all
values of J*.
In the same way for sin j,
(8) sin, + - - ?1 -.
-,-?! t
In (7) and (8) it is not difficult to show that the remainder /v approaches zero
as a limit as n becomes infinite, when jc has aw// fixed value. Consider (7).
Here we
may write the nth derivative in the form
K= fn)( .
(0< X, < X)
\n
Hence lim /? = if f
(n]
(x\) remains finite when n becomes infinite.
360 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Using the series (8) found in the teat example, cal-
culate sin 1 correct to four decimal places.
_ _
Summing up the positive and negative terms separately,
1 = 1.00000 -
-J-
= 0.16667
~- 0.008,'W ,-
- 0.00020
y? y;
1.008U3 0.16687
Hence sin 1
- 1 .008W - 0.16687 = 0.84146
which is correct to five decimal places, since the error made must be less than ;
I?
that is, than 0.000003. Obviously the value of sin 1 may be calculated to any
less
desired degree of accuracy by simply including a sufficient number of additional
terms.
PROBLEMS
Verify the following expansions of functions by Maelaurin's series and
determine for what values of the variable they are convergent.
1. r
r
- 1 + .r +~ + !'
+ ...+ -1-1-
- -|- .... Ans. All values.
2. sin , = ,--+-
r-'l
r
r- >
----
_
+ 1_1J
(
1 \
--
"
r
:L
+ . .
.. A11 values _
:$
'
^
5. arc sin jr = x
(n -
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 361
12. tan -+ JT = I -f 2 jc + 2 x- +
( 4
\4
or LS
16.1ncos J
-=-^-^-g..,
Find three terms of the expansion in powers of JT of each of the fol-
lowing functions.
17. cos j*
~ 19- e
21. c = 2.7182 -.
27 sin -
~ 0.7071 ;
use series in Problem 2.
4
29. <'-'
= 1 + li f 4 + - - - 7.3890.
^'
30. V? = 1 4- + -f -f
. - l.b'487.
7^7, oJTTj
195. Operations with infinite series. One can carry out many of the
with convergent series just as
operations of algebra and the calculus
one can with polynomials. The following statements are given with-
out proof.
4 b n s" -[
J-'-f *'
In (1 } - ,-'" '
In (1
- J*) - - J" -
1
- r
'
J - a - r -
\ - r
* - '
'
(1)
ln L, 2lJr+ .,. + U M!,. + -,
',
lot A be a positive
To transform (1) into a form better adapted to computation,
number. Then, if we set
= -
1
whence
, 1 + JT __ A* -f 1
/2) x : ;
r:
then j < 1 for all values of .V. Substituting in (l\ we get the formula
i_
| |
In (A' + 1) = In .\
x-
+ o
~
1
+ 1__1__4-1_ 4- 1
(3) iTy"^ 3 (2 A' + 1 )' 5 (2 :V 4- 1> 5 J
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 363
T
the logarithms of composite numbers being then found by using formulas (2),
Art. 1. Thus, l n 8 = In 2
= 3 In 2 = 2.07944 '
In 6 = In 3 + In 2
- 1.791 76- -.
the above are Xapicrian, or natural, logarithms, that is, the bust* is
All
r 2.71828 If we wish to find /ir/f/f/s's, or common, logarithms, where the base
.
'<>^
In the actual computation of a table of logarithms only a few of the tabulated
values are calculated from series, all the rest being found by employing theorems
in the of
theory and various ingenious devices designed for the purpose
logarithms
of saving work.
T
ILLUSTRATIVE FA AMPLE 2. Find the power series for C sin x.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3. Find the series for sec x from the series for cos x
(see (7), Art. 194).
~ X"' X* ~ X
cos x = 1 + + ' '
(4)
n |jj -^
Solution. From the formula sec x = , we see that we have to carry through
__ i
_
7-
__ ...
2 24 720
Then
(6) sec x = = 1 +2+ 2
z' + 23 + '
;
-^
if !
2 !
< 1 (Problem 1, Art. 193).
364 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
From (6), we have the series
T* ~ x r>
z terrns f
4" 24
"*""
higher degree,
sec x = 1 -f
- x- + x4 -f rr + . .
.. .4ns.
PROBLEMS
Given In 2 - 0.69315, In 3 = 1.09861, calculate the following natural
logarithms by the method of the example above.
1. In 5 = 1.60944. 3. In 11 -2.39790
2. In 7 -1.94591. 4. In 13 - 2.56495.
5. c
'
cos / = 1 / + ;
{
/'<
_ ii
/4 _j_ . . ,
f
' X
(
6. =1 + 2^-4- j-2 +? ^ + 55^
7 JL55JL 1-1 _ 1 .2 __ J_ 3 jilL 4
r - "
1 1. f sec j- 1 j- 4- j-
2
.r< -f
I ^4 _j_
. .
%
12. c 2 sin 2 /
- i> /
- /
2 - ~ /.'* -f-
5 /4 + . .
B>
48
17. Vsecx = 1 + 7 J2 4-
~ J*
4
+ -
.
4 96
.
-
1+smx 2 b 12
16 2;>b 6144
For the following functions find all terms of the aeries which involve
5
r
-*- J
. 24. \/\\ -f c .
21. c r>
smx.
22.<*cosjVI 25.^jy^,
VI 4- x
sin JT
23.
x 26. V5 - cos x.
Art. 191).
Again, the series (1) may be integrated term by term if the limits
lie within the interval of convergence, and the resulting series will
converge.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Find the series for In (1 + x) by integration.
(2) ln(l -f x) = I r
/() L ~T X
NOW T-T- = 1 ~ X + * ~ X + ^ -
2 *
366 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
when |x|<l (Art. 192). Substituting in (2) and integrating the right-hand
member term by term, we obtain the result
In (1 -f ji = x - \ x'
2
-f 3 x :i - I .T
4
-f .
This series also converges when \x\ < I (see Problem 2, Art. 191).
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Find the power series for arc sin x by integration.
r f dx
.'f, \l-j-l'
we have
2-4-6
1 '
This series converges when \x\ < 1. Substituting in (3i and integrating term by
term, we get
an- sin , = T -, -,
or TT = .'{.1415 -.
Evidently we might have used the series of Problem (>, Art. 194, instead. Both
of these seriesconverge nit her slowly, but there are other series, found by more
elaborate methods, by means of which the correct value of TT to a large number of
decimal places may easily be calculated.
sin z
- z - rr + - * * '
Problem 2, Art. 194
fp
flO
Hence sin x2 = x'2 - jtt
r~ + 'rr
' '
%
lii 1A
r r 1
r (i
T U) \
=
!
, / ,
.
,
and / sin x-dx I a*
2
r^ -f V dx, approximately,
( )
1
= I
^1
_ _ 4. --I = 0.3333 - 0.0238 -f 0.0008
= 0.3103. Aws.
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 367
PROBLEMS
1. Find the series for arc tan x by integration.
2. Find the series for In (1 JT) by integration.
3. Find the series for sec 2 .r
by differentiating the series for tan .r.
(
8. f ',- 0.1815. 12. fVsin V7'</.r.
Jo -\/i _ j.'J Jo
13. fVl - .H
Jo
<Lr. 14. ( 'r
./o
J
cos Vr f/.r. 15. /
-A)
\/2 - sirTx dr.
_ = 1 mx = 1 mx + 2 'm(m l)x
2
.
Then
(2) sin x x,
(3)
'
sin ''___
x x ~
etc.
sin x = x, with |
error |< | x*\.
We may inquire, For what range of values of x will (2) hold to three
decimal places? Then "
|
< 0.0005,
Am. (a) Error < 0.00033; (b) error < 0.01 ; (c) error < 0.08.
Am. (a) Error < 0.0032; (}>) error < 0.05; (c) error < 0.25.
3. How accurate is the approximate formula e~ f = 1 when jc
Am. (a) Error < 0.000002 (b) error < 0.006; (c) error < 0.2. ;
11.
/
cosVj(/j'=r+ x-~+- 4 ^2
15. (>sin0(/0= C
*/
-f
23 -f
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 3(59
(1) f( x )
= fr + bi(j
- a) + b>2(Jc
- a) 2 + + b n (x - a)
n
+ ,
and that the series represents the function. The necessary form of
the coefficients & 61, etc. is obtained as in Art. 194. That is, we dif-
( >,
+ ,
/"(*) = 2 6,> + -
+ n(n - 1 )M-r - a)"~- + ,
etc.
6 =/(o), 6,=/'(d). k
(B) /(x)
- /(a) + /'(a) ^ + /"(a) - +
Let us now examine (B) critically. Referring to (G), Art. 124, and
letting b = x, the result may be written thus :
where
Theorem. 77^ infinite series (B) represents th-e function for those
values of j, and those only, for which the remainder approaches zero as
tlie number of terms increases without limit.
If the series converges for values of x for which the remainder does
not approach zero as // increases without limit, then for such values
of x the series does not represent the function f(x).
It is usually easier to determine the interval of convergence of the
series than that for which the remainder approaches zero but in ;
(B) used for finding he value of the function for values of x near
is t
a,
and (B) is also called the expansion off(x) in the neighborhood of x a.
Solution. f(jr )
= In jr, /( 1 )
- 0,
ec.,
etc., ec.
etc.
Substituting in (B), In x
- .r
- 1
- J(r
- 1 )
2
+ ^(x
- 1)''
- . Ans.
etc., etc.
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 371
v2 N 2
the series ahove gives cos 50 = 0. (54278. Five-place tables give cos 50 0.64279.
In this second form the new value of /(.r) when .r changes from j\> to
Jo + h is expanded in a power series in //, the increment of .r.
/'(jri
= cos .r, f'(xu) cos .r () ,
etc., etc.
sin (xo -f h i
= sin x 4- cos x ~ sin j ( , cos j ( 4- *. Am.
PROBLEMS
Verify the following series hy Taylor's formula.
1.
^ r q
2. sin x = sin a 4- (x a) cos a
r;
sin a
'
i cos a 4-
"
3. cos a- = cos a (x a; sin a '
-~ cos a 4- 7 sin a 4-
372 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
x2 x3
5. cos (a -f x) = cos a x sin a nr cos a + pr sin a + .
n(n ~ 1}
7. (x + A)" = ^ -f nx n
-*h + 2 2
x"- A
Ans. sin r = _
(-!)'
12
Am. tan .r = 1 + 2 a-
- + 1> j - -f
as a first approximation.
A second approximation results by taking three terms of the series.
This is
f
y _ Q\2
(2) sin x = sin a + cos a(x a) sin a -^
rinar- Sina
==COBOj
j a
These values by (1) are correct to three decimal places only. If greater ac-
curacy is desired, we may use (2).
= 0.51503.
sin 32 = sin 30 + cos 30 M (0.03490) - sin .j* (0.03490)'-
= 0.50000 + 0.03022 - 0.00030 "
= 0.52992.
These results are correct to four decimal places.
Ik
(5)
This formula was used in Art. 92. For the left-hand member is the
value of the differential of f(x) for x = J and AJ h.
As a second approximation, we have
(6) /(Jo + h) - /(J - /' (J ) )// + /"(J )
~
<u
In this example x ()
= 45, and tan x ()
= 1 ,
sec XG2 = 2.
PROBLEMS
1. Verify the approximate formula
In (10 + *) = 2.303 +
Calculate the value of the function from this formula and compare
your result with the tables, when (a) x = 0.5 (b) x = 1. ;
sin
\b
+ x =0.5
/
+ 0.8660 x.
Use the formula to calculate sin 27, sin 33, sin 40, and compare your
results with the tables.
tan K- + x ) = 1 + 2 x + 2 x2 .
Use the formula to calculate tan 46, tan 50, and compare your
results with the tables.
use the formula to calculate cos 32, cos 47, cos 62, and compare your
results with the tables.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
r\
1. Given the definite integral
*) o
/
x 5 In (1 + x)dx.
(a) Obtain
value by series correct to four decimal places. Ans. 0.0009.
its
(b) Obtain
its value by direct computation and compare with the ap-
x
2. Given f(jr) c - cos -
g-2i.
we found, by integrating,
(2) y = x~ + C.
~
(3)}
v
-
?
dx y
led to the solution
(4) x2 + y~ - 2 C.
(6) y"
2 = (1 + ?/'
2 3
) ,
* A few types only of differential equations are treated in this chapter, namely, such
work in mechanics and physics.
types as the student is likely to encounter in elementary
375
376 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
1
where y and y" and second derivatives of
are, respectively, the first
y with respect to the second degree and second order.
x, is of
202. Solutions of differential equations. Constants of integration. A
solution or integral of a differential equation is a relation between the
variables involved by which the equation is satisfied. Thus
( 1 ) y = a sin x
is a solution of the differential equation
values to c\ and 2 it is seen that the solution (5) includes the solu-
* It is shown in works on differential equations that the general solution has n arbi-
trary constants when the differential equation is of the nth order.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 377
by differentiation, we obtain
= x,nx.
(2)
x^-4^2 W
(3) ^ = (r 2
- d) sin In x -f (r^ -f o ) cos In .r -f In JT -f 1,
dx
Substituting from (1), (3), (4), in (2), we find that the equation is identically
satisfied.
(5) y
2 -4 x =
is a particular solution of the differential equation
(6) *2/'
2 -1 = 0.
we obtain 4 x - 2 = 0, which
Substituting this value of y' in (6) and reducing, y
is true by (5).
378 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
Verify the following solutions of the corresponding differential equa-
tions.
(r jc
r <7r
'
4- r,
6 f .
>l:Jl
J
+ ., 'Ht _ j.,,
= o. ry =2f- 3 r '.
f/.T (/J*
7.
-- -f 4 .S r_r (). rr r, COS (2 t -f <* 3 ).
8 -
(/
/X
- r> '17 + 1:i J
"
= ;5;) - *" = r" cos - * + 3 -
/* a/
9. //
y^ (
10. 4-
.r?/
^
'
11. ^-^
<iv 1 -f r- 1
- rr
<//-
13 .
<!lll
</.r*
-z^- * a.r
ll
= r 2 '. //
= r,r*' -f ce * - J f
2
'.
f
14. ll
2
_|_ <) j. 5 cos o /. j- = cos 2 / + 2 cos 3 / + 3 sin 3 /.
(//
= -
16. ^
(/.r
-f .r//
*
J 3 // 3 - A
/r
J-'
2
4- 1 -f- re"',
204. Differential equations of the first order and of the first degree.
Such an equation may be brought into the form
(A) Mdx
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 379
(1) /(J)rf.r+Fu/)rf// = 0,
where /(j) is a function of JT alone and F(y) is a function of \i alone,
the process is called separation of the variables, and the solution is
obtained by direct integration. Thus, integrating (1 ), we get the gen-
eral solution
Equations which are not given in the simple form (1) may often
be brought into that form by means of the following rule for separat-
ing the variables.
FIRST STEP. Clear of fractions; and if the equation involves deriva-
tives, multiply through by the differential of the independent variable.
SECOND STEP. Collect all the terms containing the same differential
into a single term. If the equation, then takes on, the form
XYdx + -Y'y'(/i/ = 0,
where X, X' are functions ofx alone, and >', Y' are functions of y alone,
itmay be brought to the form (1) by dividing through by X'Y.
THIRD STEP. Integrate each part separately, as in (2).
dx (1+ x*)jry
2
Solution. First Step. (1 4- x' )xydy =(14- y'*)dx.
dx
x(\ 4-x*)
___ +y* 1
ydy _
In x - J In (1 4- x2 ) - \ In (1 4- y 2 ) = C,
2
In (1 4- x )(l 4- y*) = 2 In x - 2 C.
380 DIFFERENTIAL ANT) INTEGRAL CALCULUS
This result may be written in more compact form if we replace 2 C by In f,
that is, give a new form to the arbitrary constant. Our solution then becomes
In (1 + T*)(\ + y'
2
)
= In j 4- In 2
c,
~
x y
a In j -f a In // ?/ C,
r/ In j'^/ =.- r -f ?/,
or
c
Denoting the constant f hy r, we get our solution in the form
y
x'2 y = ce. Ans.
(A) M dx + N dy =
is said to be homogeneous when 717 and .V are homogeneous functions
of * and // of thesame degree.* Such differential equations may be
solved by making the substitution
(3) y = rx.
ing .r and // by \jc and Xj/ (X being arbitrary) reduces to the original function multiplied by
some power of X. This power of X is called the degree of the original function.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 381
--
Also, from (3),
dy dv .
< 5)
l= r dr*+ v-
(6)
*g + t>=/(p).
and the variables x and v may be separated.
=
'+x'^
dx ^^.
dx
Solution.
2
y dx -f (x-
- xy }dy = 0.
Here M
y N = x'
2
,
2
xy, and both are homogeneous and of the second degree
in or and y. Also we have
ay _ y*
dx xy x2
Substitute y = t?x. The result is
dx 1 v
or r dx -f x( 1 v)dr = 0.
In x -f- In f - v T,
In rx =C -f ,
y = cex .
PROBLEMS
Find the complete solution of each of the following differential equa-
tions.
1. (2 + y)dx
- (3
- x)dy = 0. Ans. (2 -f y)C3
- x) = c.
2. xy dx
- (1 -h ^ 2
)d?/
= 0. c?/ =1+ x2 .
3. x(x -f 3)dy
- i/(2 x + 3)dx = 0. t/
= cx(x -f- 3).
382 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
4. Vl 4- f'
2
dy Vl y'
2
dx 0. Am. arc sin y = In c(x 4- Vl 4- x2 ).
5. dp 4- p tan dO = 0. p =r cos 0.
6. (1 j-jd?/
2
y ds 0. j/ In rfl .rj
= 1.
7. (/- -f 2 y)(Lc + (2 jr
- 3 ?/)</?/
= 0. x 2
4- 4 .n/
- 3 ?/
2 - r.
8. (3 jr 4- 5 y)djr 4- (4 y 4- 6 ?/;r/?/
= 0. (jr 4- ?/j
2
(.r 4- 2 ?/)
= r.
9. 2O 4- y)ds 4- ?/ r/?/ 0.
- J
Aim. \ In (2 r2 -f 2 r?/ 4- //*; arc tan (
?/
)
= r.
16. (2 j'
L>
-f )(/.r 4- (2 sy 4- 3 /r
~ 0. 2 .r
{
+ 3 3 =
//-' )r/// .r//- 4- //'< r.
L>
</w 1
4:^ r-hr
^-i/r'i r^' ^-rr^'
18. (3 f 2 //)./ J.r 4- (./'
- 2)(/// = 0. 22. (3 s -f //)</./ 4- (.r 4- //)<7// ~ 0.
19. 2(1 4- // )(/j- ( 1
~ ./)<///
= 0. 23. jryi // 4- 2 )r/.r
- (
// 4- 1 )r/// = 0.
20. ( 1 -f //).r r/.r
- ( 1 -f .r )//
(///
= 0. 24. f 1 4- /-V// - (1
- //
L
')r/.r - 0.
21. (a.r 4- />)^/// //- djr
~ 0. 25. O 2 //>/.r (2 ^* 4-- //)(///
= 0.
26. (3 s 4- 2 //)</j- -f j-J// rr o.
28. (.r- 4- //
:>
U/.r -f (2 .r// 4- //
L
')<///
= 0.
29. 2 // </.r
~ (2 .r ?/)r/// 0.
31. (.r- 4- //
L
'W/.r 2 .r// dy ;
.r = 1, =
// 0. //* jr* .r.
33. (1 + //-')r///
= // ( /.r ; .r = 2, //
= 2.
34. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
-(l4- -)
and which passes through the point (2, 1). Anz. x 2
4- 2 nj 8.
35. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
j, j
;
and which passes through the point (1, 0). Am. y(\ 4- jr) = 1 .r.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 383
(C) ^ + Hx -
<*y
J,
(7) y = uz,
( ,x,
&rf= + ..!j.
or a.r </.r
iJ7
(11) u^ = Q,
df
in which j and z can be separated. Obviously, the values of u and z
thus found will satisfy (9), and the solution of (#) is then given by (1).
The following examples show the details.
a?y a2 aw
dx dx dx
384 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Substituting in the given equation (12), we get
dz ,
du 2 uz , ,
s
' i
'
\ i -t
dx \ dx 1
Integrating, we get In if = 2 In (1 -f x) = In (1 -f x) 2 .
(M) .-.u = (1 -f j)
a
.*
=<r + 1,
dx
Integrating, we get dz = u -f 1 i
'
(15) s ,
Sut>stituting from (15) and (14 ) in y ~ uz, we get the complete solution
whence Pd
u ke '
*.
Substituting this value of // in (11 ), and separating the variables z and x, the
result is
= 2^ p 'e
fc 'dr.
It should be observed that the constant k cancels out of the final result. For
this reason it is customary to omit the constant of
integration in solving (10).
* For the sake of assumed the particular value zero for the constant
simplicity wt hu\
of integration. Otherwise we should have M = r(l -f j-)-. But in the work that follows
r finally cancels out (See Illustrative Example 2 >
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 385
*
dx'
where P and Q are functions of x alone or constants. Equation (D)
may be reduced to the linear form (B), Type 111, by means of the
substitution z = y~~ +
w
Such a reduction, however, is not necessary
1
.
ifwe employ the same method for finding the solution as that given
under Type III. Let us illustrate this by means of an example.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Solve the equation
dx x
P^i, Q= a In x, n = 2.
j
dz du uz
~-
M T" +
,
- -7- -f
,
~ ,
In x
,
u~z 2
,,
,
dx dx x
(17)
J" \r X
dx x
du _ dx
u x
Integrating, we get In u In x In -,
x
(18) u = i-
u^- =a In x u'*z*
dx
= a \n x uz'z .
dx
= a\ nx .*-,
dx x
386 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
2
1 a(m x) .
r
Integrating, we get
2
~
adnx^-f 2C
Substituting from (19) and (18) in y = uz, we get the complete solution
_ 1 2
*
x f/(lnj)~' + 2r
or xy[a(\n t}- -f 2 f'J -f 2 = 0. An*.
PROBLEMS
Find the complete solution of each of the following differential equa-
tions.
I j.
(
lli __ 2 2 r. An*. //
-- cs'2 - 2 j".
//
~ - =
^- + ^' 1>
2. JT 2 /y J-. ?/ .' -
3.
di( __ 2 //
- I
- 2 r. ?/
= JT -f rr -".
4> j.
(
J/ _ ;j y
- - 2 nj. y = us -f r.r
{
.
5.
(
!ii - ;/
rrr - 2 C
r
. ?/
= C
r
+ C(" .
6.
~- ctn / = 1
- (/ -f 2) ctn t. s = + / 2 + r sin /.
'
cx 2 u '
4- 2 j-?/ -1=0.
djr jr
8. 4 tan / = 2 / 4 /
2
tan /, s rr /
L)
4 c cos /.
u/
(
ili _ / _ 1 \ >r
u c
*
-j- ^ r
(f.r j*
12. nx -f 12 //
= w n + l
. rj*
2
?/" 4- A'/
n -
djr
13.
-^
+ i? = cos /
- sin /. 8 cos t -f cc~
14. ^- x ctn / = f (l
r ~ ctn /). 8 = ^'
(
+ c sin ?
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 387
= = -
16.
^4 ?/ 2 -f 2 .r. 21. 2
-^
-f // (JT l)r'.
17. .r
-~ 4 V
*
= (1 4 -rU". 22. r ~ /y
= ^ cos .r sin x.
ajc ax
- =
-^ = -
^-
(
2 + 1
18. y 1 L> j-. 23. N // -f (.r -f 2 .r)?/"
= -
^ 4 * tan =
2 '
19. j-
^ -f ?/ -f j- //- 0. 24. t c (tan / 1 ).
25. 7^
- ^ = /-V ;
x = 1 . ?/
= 0. .4 //s. //
=. jr'
2
(c'
- e).
28. ^ - -^- =
dj* j" -f 1
(.r + 1 )' ;
jc = 0, = y/ 1. 2 ?/
= (r -fl )
4
-f (jr -f I)
2
,
29. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
, // 4- .r -f-
an( j ^.^^.^ p asses through the point (1, 0).
s = 2 - 2-r-
Ann. 2 ?/ tt.r 1.
30. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
y nf y ^^ which passes through the point (1 ,
1 ). Anx. y(\ -f In x) = 1 .
g-'-
where X a function of x alone or a constant.
is
Repeat the process (r? 1) times. Then the complete solution con-
=* + <:,.
or
^ = xr* - 2 + T,x + 0V <-*
j/
= Cxe* dx - C r* dx -f f r,x dx -f f C 2 dx + C3
= xe - 1
c* -f
^TT- + r^ x + c --
Hence y = xe z - 3 r 3
"
-f r,x
2
4- r 2 x -f f:t. ^4ns.
y' dy'
'= r//'^.
But ^/' dx = d//, and the preceding equation becomes
y'dy' = Ydy.
The variables |/ and //' are now separated. Integrating, the result is
Solution. Here
C
Integrating, y"
2 ~ - a~y' -f C. 2
\ \
y' = \ 2 C - a'^ 2
.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 389
setting 2 C C\ and taking the positive sign of the radical. Separating the vari-
ables, we get
d 'j
= Ar _
Integrating,
- arc sin == = x -f i
\ r.
# = - a
- oos </( \, sin a.r 4 -a
!
sin ( '- cos ax.
PROBLEMS
Find the complete solution of each of the following differential
equations.
3.
- 4 sin 2 t. x =- sin 2 / + nf + r2 .
6.
Vas
as
j
= ar\ V? x -f r 2.
,72 Z- ro
9- TT + = . Find /, having given that s = a, ^ = 0, when / rr Q.
at
Ans. t
390 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
206. Linear differential equations of the second order with constant
coefficients. Equations of the form
Differentiating (1 ), we obtain
Substituting from (1) and (2) in (G) and dividing out the factor
rr
c ,
the result is
CJ) r2 + pr + q=-(),
a quadratic equation whose roots are the values of r required.
Equation (3) is called the auxiliary equation for (G). If (3) has dis-
tinct roots r\ and r^ y then
(4) y = c
r ^ and y = 7
e **
(5) '//
= c\e
r *
r
+ fiK
>r -" r
.
(6 ) ^-
dx~
>>
(
lM
dx
_ a y = o.
(7) ra -2r-3 = 0.
Solving (7), the roots are 8 and 1, and by (5) the complete solution is
tx
y nr -f C'2 e *. Ans.
Check. Substituting this value of y in (6), the equation is satisfied.
Roots of
(8) imaginary. the roots of the auxiliary equation (3)
If
are imaginary, the exponents in (5) will also be imaginary. A real
complete solution may be found, however, by choosing imaginary
values of c\ and r, in (5). In fact, let
giving to A and
By B in (11) the values 1 and 0, and and 1, in
(18)
g 4 A--'//
= 0.
Compare this method with that used for the same example in Art. 205 (k a).
REMARK. A different form for the solution is obtained by setting A --- (' cos <*,
* Let ? =
V^~T, and assume that the scri(\s for c
r
in f'roblf-m 1, Art 191, rfprf.sonts
- 1 ~
the function when J is replaced by ibs. Then, since ?- 1, /'* /,, * I, etc.,
we have
(ln
.
flfc x =r ,4
t ,
.
lfcjr
._^ .^J
_4
?/<>-
l
1
,
fcV
+l
, ,
IW -.--.
-^
Also, replacing j by bj in (7> and ''S), Art 104,
= - 63j.J fofijfi
----
cos 6x = 1
^ ^ + .
Bin ft* fer + .
sin bx
.
- , ..
tkr - b'W-- bW . b*r* .
4-
b ;'s f >
-
(15) cos bx -f i 1 -f- i -f i ,
assuming that the series represents the function. The right-hand members of (14) and (15)
are identical. Therefore c t>>x cos bx i sin bx
- +
392 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Roots of (3) real and equal. The roots of the auxiliary equation (3)
will be equal if p
2 = 4 q. Then (3) may be written, by substituting
q = \ P-,
(16) //
= ?'"(ri -f r,j)
- xe
^= ^-
r
(17) y >', <"'(! -f r,.r), <T"(2 r, -f rr'j).
+
^., = o.
s = 4 and ~=
c/s
2 when / = 0.
cf/
r-' -f L r -f 1 = 0, or (r -f 1 )* = 0.
To find the required particular solution, we must find values for the constants
d and C'2 such that the given conditions,
=4 and -- =- 2 when t =
dt
are satisfied.
Substituting in the complete solution (20) the given values s = 4, t = 0, we
have 4 = c\ t and hence
(21) s = e-'(
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 393
= 2 when / 0.
a/
PROBLEMS
Find the complete solution of each of the following differential equa-
tions.
1.
(
^~
-~-2x = Q. Atis. j- = r,r
r
+ r 2 r a '.
2.
7^2 - 4 ^ +3 ?/
= 0. v = <v" -f r,r".
dr dr
rj*
4. -7^7 -f
J
16 -r = 0. j* c\ cos 4 / -f ('-2 sin 4 i.
d/
6. ~ - 4 = 0. = or 2 '
-f r.r -'.
(I/~
2
_ f/
6. -7-^' -f 4
?/
2
,
.
dij
-f
- f.
0. ?/
= r, 4
.
r 2r
Ar
4x
.
(/u- djr
7. ^
dt 2
-f 2
~+
dt
2 .s-
= 0. * =-- r
f
d~s
~ cos sin 2 0-
Q
8 -
~ ~
r/K
+
,
r
' *
_
~ A -
^'
<"'(o li / -f c*
17. ^!f + 3 ^f 4. 2 = ;
s = 0,
~= 1, when f ^ 0. yin,s. =c
dt 2 dt dt
18. ^
a< 2
-h n 2x - ;
x = a, ^ = 0, when = 0.
ar
/ x - a cos
394 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
19. ~-
ar"
w V= () ; r = 2, ~ = 0, when = 0.
/
/ An*. x =c +c "'
'.
- = = 0, = 0.
20.
~f 4 2
^ 8 // ; y
^ = 24, when /
21. ~-
at-
8 ~ 4 16 K =
dt
;
= 0, ^ = 1, when = 0.
dt
/ 8 = tc 4t .
22.
-^~a~^(>; r = 0,^ = a,when/ = 0. a- = f-'-l.
<//- dt dt
23.
~) -f 8 ~ 4- 25 = = 4, =- when = 0.
;
.s-
^ 16, /
Awx. ,s = 4 f 4f
cos 3 /.
^ - 10 r = r= - 4, when = 0.
(
24. 6
jf (
-f ; 1,
^ /
25. 4 4 .s- = ;
= ~ - 4, when =
0, t 0.
26. - 4 j- - ;
jr - 10, - 0, when t = 0.
"
no
28. -
--;
- 4
^ - r .
4- 4
^
r = /v
;
.r
.
2,
^J"
;>, when i
/ = 0. /x
dt- <11 dt
FIRST STEP. Sol re the equation (G). Let the complete solution be
(22) y = u.
(23) y = v
Form of X Form of v
X a + bx, assume //
= r A f Hx ;
A" = ae t>jr
,
assume //
= r ~ Ac'" ;
Solution. First Step. The complementary function u is found from the com-
plete solution of
S- 2
S---
By Illustrative Example 1, above, therefore
(27) y ~ u = rir'
'
7
f c->c
x
.
(29 1
- 2 B- 3 A - :J Ilx = 2 x.
-2B -XA=(), - U /* = 2.
(30) y = v = $-Hx.
Third Step. Then, from (27) and (30), the complete solution is
y = u -f v = c^ 1 -f c 2 e
*
-f j
- !5
,396 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 5. Solve
"
dx* dx
(32 j y - u = x
c e'^ -f c 2 ('' .
l
(33; y = v = Axe x
.
= Ar ' ~ '
(34;
4r
(1 TI -
Simplifying, we get 4 Ac *
2 e *, and hence A ~-\. Substituting in (33)
we obtain
(30; y =r=- I xe *.
u -f r c\r
u -f c 2 e
J
\ xe f
Ana.
y .
(37)
~+ 4 * = 2 cos 2 /,
Differentiating (40") ,
we obtain
f^' = 4! cos 2 / -f A -
sin 2 /
- 2 Mi sin 2 /
- -4 2 cos 2 /).
a/
(41)
^=-
'
|
Substituting from (40) and (41 > in (37). and simplifying, the result is
Differentiating (44),
Substituting the given conditions (45) in (44) and (16), the results are
PROBLEMS
Find the complete solution of each of the following diflVrenthil equa-
tions.
dt 2
dt-
= = -f c> sin
- sin 2
4. + X 4sln2t. JT CI cos / / '\
/.
d/ 2
<* _ = - ^ -
5 4 s at + b. r,^' -f r,r \(at -f 6j.
d/ 2
d/ 2
7.' ^! _ 4 s = e
'
2t
.
R = o^' -f r 2 f"
2 ' 2t
-f J ^' -
d^ 2
=2 = 2 '
fzf'
2 '
- i cos 2
8 ^!2 8 -h t.
4 s cos 2 t. fie
dt
^ 2y =d cos 3 x 4- c 2 sin 3 x 4- ^ x
2 -
9 * _}_ 9 y 5 x2 . ?/ if.
dx 2
398 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
=
2'- -'~i +
11. '=- -r r,<'' + r./r' 8.
''
12. ^" 7
-
1 -{ :< = fj r~". * = r,r' -f r^r" - 6 c 2 '.
///- <//
13. f 2 -f 2
- 8 H'. s = r 'fr, cos /
2
-f c> sin /) -f | r '.
|-~ j*
-f /!
cos /
j
:{
sin /.
--
16. -,
'2 -f 5 //
-_- U sin 12 /. // r'(r, cos 1* / -f rj sin 12 /)
~j-
-f ]
s cos "2 f -f /V sin 2 /.
17. '-'
; f 9 .<; - :i cos 12 /. 22. 4 ^ -f * - 5 cos -
f
J 3 / + r 1
').
29. ~~ + 9 x = 5 cos 2 / ;
x = 1 ,
~ = 3, when / = 0.
30. + 9 * = X cos 3 / ;
= 0,
~= 6, when / = 0.
|~|
An*, x = 2 sin 3 / -f it
- sin 3 t.
b ,. t
g-j..
Ans. or = i(e
3'
+ e-'-6 + J l).
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 399
32.
(
^~
(it-
- 6
^ + 13
dt
JT - 39 ; jr = 4,
~ =- 3, when / = 0.
dt , .., , ,
cos 2
33. ~ , ,
t
-f 9 * = 4 - 3 / ; * = 0,
^ = (), when / =
.4 us.
0.
.r r'' / -f 3.
34. - 9 * = 6 / 8 = 0,
~= 0, when / = ().
^~ ;
37.
^y + 4
= ,s- 1> cos L> / ;
.s-
= 0,
y= "J, when / r- 0.
- 2 ~ -f
38.
^
dt 2 (It
L> ^ - L> sin / ; .r -- 0, ~-
dt
- 0, when / = ().
39.
^+
a.r-
5 <&
c/.r
+ 4 ,/
= 12 ,- //
'
= 1, ?-
(/./
0, when .r = 0.
40. <%i + 4
^ + 4 ,/
= 4 ,- ; '
= 0, ty
^ 2. when , = 0.
dj'- as (/.r
change of the function with respect to the variable (Art. f>0) for any
value of the variable is proportional to the corresponding value of
the function. That is, if // =/(.r),
-**
where k is a constant. In this differential equation the variables are
separable as in Type I, p. 379. Sohing, we get
(2) y
- c^ J
t
Equation (3) states that the average rate of change of // (Art. 50) for the period
of time At proportional to y itself. In business, interest is added to the principal
is
at stated times only, - yearly, quarterly, etc. In other words, y changes dis-
-
400 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
continuously with /. But in nature, changes proceed on the whole in a continuous
manner. So that to adapt equation (3) to natural phenomena we must imagine
the sum // to accumulate continuously that is, assume the interval of time A/ ;
dy _
" ly >
~dt
where k and c are constants not equal to zero. For let c = ak. Then
(4) may be written
(
r
>)
~ 0/ + a) - k(y + a).
(G) //
= cc
kj
a.
We have to find the values of k and ('. Substitute the given values of x and y.
Then In 4 --- k + r, In 12
- 2 k + C.
k - In 12 - In 4 = In 3
- .0980, (* = In 4 - In 3 = In J.
Solving, 1
Therefore In //
= 1.0986 JT -f In J, and y = J r
1 098Bj
. .4n,s.
tank containing a saline (or acid) solution with the purpose of reducing its strength.
The volume r of the mixture in the tank is kept constant. If s = quantity of salt
(or acid) in the tank at any time, and j amount of water which has run through,
show that the rate of decrease of s with respect to x varies as s, and, in fact, that
Suppose a volume Ax of the mixture is dipped out of the tank. The amount
of salt thus out will be A.r, and hence the change in the amount of salt
dipped ^
v
in the tank is given by
*
(8) As = - A.r.
r
Suppose now that a volume of water A.r is added to fill the tank to its original
volume r. Then from (8) the ratio of the amount of salt removed to the volume
of water added is given by \ s
_ = _-..
PROBLEMS
1.The rate of change of a function with respect to .r equals and //
-
{ //,
be run through to wash down 50 per cent of the salt ? AUK. (>i),'U gal.
4. Neirton'K law of cooling. If the excess temperature of a body above
the temperature of the surrounding air is .r degrees, the time rate of de-
crease of jc is proportional to .r. If this excess temperature was at first
80 degrees, and after 1 min. is 70 degrees, what will it be after 2 min.?
In how many minutes will it decrease 20 degrees?
5. Atmospheric pressure ]> at points above the earth's surface as a
function of the altitude above sea level changes according to the com-
//
pound-interest law. Assuming ;> 15 Ib. per sq. in. when // - 0, and 10 Ib.
when h = 10,000 ft., find p (a) when // = 5000 ft. ; (b) when // = 15,000 ft.
the experiment. Then ~ k(a r), since the rate of change is propor-
amount of raw sugar remaining. If, after 10 hr., 1000 Ib. of raw sugar
have been reduced to 800 Ib., how much raw sugar will remain at the
expiration of 24 hr. ? Ans. 586 Ib.
402 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
8. In an electric circuit with given voltage K and current i
(amperes),
the voltage A is consumed in overcoming <]) the resistance
1
ft (ohms) of
the circuit, and (2) the inductance L, the equation being
This process therefore comes under equation (4) above, h\ ft, L being
constants. Given L ~ f>40, ft = 250, ft 500, and = when / = 0, show /
that the current will approach 2 amperes as increases. Also find in how /
many seconds / will reach W) per cent of its maximum value. Ann. 5.9 sec.
-
maintaining constant volume, leads to the equation (r //), where ^
as r
r
--
the constant volume, ~
salt (or acid) in the tank at any moment,
//
j' salt 'or acid) added from the beginning. Derive this result and com-
pare with Illustrative Example 2 above.
where /' and a are, respectively, the velocity and acceleration any at
instant of time (- /), and
equals the distance of the N moving point
at this time from a fixed origin on the linear path.
(2) Acceleration a -- 4-
Also, r 5, s- S, when /
- 0.
(4) = - + r, or f-" = ? + r.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 403
Substituting in (4) the above conditions r = ft, 8 =- 8, we find (" ~- 1M. Hence
(4
>
becomes
1
(5) r-
,S"
(hi Find the time which elapses when the point moves from s = S to ,s*
= 24.
Separating the variables s and and solving for / / with limits as given, x -- 8,
(7) / =
4
^x " _ 1
'
dl' .s'-
which ib of the form (F), Art. 'J05. The method of integration here is the same as
in Art. 205.
(8) a =- Ks- f
a periodic
easy to see that the motion defined by (10)
is
It is
oscillation between the extreme positions = />, and ,s- s =- fc, de-
termined by
(12)
404 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
In fact, we may replace the constants c\ and 2 in (10) by other
constants b and A, such that
(13j c\
= b sin A y 02 = b cos A.
(15) a - - 'I
x - v.
Also, v = 2, K =- 0, when / 0.
_L
S = '
4
r, =- J + \ ITT ,
r2 =- - vC"I.
Hence the complete solution of (16) is
(17) s = r" 2
'( r , cos / + r2 sin /).
(IS) s = c 2 e~
Successive values of t from (22) differ by the constant interval of time TT.
Discussion. This example illustrates damptd harmonic vibration. In fact, in
(15) the acceleration is the sum of two components
(23) fli
= - J , ci 2 =- r.
to the velocity and opposite to the direction of motion. The etTects of this dumping
force are twofold.
First, the interval of time between successive positions of the point where r =
is lengthened by the damping force. In fact, for the simple harmonic vibration
--- -
(24) i
; *,
0.89 TT. As we have seen above, for the damped harmonic vibration the correspond-
ing interval is TT.
Second, the values of * for the successive extreme positions where r ~ 0, instead
of being equal, now form a decreasing geometric progression. Proof is omitted.
(25) a - 4 s f 2 cos 2 t.
Also, s - 0, r = 2, when / = 0.
(26)
dt
'
44x^2 cos 2 t.
(29) -J
tan 2 / 4- 2 4 = / 0.
(30) y = ] tan 2 /, y =- 2 - /,
(31) a, = 4 s, a- = 2 cos 2 t.
PROBLEMS
In each of the following problems the acceleration and initial conditions
are given. Find the equation of motion.
1. a =- L
A' '.s ;
s =.(),v= r,,, when - / 0. A nx. * = sin /;/.
y'
2. a A--.S ;
x ,s ()> r 0, w hen
r
/ = 0. s = *,, cos kt.
3. a A'^.s ;
.s ,s,,, r r () , \\ hen / 0.
4. a ft x ;
.s-
0, r - 0, when / 0. = f> ( 1 cos /).
6. a 2 cos /
- x ;
x 2, r 0, when t 0. * - 2 cos / -f / sin /.
7. a =- 2 r - 2 x ;
.s = .'5, r
- - ii, when / 0. ,s =3c '
cos /.
8. a =- A-
L
'.s- -f b ;
x = 0, r = 0, when = 1 0.
9. a - //r ;
x 0, r ~ n, when / - 0.
10. a -8 - / 4 x ;
= 4,
x = 0, r \\ hen / - 0.
11. a 4 sin / 4 x; x = 0, r = 0, \\hen = / 0.
12. a = 2 sin 2 /
- 4 s x = 0, r ; 0, when / -- 0.
13. (/
- - 2 r 5 ,s-
;
.s- 1 , r - 1 , when / 0.
(a) If the particle starts from rest at the origin, find its equation of
motion. A H*. * = cos 2 /
- cos 3 /.
What the greatest distance from the origin reached by the particle?
is
17. A body falls from rest under the action of its weight and a small
resistance which varies as the velocity. Prove the following relations:
-.
= (kt + <
; '
- 1).
-^ *"
',
Show that it will not swing through the zero point if p. > k. Find the
complete solution if fj.
< k.
209. Linear differential equations of the nth order with constant coef-
ficients. The solution of the linear differential equation
in which the coefficients p\, p>>, p,, are constants, will now be dis-
cussed.
The substitution of c
rx
for y in the first member gives
" ~2
(r
n
+ pir 71 1
+ 7>>r n
+ + Pn)e".
This expression vanishes for all values of r which satisfy the
equation
(1 ) r
n
+p }
r ~i
n
+ p->r n
~'2
+ -
+ pn = ;
rs
and therefore for each of these values of r, c is a solution of (7).
+ jw + + Pn = 0.
-
(1 ) r" + p.r"
' n ~'-
f (jives
'
a particular solution e T]X .
root r\ )
>
\
taiwd by multiplying the par-
'
*
7, :r, .r
1
-', -, j-- 1
.
4 0.
?/
f
CU' (U*'
^ = dc z
-I- c>>c~
J
-f riiJY-*. A?is.
^-4^- + 10^~12^-h5|/ =
/
ILLUSTRATU-E EXAMPLE 2. Solve
>l J
0.
(/j dr dr 1
c/j-
* A chock on the
accuracy of the work is found in the fact that the first three steps
must give n independent solutions.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 409
e* cos 2 x, <
>J
sin 2 x. (0 = 1,6 2)
(c) The double root 1 gives the two solutions r*. xe*.
or I/
= (<*i -f r 2 x 4- fa cos 2 x + <'i sin 2 .rir 1
. A?w.
(2) ?/
= w,
(3) y = v.
(4) y = ?/ + v.
case apply also for any value of ?/. In any case we may follow the
* From the method of derivation it is obvious that every solution of the original
equate the coefficients of Like terms, solve for the constants of integration,
and substitute their values back in
?/
= // + v,
NOTK. The solution of the auxiliary equation of the new derived differential
equation is facilitated by observing that the left-hand member of that equation is
exactly divisible by the left-hand member of the auxiliary equation used in finding
the complementary function.
the result is
(7 )
y ?/ c\v~* 4 r-yff.
(S) //'" \\
//" -f 2 //'
= M* + ex .
(!) )
y'"
- 4 //" -f 5 y' - '2 y e
z
.
(1 1 //'
v - 5 //'" -f 9 y" - 1 ij' -f 2 //
= 0,
(1M) (r-'
- ;{ r -f 2>ir - 1 )- = 0.
(14) y = or 2 *
4- c
J
(c-2 -f r ;i j- -f c&*}.
will be a particular solution of (5) for suitable values of the constants c.\ and c^.
(r.< 4- 2 r 4 )x 4- r 4 .r ),
2
I/" = p*(2(r 3
2
4- f 4) 4- (r 3 -f 4 r^or 4- r 4 x ).
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 411
r
Substituting in (5) from (15) and (16\ dividing both members by c and reduc-
ing, the result is
(18) y = r = r"\- j-
- .1 J J ),
PROBLEMS
Find tbe complete solution of each of the following differential equa-
tions.
I
L-J.
{
+ }
_if o A H$ t
// C] -f ^ ,
(o s *j >r -|- c,\ sin 2 .r.
f/r djr
<2
LJJ _|_ 4 1 d o^ y r , -)_ ^.^j- -f r ,
c() S 2 j* -}- c \ sin 2 s.
3.
- ^ 0. // r, -f C'2(
>r
4- r. r (
J
4- r i
cos .r 4- o, sin u*.
(/j--
1
as
// 4 '^
L
^/ \-
4.
-
4- ;r 4 ,s = 0. ,s-
- CiC* 4- r.r
'
4- r/, cos 2 / 4 r i
sin 2 /.
,4 ?/,s. //
= r, -I- cy" -f r. { cos JJ .r -f r i
sin 3 .r.
6 l
+ I L
>
+ 8 ^ = 0. -4/**. a* - r
L>r
(r, + c*t -f r :i /
a
).
L>
J/ (//
9.
i
:l
_ 4 = 2 ,-'. 7/
= r, + r,r-' + r.,r
rfr d.r
IQ.
f
HlL - (
l! = 4 . r. v = n + r,r + r ,f :
d.r* (Lr~
= = c,c- + r,f-' -
1L
g_ 3
g+2 ". y 2 r" + i se>.
" (7
= .,.' + ^'+ f: + + 2<2)
18.^-9^+ 20 = /V. A,. .
V4
L>
a/(^/
13.
^j + 4 .s = / sin 2 /.
4
Am. s = cj cos 2 ^ + c 2 sin 2
. .
/ -f
,
i
--cos --- t 2 t t
2
sin 2
412 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
- + = -2 + =
,6. 4
i;
1:1 30 , (I. 20.
dt^ at 2 g
at
'.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
. Am. ?/=(/ + O\
4- r
Vl - // __ -r
4. (1 4- .!'-')<///
=- y-dx.
Vi - //-'
8.
~-
(//^
1
(
^
<//
-H 4 = 0. .s-
= r,r-" 4- r,/r
2
'.
9-
(
^' _ 4 ^+ 8 s = 0. A//K. = r j/ (r, cos 2 f + c>2 sin 2 <).
(//^ dt
10. ^-
<//*
2 ^-8 (//
//
= r-'. //
- r,r" + ^^'
r - \ e-<.
11. ~+
dr
A--.r = / -f b. j- -d cos A-/ -f r,> sin A-/ -f
^
(
A"*
!3^ l:-
r
_ /; i>
- a C os A-/. .r - c\c
kt
+ cc~ u - -^ cos kt.
<//-' 2 A"^
14.
^4 -f A-
2
.r = a sin A*/. .r = c\ cos A'/ -f <" 2 sin kt
-jn t cos kt.
(if"
15. (.r
2
2 /rW.r -f 2 .r// (/// 0. //
2
-f .r
2
In CJT = 0.
16.
^ -f 4ri- = r ?vU'
L)
+ I)
2 = arc tan x + c.
dr j-4- 1 U'~ + iv
.>l 1)'
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 413
17. ~j -
a/ 4
5 ^
ar
-f 4 * = 0. Ans. * = nc 1
4- c 2 e
<
4- W 4- <V 2
'.
19. .n/
2
(i?/
= (.r* 4- li'^djr. po [^ , * . __ /
26. 1
' ~-2 $t - *' = 0. Let ,s-
= ~- A ns. ~ 4-
~= r.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. For a certain curve the area bounded by the curve, the .r-axis, and
any two ordinates is k times the length of arc intercepted between the
ordinates, arid the curve passes through the point (0, /;). Show that the
curve must be a catenary.
2. The acceleration of ain a parachute from a stationary man dropping
balloon i is 32
per second per second, where
r-' ft.is the velocity in ?>
feet per second. If he reaches the ground in one minute, prove that the
toward the origin and proportional to its distance from the origin and to
a retardation proportional to its velocity. Given that the differential
equation for jr is of the form
where m and n are positive, and given the initial conditions x=W,
- 0, when / = 0, find in each of the following cases x and
~ and dis-
dt at
where e is, as usual, the Napierian base (Art. (>1 ). These functions
are not, however, independent, for we have from (A)
r-'
1
4 '2 e~~~~
'
f-' - 2 -f r -''
sum-'
,
r = :
(1) e
r
cosh r -f sinh r, e
'
= cosh r sinh r.
Solution. By Art. 2()(> the auxiliary equation for (2) is r~ a'2 = 0, whose roots
are a and a. Therefore the complete solution of (2) is
r
\l rif"- 4- or "'.
z ~ nj>
The values of r" and r are found from (1) by taking r ax. Hence
r"
x ~ cosh n.r sinh u.r, r x = cosh a.r
-f-
"
sinh a.r,
y = n(eosh + sinh a.r} r-j(cosh ax
(i.r -f- sinh ajr]
= (c\ r\'Vosh ax (ri ^Osinh a.r.
-f- -j
defined by
v
sinh v e 1
e
C
^ tanh v - r -
-r"l
cosh v e 1
+ e
The equations
and
define, respectively, the hyperbolic cotangent, hyperbolic secant,
cosecant. The ratios used in (C) and (1) are the same as
hyperbolic
those in (2), p. 2, for the corresponding trigonometric functions.
The following relations hold :
than 1 sech r, any positive value not exceeding 1 tanh r, any value ;
;
csch r, any value except zero. Also, from the definitions, we have
sinh r) =-
- sinh csch (- r)
=- csch v,
(- r,
II.USTRATIVK EXAMPLE. Given 1anh JT- \. Find the values of the other
hyperbolic functions.
^" >r ^
cosh*' J* cosh* x
Therefore 1
- tanh- .r - sech 2 x. By (C) and (1)
Since tanhjr= ?, this equation gives sech JT = J, the negative value being in-
admissible. Then
cosh jr = \ =~> bv (*)
sech x 3
sinh r, cosh ?>, tanh r for values of r from to 5.9 is shown on p. 416.
(0,1)
ZlL
(O.-l)
tanh x
(1 ) sinh ( +w - }
- ~~ >
(2) cosh (v -f w)
2 2
(6) tanh
cosh 2 ?> -f 1
(7) tanh-' r -
en;- h 2 r | 1
Now
cosh 2 7' + 1 cosh 2 M 1 (cosh 2 /' -f 1 j-'
By (B), cosh- 2 v
~ ]
~-
sinh* 2 r. Hence ('7,< becomes
i ;.,i, - > .,1
(8) tanh-'r-
(cosh 2 /' + 1 )-'
- i sinh 2 r
and therefore tanh r
>sh 2 r 4 1
The sign before the right-hand member must now be examined. From (3)
we have . ,
2 sinh r ,
,, .
smh , , , , ,
2 r ~~
,
cosli- r 1 tanh r cosh- r.
cosh r
Therefore sinh 2 f and tanh r will always a^ree in sign. Also cosh 2 r -f- 1 is
always positive. Hence the positive sign must be used, and we get (f>>.
PROBLEMS
1. The value of one hyperbolic function is given. F"ind the values of
the others and check as far as possible by the table on page 416.
3. sinh (r
= sinh r cosh w
?r ) cosh r sinh ir,
tanh r tanh w
4. tanh (r w)
1 tanh r tanh w
r /cosh r /cosh
,
5.
.
sinh -
i
= .
A/
1 r
cosh -
,
= -f A/
r -f
1>
1
sinh r sinh
7. tanh J (r w) = //
cosh r -f cosh /r
.
//
rr ;{ cosh .r 3.75 sinh jr.
10. Show that sech ( s) = sech s. Draw the ^rapli and prove
lim sech .r 0.
j- oc
14. Show that (sinh .r -f cosh .r)" sinh ns 4 cosh tijr. (n any positive
integer.)
16 simplify
C0 " + TOS h * "
A *. ctnh (u + 2
. v).
sinh 2; // -f
,
sinh 4 r
S = t a tanh - ?/
'
~ a sech -
a a
tractrix is the curve for which the length of the tangent (Art. 43) is con-
stant and equal to a. Figure in Chapter XXV !.) 7
18. Solve = n 2 (y -
ax 2
Ans. y =A cosh nx -f B sinh nx 4- rax 2 H --
2 - tfi,
420 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
214. Derivatives. The formulas, in which v is a function of x, are as
follows.
dx dx
dx dx
- (
=
Proof of XXVII. liy 01), sinh r
^
rru
1 hen -7-
'
u
sinh ?'
~
dx 2
lJL~ ''
= COSH i
/'
-;-
>
dx
^1).
Formula XXVIII is proved in a similar manner. The proof of
XXIX isanalogous to that given in Art. 72 foi the derivative of
tan r. To prove XXX XXXII, differentiate the forms as given in (1),
Art. 211. The details are left as exercises.
215. Relations to the equilateral hyperbola. The curve for which
Or ,,?/,)
FIG. 1
(j[d _ sechr v
Therefore
dv 1 + tanh- v
cosh 2 v + sinh- v
x = cosh v, ?/
= sinh ?;, i ?; = area AOP.
Hyperbolic functions, therefore, have the same relations to the
equilateral hyperbola as the trigonometric functions do to the circle.
422 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
1. Show that the element of length of arc for the catenary z/
= a cosh -
a
j.
is given by J,x cosh - ds.
3. sinh jr = jr 4-
~ -f + -f
,./*"_', 4-
. Aws. All values
7 ,' / + .
6. tanh .r = - jr .',
x'< + A r :> - .r,
7
:,
^ 7
+ -
j T
Derive the series in Problems 15 and 4 from the
9. series for c and c
(a) |
^= /, for the circle ; (b) / ?', for the hyperbola.
J p J p
An*, -
jr = 1 a tanh
t
y = a sech -
M X
216. Inverse hyperbolic functions. The relation
(1 ) y = sinh v
is also written
(2) v = sinh l
y,
"
and read v equals the inverse hyperbolic sine of y." Therefore
sinh v and sinhr y are inverse functions (Art. 39). The same nota-
l
tion and nomenclature are used for the other inverse hyperbolic
functions, cosh
'
v (" inverse hyperbolic cosine of v "), etc.
The curves
(3) y = sinh x, y = cosh x, y = tanh x
tanh'K 0) = tann"
1
v.
424 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
sinh l
x --
ln(jc l). (Any x)
(O cosh l
x =-- In (x i N// 2
l).
tanh 1
x = I
/
In
Ay
1
Jl
(4) sinh r By
To solve (4) for v, write it as follows :
<"'
- 2 JT = 0, or
r
(5) jc = cosh /?
= -
^ By
Clearing and reducing, we have c
2 ''
2 arc
1
'
+ 10.
Solving, c
r
= x Vx ~ 2
1.
j = tanhr = By (C)
(6)
-=^-
Clearing of fractions and simplifying, the result is
(x \)e' + + l)e
'
= 0. Hence t'-
r
= l+x
(jc
1-z
Taking logarithms, we have (//).
into the form (" cosh (jr -f a), where r and u are constants, and find C and a.
Hence (7) will hav^e the desired form if T and a satisfy the equations
(9) C cosh a -
5, C sinh a 4.
Squaring, subtracting, and using (/?), Art. 210, we get ("' = 9. Then C = -4 3,
since cosh must he positive. Also, by division, tanh a /,.
Hence
H = tanh '
0.8 - i In 9. By (//)
Therefore a = 1.099 and
~~
(10) 5 cosh .r f 4 sinh JT 3 cosh (JT -f 1.099).
is
be determined by the table on page 41 (> to not more than three signifi-
cant figures. For example, sinh 0.25 0.247 cosh IJ 1.76. '
= ;
'
=
For greater accuracy (F), (G), or (//) may be used if tables of
Napierian logarithms are at hand.*
217. Derivatives (continued). The formulas, in which v is a function
of x, are as follows. ^v
XXXIII - sinh- 1 v - ,^ - -
(Any v)
/i;+ 2
1
dv
d*
XXXIV -
cosh
-
1
i; = (v > 1)
dv
/I rlY
XXXV cfx 1 v2
* The Smithsonian Mathematical Tables.
"Hyperbolic Functions" (1909), give the
values of sinh u, cosh u, tanh 11, ctrih u to five significant figures Values of the correspond-
ing inverse functions to live significant figures may be found from these tables.
426 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Proof of XXXIII. (Compare Art. 75.; Let
y = sintr l
v;
then r = sinh y.
dv ,
-= cosh y ;
dy
[cosh //
= Vsinh'-' // 4 1 vV' -f 1, by
The proofs of XXXIV and XXXV are similar. Other formulas are
the following.
ctnh J
x - In 2
>
(/) (x 1)
(7) sech- 1
x = ln- --l- (0 < x g 1)
(K) csch 1
^-!
\A
_dv
ft rlv
XXXVI -,
_
*
XXXVII sech i
i; = (0 < i; < 1)
XXXVIII csch~i t; = - =- (^
2
> 0)
PROBLEMS
Show two values of cosh in (G) differ only in sign.
'
1. that the .r
4. Draw the graph of each of the following and check in the figure
the values of ?/ and //' for
the given value of jr.
la) ?/ = cosh 2.
l
JT ; ./
(bl //
= tanh !
.r; .r = - O.Tfi.
+ -- +
tanh '
j .' } -:
.{ ;>
by Art. 19 r>.
(a) .r ;
^--
J X
13. j\
J - X
4- X
^
tanh a tan r
fl + se(
.
,.
_
~
j +
s'nb a
cosh a cos r
= sech
'
(0) r )7(
A sinh ax B cosh ax.
But E -~ E i, 7 = JA when x 0. Therefore A ~ EA B , nJ A ,
PROBLEMS
E= 120 cosh (1.099 - 0.0025 jr}, I = 0.03 sinh (1.099 - 0.0025 x).
minimum
value of 120 volts and / approaches as .r approaches 439.6.)
4. Given E.\ - 1GO volts, 7,i = 0.05 ampere, rn = 4000 ohms, cv = 0.0025,
Show that
(See the Illustrative Example, Art. 216. Thus E approaches zero and 1
decreases to a minimum value of 0.03 ampere when .r approaches 439.6.)
2
d' I
5. Prove that -pr,2 a*l = 0. (Thus /; and / are solutions of the same
dx
2
linear differential equation, which has the form //" a' y 0.)
(b) E= r 7 ;
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
f tanh v dv - C^LH rf r
by
J (c)/
\
J J
J
i --
cosh
f(/(cosh
cosh
?'
r)
/'
_ ,
] n eos h
,
?, _j_
.
^
_,
we have
J
fsech r dr = f
J ^^
1 -f sinh-
df
r
- f ^ sinh,f)
J 1 -f sinh 2 z;
? ;
~\
- r
csch r 4 ctnh r
ctnh r 4- csch r
= '(/(ctnh r 4 csch M
-f- ctnh v 4- csch r
PROBLEMS
Work out the following integrals.
2. Tcosh L
'
r dr = 4 sinh J
4
r 4- i r 4- C.
3. tanh'J r dv = r tanh r 4- C.
|
4. ctnh 2 r dr ~ r ctnh r 4- r.
|
5.
|
sinh :<
r dr = cosh :i
7
1
cosh ?' 4- C.
6. (cosh :?
r d? 1
= fj
sinh :?
r 4- sinh 7
1
4- r.
8.
I
tanh 4 r dr r tanh v >
T tanh :<
r 4- r.
9.
H
r dr = I csch r ctnh ?'
- \ In tanh ~ 4- C.
Jcsch
/I
10.
1 1.
|
x sinh x dx
fcos x sinh x dx
=
ra~
sinh x
nz
4- C.
Work out each of the following, using the hyperbolic substitution in-
dicated. (Compare Art. 135.)
/-
"/^TaTTs^" 2 " 1
24. Find the centroid of the hyperbolic sector OA P\ in Fig. 2, Art. 215.
(Compare Problem 12, p. 337.) . - __ 2 sinh r, -
/r AtiS. .r ~ en
2 cosh r, - 1
(I
y
*
(j,
.
'> ?'i 3 ?i
sinh- 1 - = In
- + +1 In (r + vV + <7~) In a.
a \a \ u,~ i
Hence
(1) In (v + Vr- + a~) = sinh ! --'
+ In a.
(2) In (v + Vr- - a 1
') - cosh ' -
4 In a.
t;inh
i ,
?'
(3;
2 ^T7 'a'
[in (19),
I
' In
^
r +
= - In ^-
t> u J
I
we have I /
= - sech ] - if the ijositive sign before the
J v Va 2
r- a a
radical is chosen. The proof of (37) is similar.
Formulas (38) and (39) follow from (23), p. 193, using (1) and (2).
REMARK. Since
,,,# = tanh"
1,0- 1,0 = i,^ -v .,.
= smh^
ctnh" 1 - seen' - cosh" - -
,
,
l
1 1 1
csch 1
>
a v a v a v
the integrals (35) -(37) may also be expressed in terms of the functions most con-
venient for use of the table of Art. 212.
434 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Derive (37) by means of the substitution v a csch z.
Solution. We have
iv 2 + a'2 - Va~ csch- z + a = a 2
ctrih z. By (2), Art. 211
-f-
~
C.
J v vV -f a* J a (>sch z '
ctnh z a
PROBLEMS
1. In the figure the curve is the equilat-
eralhyperbola .r'
2
y'
2 = a-. Using Art. 142,
prove that
(a) area A MJ >
triangle OMP - 2
a' cosh ' -
;
(a) tanh = jr -f
~ .r< -f
| .r
r>
4-
<> .)
(b) sinh
2 ;* 2-4 5
3. fsinh l
JT djr JT sinh '
.r VI -f .r-' 4- C.
4. Mann '
.r dr. 5. (.rcosh" 1
^
Work out, using hyperbolic functions.
'farrb-
9. Find the length of arc for the parabola .r
2 = 4 y from (0, 0) to (4, 4),
10.Find the area bounded by the catenary y a cosh - and the line
y = 2a.
11. The downward acceleration a of a falling body is given by
a = 32 - I r'2 and r = 0, s = 0, when
,
/ = 0. Find r and ,s.
221. The gudermannian. The function arc tan (sinh v), which occurs
frequently in mathematics (for example, in (1), Illustrative Example,
Art. 219), is called the gudermannian* of i. The symbol used is
"
gd r (read gudermannian of v "). Thus
(1) gd r = arc tan (sinh r).
The derivative is
. dv
XXXIX 4- gd sech v >
dx
assuming r to be a function of jr.
d cosh r
By XXII and XXVII
dv 1 + sinh-' v
d dr
Then gd v sech r By (A), Art. 38
dx
From the definition (1 ) and Art. 77, we have
(2) gd(0)=0;gd (-r)=-z<lt>; gd ( f oo )= .1 TT ; gd (-00)=-- \ TT.
between J TT and + i
Its value lies K-
(3)
= arc tan (sinh v), ( i TT ^ <t>
< 7T)
(4) v = sinh" l
(tan </>).
tan </>
= - = sinh v.
By W)
2
Hence (j> arc tan (sinh v) gd v. Q.E.D.
/ -
intercept of the tangent on
the x-axis ;
dt cos </>
= a d<f>, or cf
- = sec ^ v
d> dd>
a
Therefore, by (5),
Q.E.D.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 437
PROBLEMS
1. The shows the
circle .r -f //-
figure 1 and equilateral hyperbola 2
x2 y'
1 = quadrant. From M, the foot of the ordinate
1 in the first MP
of any point P on the hyperbola, draw AIT
tangent to the circle. Let v = area of the hyper- Y>
2. Prove
(a) gd v =2 arc tan e v TT;
x = f a tanh -* ?/
'
= a sech -
a a
for the tractrix. Find the rectangular equation also.
dx 2
y*
(b) Integrate by the hyperbolic substitution y = a sech - and the con-
-
7. Evaluate each of the following by differentiation.
gd
K :r x gd JT sin x
(b) lim
r->0 X--.0
(a)
- i; (b) ^.
8. Using the expansion of Problem 14, Art. 215, we have
gd x = x - \ x -f
3
x* - sU?) x 7 -f -.
&
Calculate the value of gd 0.5 to four places of decimals. Am. 0.4804.
Prove this statement, making use of (2), (4), and (5), pp. 2, 3,
438 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
222. Mercator's Chart. The figure shows a portion (one eighth)
of a sphere representing the earth. North Pole N, equator EF,
longitude 61 and latitude <t>\ of the point P\ are indicated. Q, with
longitude 0j A0, latitude+
A r
North Pole
0j + A</>, second point,
is a
near P\ on the curve P\QV.
The meridians and parallels
through PI and Q are shown.
They form the quadrilateral
PiSQR. We seek expressions
for the circular arcs RQ and 7'j R.
The line 7Ve' is tangent at 7^ to the parallel PiK. The line l\T
istangent* at V\ to the curve 7'iQV. The angle at P\ between the
curve and the parallel is the angle R'P\ T. Then
(2) tan i
T= sec fa -^
(3) 0=/0
satisfied by the latitude and longitude of each point of the curve
PiQV.
Proof of (2). By the Replacement Theorem, Art. 98, it can be
shown f that
becomes the line y ~ y\on the chart. Hence we have to prove that
the curve (7) is such that
P\QR and P\Q'R will equal the angle on the chart at (x\, y\)
,
to+ TT, inclusive. On the other hand,?/ may have any value (Art. 221).
Hence the entire surface of the earth is mapped on the strip of the
r?/-plane determined by the lines x = TT and x = + IT.
* Grrardus M creator fl 512-1 594), a noted cartographer, published his Chart of tho
World in lf>69 His name is the Latinized form of Gerhard Kremer.
440 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
By the table of Art. 221 we may find the latitude in degrees of the parallels
which are given on the chart by the lines y = constant.
(1 ) c
j * <" = (>*(>' = (''(cos y + i sin y).
If x = 0, we have (sec p. 391)
Solving (2) and (3) for sin y and cos y, the results are
c
n< - c
'"
Thus the sine and cosine of a real variable are expressed in terms
of exponential functions with imaginary exponents.
Formulas and (A) suggest definitions of the functions con-
(4)
cerned when the variable is any complex number z. These definitions
are
** W
(5) sin z = (>''
'
cos z = (>1Z -4_
sinh z = cosh z
* The lines and j- = -f TT re-present the same meridian (180 W. or 180 E.).
.r = - TT
It is assumed that meridian does not cross the curvilinear triangle. In the figure, A\
this
and B represent the same point on the earth, us do also B\ and C.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 441
- -
(9)
= ^(cos y + i sin ?y) f-*(ros y i sin y)
^
By (1 )
The form of the right-hand member here and in (7) should be noticed.
PROBLEMS
1. Using show that the distance apart on
differentials, creator's Chart M
of the lines parallel to the z-axis which represent the parallels at latitudes
a= j d<t>
that tan sec cp -f-
du
442 DEFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
3. The altitude h of the zone on the sphere bounded by the parallels
following.
(a) h aCtanh 7/2 tanh ?/i ) ;
i
~~ 2
sec d//, if 0;> 0i 4~ cz0.
(b) (li/ </>i
lower bases are parallels at latitudes 0, 30", 45', 60, respectively, map
area of a zone equals
into rectangles whose areas are as 3:4:6: 12. (The
its altitude times the circumference of a great circle.)
lustrative Example 1.
- sin (x - cos (x -
From these write the values of cosh (x ?'//), ??/), iy).
(b) cosh ( i
~ x }
= / sinh x,
(b) cosh
- ?);
(a) sinh (1.5 -f /) ;
(1
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
triangle PiQMi is a right triangle (the chord PiQ is not shown), and
the tangent PiR', and angle MjPiQ approaches angle R'PiT. Therefore
(10)
v '
tan
/
Pir = lim^^-
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Compare with (4), Art. 222, and show that
(a) lim **\
Pl = I (see Fig. 1) ;
Afl-oarc P\It
(h) lim
Afl(^ = 1 (see Fig. 2, which shows
v . oarc KQ
the plane of the meridian In triangle .V
show that Af K is an infinitesimal of i
8. I>erive the formula for tan (.r -f- it/) from the result in the preceding
problem.
CHAPTER XXIII
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
(1 ) v = irjr'-y,
*- >>
z=f(a, b) = MP.
If the function is continuous at P, then how-
ever A.r and A?/ may approach zero as a limit A:: ,
will alsoapproach zero as a limit. That is, 717 'P' will approach coin-
cidence with MP, the point P' approaching the point /' on the sur-
face from any direction whatever.
A similar definition holds for a continuous function of more than
two variables.
In what follows, only values of the variables are considered for
which a function is continuous.
we may hold y fast and let x alone vary. Then z becomes a function
of one variable x, and we may form its derivative in the usual manner.
The notation is
-
= partial derivative of z with respect to x (y remains constant).*
c)x
Similarly,
of functions
Corresponding symbols are used for partial derivatives
of three or more variables.
In order to avoid confusion the round b \ has been generally
i)"
-r- - 2 ore -f 2 n/, treating x as a constant.
~ = T^/(y, y) =
-^
=/ r (j, ?/) =/, = zx ;
(2) *) = Mm
AJ- .
(3) / ,(.r
;
(l , y) = lirn ^^-
Aj;
y^b*
the equation of the curve of inter-
section JPK with the surface is
2=/Cr, b\
if we consider EF as the axis of Z and EH as the axis of X. In this
U (] :
plane TT- means the same as -r1 '
and we have
fa dx
and for the curve of intersection DPI, means the same as j^-
Hence
(2)
~= tan MT'P slope of curve of intersection DI at P.
z is positive.
(a) When ?/
= 1 and r 4, 2; = x/h" *
T.
~
PROBLEMS
Work out the following partial derivatives.
2. /(j, ?
a
-f 2 to?/ -f
2
-f 2 f:jr// -f
3. /(JT, ?y)
-A +
_ JT /?// x
AMS -
^
":
- -
M/>-
--
/^') ?y
2
'
/ y (j- t T/)
= sin (x - y) ~ (* 4- y) cos (r y).
8. f(s, y) =3 jr
4 - 4 s*y + 6 jr*tf. 11. f(s, y) = (x + 2y) tan (2 x + I/).
Q y +^ ?/
17. If w = r ^1
4
-f 2 Rr 1 '//
2
-f ry , show that jr -f ?/
'
=4 w.
r.r f'?/
18. If M = ~
;
^-- , show that jr -f ?/
'
= 3 ?/.
^ 4- // r'x r'/y
fj- cy (Z
(b) Find the rate of change of the area with respect to the side b if r
and A remain constant.
(c) Find the rate of change of the area with respect to the angle .4 if
/>and c remain constant.
(d) Using the rate found in (c), calculate approximately the change in
area if the angle is increased by one degree.
(e) Find the rate of change of c with respect to b if the area and the
(a) Find a.
(b) Find the rate of change of a with respect to b if c and A remain
constant.
(c) Using the rate found in (b), calculate approximately the change in
a if b is decreased by 1 in.
(d) Find the rate of change of a with respect to A if b and r remain
constant.
(e) Find the rate of change of c with respect to A if a and b remain
constant.
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 449
(1) cfy=
I
stant, we got the partial derivative with respect to //-I
we may write
(C) dv^dx
(x
+ ^dy+'^dzi
(y (i
and so on for any number of variables.
A geometric interpretation of (B) is given in Art. 238.
when x= 10, /y
~ 8, A>r
= 0.2, Ji/y = 0.3, and compare the results.
Solution. Substitute in (12) for j-, //, /<, respectively, x + AJ*, // + A/y, M + A?J,
and proceed as below (compare Art. 27).
u + A//- 2(.r A.D- -r- 4- 3(/y -f A?y)
J
M = 2 .r- + 3 /y
j
(13) AM = 4 A.r 4 G
j- // A/y -f 2( A.r)"' + 3(A#)
2
.
(111 ()l(
= 4
.
.r, =6 y.
dx dy
Substituting in (B), the result is
(14) du = 4 x dx 4- 6 /y J/y.
(14) is the "principal part" of the right-hand member in (13), for the additional
terms are of the second degree in AJ* or A?y. This statement illustrates (10) and
(11) above (namely, e = 2 A.r,
'
= 3 A/y).
Substituting the given values in (13) and (14), we get
PROBLEMS
Find the total differential of each of the following functions.
1. z = 2 JL'
:{ - 4 .n/-' +3 //
:l
. ^ N,S-. d; - (fi .r-'
- 4 ij-)djr -f (9 //
2 - 8 .r?/ )<///.
((V-f- />//)'-'
dy -f .S
.r//'-',:
1
-'
(/c.
J <*' +
8. Find ^ if 4 j-' - 9 ~ 16 c = 100.
//-'
j
10. Compute dn for the function // (j- -f //) V.r // when .r (J, //
= 2,
J.r ~ \, dij
- A. /1//X. 1.
11. Compute A// and r/w for the function M j*/y -f 2 r - 4 ?/ when
x - 2, t/
= 3, A.r = 0.4, A?/ = - 0.2.
<t>
= J TT, cZO = 0.2, c/0 =- 0.2.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1 .
Find, approximately, the volume of tin in a thin
cylindrical can without a top if the inside diameter and height are, respectively,
6 in. and 8 in., and the thickness is 1 in.
Solution. The volume v of a solid right circular cylinder with diameter x and
height y is
(1) v = \ vx*y.
Obviously, the exact volume of the can is the difference Ar between the volumes of
two solid cylinders for which x = 6J, y - 8, and x = 6, y = 8, respectively. Since
only an approximate value is required, we calculate dv instead of Av.
452 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Differentiating (1), and using (B), we get
(2) df = \ Trxy dx + | irx' dy. 2
where x, ij are the given sides, a the included angle, and u the third side. The given
data are
(4) r = 63, ?/-78, = 60 =,
o
dx = d/y
= 0.1, da = 0.01745 (radian).
du / ~ 2.4 +4.65
- + 74.25
= , 10
1.13
.
ft.
.
Aiis.
< 1. 1
PROBLEMS
1. The legs of a right triangle measured 6 ft. and 8 ft. respectively,
with maximum errors in each of 0.1 ft.Find approximately the maximum
error and percentage error in calculating (a) the area, (b) the hypotenuse,
from these measurements. AHX. (a) 0.7 sq. ft., 2.9
(
\ ; (b) 0.14 ft., 1.4 <
;.
4. One side of a triangle measures 2000 ft., and the adjacent angles
measure 30 and 60respectively, with a maximum error in each angle
of 30'. The maximum error in the measurement of the side is 1 ft.
mately the greatest possible error in the computed volume? (b) What is
the percentage error? Aw,s. (a) 10.8 cu. ft. (b) ; *%.
7. Given the surface z - ^-^- If, at the point where x - 4, y = 2,
s + //
P
8. The specific gravity of a solid is given by the formula s where
9. The diameter and slant height of a right circular cone are found by
measurement to be 10 in. and 20 in. respectively. If there is a probable
error of 0.2 in. in each measurement, what approximately is the greatest
possible error in the computed value_of (a) the volume? (b) the curved
surface?
Af ^
37 7rVl5 =
(a)
18
^ cu Jn
.
(h) 8 ^ = ^^m
10. Two sides of a triangle are found by measurement to be 63 ft. and
78 ft. and the included angle to be 60. If there is a probable error of
0.5ft. in measuring the sides and of 2 in measuring the angle, what is
of the
approximately the greatest possible error in the computed value
area? (See (7), Art. 2.) Am. 73.6 sq. ft.
= ^
11. If specific gravity is determined by the formula s
_ where
R
where C = current and / = electromotive force. If there is an error of
1*5ampere in reading C and 3*5 volt in reading E, (a) what is the approxi-
mate error in It if the readings are C = 15 amperes and E 110 volts?
(b) What is the percentage error? Am. (a) 0.0522 ohms; (b) || ;. f
13. If the formula sin (x -f y) = sin jr cos // -f cos x sin y were used to
calculate sin (x +
y), what approximate error would result if an error of
0.1 were made in measuring both x and ?/, the measurements of the two
acute angles giving sin x and sin y -f3 ? Ans. 0.0018.
j?
ing a 10-foot suspension and (/, taken as 32 ft. per second per second, may
be in error by 0.05 ft. pe*r second per second? (b) What is the percentage
r
error? Ann. (a) 0.0204 sec. ; (b)gj ;.
16. The dimensions of a cone are radius of base = 4 in., altitude = 6 in.
What is the approximate error in volume and in total surface if there is a
shortage of 0.01 in. per inch in the measure used?
dV - 3.0159 cu. in. dS = 2.818 sq. in.
Ans. ;
17. The length I and the period P of a simple pendulum are connected
by the equation 4 ir'
2
lP'2 g. If is calculated assuming P = 1 sec. and
/
Using the result in the last example as applied to air, suppose that
20.
in a given case we have found by actual experiment that t = 300 C.,
p = 2000 Ib. per square foot, v = 14.4 cu. ft. Find the change in p, assum-
ing it to be uniform, when / changes to 301 C., and v to 14.5 cu. ft.
R = %. Ans. 7.22 Ib. per square foot.
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 455
229. Total derivatives. Rates. Turn now to the case where x and y in
CD M=/(*,0)
are not independent variables. Assume, for example, that both are
functions of a third variable /, namely,
(A) r - i
4. 4.
/
M ox M ry A/ \ Af A/
du ~
__ (hd
dx_ ,
_ ^ ,
' f
( '
dt f>x dt cJydt <)z dt
In the same way, from (E) we have, when y and 2 are functions
of x ' f
du __ du ,
r;u jy . <r)udz
dx 'ox by dx f)z dx
456 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
that the particular variable x alone varies, all other variables being
held fast. But ,
A.
(111
= i
lim
/ *_a 1JL \
dx AX .0 \Ax/
where AM is the total increment of u due to changes in all the variables
caused by the change Ax in the independent variable. In contra-
(
point U, y), while -, depends not only on the point (x, y) but also on
du -1 cos x du - x x d.r
= dy- - 2
cos -
, A . ,
.
Solution. -, ; c', /.
dx // y dy // y dt dt
Solution. <u"'
J
(y
'
-
z}, =- r" r
,
-
r
- = - I
M*
;
- a cos x, -
sin x.
dx dy dz dx dx
Substituting in (G),
M __
acnr(y _-)-(- (ie
nr cos x -I- r
T
sin x = f"
T
(a'
2
+ 1) sin x. Ans.
this process would be longer and in many cases could not be used at all.
Substituting in (>), -- =
^
irxy
~4 \
2
^f-
(1) M=M 0)
(2) r ~~~
<p(r, s), //
= ^(r, 8),
(3)
r only.
^MHence we have
^r r-'wT ( r
+ ^4/,
fr ( //
the new variables being x' and //', and h, k being constants. Then
rx ex ~
~ -
'
f
~ ^ '
()y __
f
/v
'
^?y ~~ i
r? (jy vx vy'
(>IL
!L '
1
Hence the transformation (5) leaves the value of the partial derivatives
unchanged.
If the values of x and y in (5) are substituted in (1), the result is
458 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
The results in (6) may now be written
In Art. 229 it was shown that (B) is true when x and y are func-
tions of a single independent variable t. prove now that (B) We
holds also when x and y are functions of two independent variables
r, s, as in (2). For by (B), when r and s are the independent variables,
we have ^ r
dx dr +
r/:r
ds, rf?/
= -^ rfr H
^
**
ds.
r^r fs rr r;s
(9) dx + dy
ox vy
and reduce by (3) and (4). The result is
ds.
vr els
-7-^7-
dx ex by
J (F
\ )/
f y dx
and y is an arbitrary function of x. Now let y be the function of x
satisfying (1). Then u = and du = 0, and hence
(3) 4^ + ^? = 0.
f)x eydx
Solving, we get
(H) ^ = _. W^
dx fl \dy
('y
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 459
Thus we have a formula for differentiating implicit functions.
This formula in the form (3) is equivalent to the
process employed
in Art. 41 for differentiating implicit and all the examples
functions,
on pages 40 and 41 be solved by it.may
When the equation of a curve is in the form (1), formula (H)
affords an easy way of getting the slope.
V - OL xy\
-~ 2L
-- A
4 x-y*
, ,
j.
-f cos y.
dx dy
stituting this value in the loft -hand member of (/>), transposing, and solving for
dy we K pt
'
du
___
~~
dt du dt
dy
Also,
- 2 /y
? - 6 j#, -T = 4 xy - 3 x 2 .
-y-
"77 4 -^
-
17
proceed as follows.
Let u=f(x,y,z).
dF dF dF
Then du = -
dx + Ttiy dy + -7 dz,
ox dz
by (#), and this holds no matter what the independent variables are
(Art. 230). Now let z be chosen as that function of the independent
460 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
variables x and y which satisfies (5). Then u = 0, du 0, and we have
oF dF cF
(6) dx + dy
,
+ dz = 0.
rx <">y rz
vz fx/}dx
+
I'cF
(
\f)y
+ --
cF rz\
(Z ryj}dy
- 0.
( z
(J) = _-
( y f_l
( Z
=
S+ 12
+
*?-
1 -
z is defined as an implicit function of .r and ?/. Find the partial derivatives of this
function.
Solution. F= l
+ -\.
^
TlPTIfP
00 _
dF
r'ir~12'
dF
_ J
__ .
fy~6'
y _
dF
~
~d~z
z
^ws-
ar 4 z dy 2 z
PROBLEMS
In Problems 1-5 find
at
1. u = x2 3 xy -f 2 ?/
2
; a* = cos /, y = sin f.
Aws. = sin 2 f
- 3 cos 2 /.
at
2.u=x + 4 VJv - 3 // ;
.r = f
3
, u = \-
~=3 /
2
+ 4 4- 75-
J
/ (// /
3. K = f sin y + = =
*
sin <
v{/
j- ; .r
J f, ?/ 2 /.
Ans. = r
J
'(
>
sin 2/4-2 cos 2 /) 4- f "(2 sin J / + j cos J /)
4. w =2 .r
2
j-?/ -f y'
2
;
j- = cos 2t,y sin /.
(
In Problems 6-10 find -f-' by formula (/f).
a.r
6. Ajr
2
-f 2 7ij-?/ 4- Cy 2 -f 2 /Xr -f 2 /fy -h ^ = 0.
-f T// 4-
o r w i
8. e* sin // f j/
cos x 1. j
au' r" cos JT r cos //
9. x4 - .ry - s'
2
4- 2 ?/
2 = 8.
10. Ax 4 -f 2 Rr 2 //
2
-f r'//
4 = (r
2
4- ?/
2
)
2
.
-
11. x2 -f 2 j-?/ 4- 2 /y
= 22 ;
jc = 2, //
= 3. Am.
^= |-
12. j'
3 - //
3
4- 4 ^/y rr () ;
j- = 2, y =- 2. - = 1.
13. Ax 4- By 4- O'" =C ;
a- = 0, y = 0. ~
14. 2 x - V27^ 4- i/
=4 ;
.r = 2, y = 4.
15. e
z
cos ?y
y
4- ^ sin x 1 ;
x 0, = 0- ?/
18. x .
-f
o
2 +z
.
2vxyz =
o /
- 1
10.
n Ans.
A
'
()Z
= VZ
~ -rtJZ CZ XZ -
//
Vxyz
.
xy W Vxyz xy
19. x* + ?/< -f z'
A - 3 axyz = 0.
20. ^^ -f /ty
2
-f Cz 2 -f 2 Dxy +2 7/2 -f 2 Fz.r = G.
22. A
point moving on the curve of intersection of the surface
is
y + 2 = 0. When / is 3 and is
1
2
x' -f xy -f ?/- z and the plane x
increasing 2 units per second, find (a) the rate at which // is changing,
(b) the rate at which z is changing, (c) the speed with which the point
is moving. Aws. (a) 2 units per second; (b) V units per second;
(c) 4.44 units per second.
volume is increasing at the rate of \ cu. ft. per second and the pressure
is decreasing at the* rate of ,' Ib. per square inch per second.
Ans. Temperature is increasing at the rate of .^ degrees per second.
24. A
triangle AHC is being transformed so that the angle A changes
to 90 in 10 sec., while side AC decreases 1 in.
1 L
at a uniform rate from O
per second and side A /> increases 1 in. per second. If at the time of ob-
servation A GO AC = 1(1 in., and A /> - 10 in.,
11
,
(a) how fast is BC
changing? (b) how fast is the area of changing? ABC 1
(1) w =/(j, ?/ ),
then
u vn - ffv (x,
/o\
(2)
f)
- /f r
/
(r, ?/),
\ f
y)
x
(
1
X f'lf
In (3) and (4) there are apparently four derivatives of the second
order. shown below that
It is
eycx exey
provided, merely, that the derivatives concerned are continuous.
That is, the order of differentiating vuccewirelH with respect to x and y is
immaterial. Thus /(x, //) has only three partial derivatives of the
second order, namely,
_r*H _ (>__
/ (~u \ C''H __ e_-
/( H\ e- /eu\ _ Ir^u
cx'2 (
}
y ex
2
//
- ,'J .r
2
//-' ; verify
~~~ 7^-.
r')//
oV d.r dy
Solution. -,-- *J f'"'y (> .r//'. T- :~ % J*"
- IX -H/
2
.
(8) c/>(x)
= /(x, ?/ + Ay) - /(x, |/).
f /"(or)
= 0(w), = ^a = Ax.J a-,
464 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
The value of 0'(z +
0i Ax) is obtained from (8) by taking the
PROBLEMS
Find the second partial derivatives of each of the following functions.
1. /(x, //)
= Ax 2
-f 2 lljry + O/ 2 -
.
/ (x,
= 6 AJT + 2 Bij /^(x, = 2 Rr -f 2 r\v
?y) ; ?/) ; / (x, ?y)
=2 t\r + 6 /)?/.
3. /(x, - .4.r KU -f rr'".
?/) -f-
-
4-
5. /(x, ?/)
= x 2 cos ?/ 4- ?y
2
sin x.
6. If /(x, |/)
= a-
3 2
-f 3 x y 4- 6 x?y 2 - ?y
3
, show that
/xx (2, 3) = 30, /XJ ,(2, 3) - 48, /yy (2, 3) = 6.
7. If /(x, //)
= x 1 - 4 x a
?/ 4- 8 jrj/
3 - 7/
4
, show that
/(2, - 1) = 96, .^(2, - 1) =- 24, /w (2, - 1) =- 108.
2!L = 4 fj + 6 /; ?/ , ^1 = 6 Rr -f 24 //.
r'j ( \f }
<"//
10. If w = (ax
2
-f ft?/
2
+ cz-}'\ show that
r'.r
L If M = ___,
__!/_ S how that -
j-
2
2
-f 2 xy
"
-- 4- ?/
2 = 0.
f>.r' r'j* r??/ <"/r
12. If M = In .H + /y
2
, show that 4- = 0.
2 *
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. A circular hill has a central vertical section in the form of the
curve whose equation is .r
2
+ 160 y - 1600 = 0, where the unit is 1 yd.
The top is being cut down in horizontal layers at the constant rate of
100 cu. yd. per day. How fast is the area of the horizontal cross section
increasing when the top has been cut down a vertical
distance of 4 yd.?
Am. 25 sq. yd. per day.
2 if w = -^~, show that + = Or -f ?/
- l)w.
c + cy
f
fa ry
2
'f*
4. If z = 7/
x 2 arc tan ~ - 2
cr
arc tan - show that -
'()'*% ?/
'
y'
^ 2
_^_
6. If u = In (c
r
4- e" 4- r*), show that -
ffin
:
~-2^
_____
tfu n ()u sin 6 '(^u
8. Let M = (/i
2
+ x*'
2
+ ----h * n 2 )'. What values of * will satisfy the
/Or, y, a) = 0.
The curves of a family may be tangent to the same curve or group
of curves, as in the above In that case the name envelope of
figure.
the family is applied to the curve or group of curves. We shall now
explain a method for finding the equation of the envelope of a family
of curves. Suppose tha;, the curve whose parametric equations are
0) J- = </>(), y=\f,(a)
is tangent to each curve of the family
(2) /U, y, a) = 0,
the parameter a being the same in both cases. For any common
value of a equations (1) will satisfy (2). Hence, by (), Art. 229,
since u =f(x, y, or), du = df = 0, and z is replaced by a, we have
(3) fx(x, y, a)(f>'(a} + fy (x, y, a)\f/'(a) +/(>, y, a) = 0.
466
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 467
g-*$.
and the slope of (2) at any point is
(5)
=- - r ' ' <v
-
(tf), Art. 231
rfj- ./(*, //, a)
Hence if the curves (1) and (2) are tangent, the slopes at a point
of tangency will be equal, giving
(7) fa (x, y, a) = 0.
FIRST STEP. Write the equation of the family of curves in the form
/(x, y, a) and derive the equation fa (x, y, a) = 0.
SECOND STEP. Solve these two equations for x and. y in terms of the
parameter a.
Second Step. Multiplying (9) by cos a and (10) by sin a and subtracting, we get
x p cos a.
y p sin a.
(11)
P^Iina'
a being the parameter. Squaring equations (11) and
adding, we get _^_ yi
w^ ^
the rectangular equation of the envelope, a circle.
(15)
] y a cos-' a,
a*** = a d sin- a,
? 2
^3 a^ cos 2 a.
Adding,
228
+
rj ?/
a = fl-\ the rectangular equation of the hypocycloid.
Solution. (16)
o2
+ ^=
b'
2
1
= 0, from (16),
U" U"
Transposing one term in each to the second member and dividing, the result is
~
Substituting these values in (17), we get the envelope xy , a pair of
~ w
conjugate rectangular hyperbolas (see figure).
Setting the partial derivative of the left-hand member with respect to the
parameter y\ equal to zero, and solving for x, we find
4 p
Equations and (3) arc the coordinates of the center of curvature of the pa-
(2)
rabola. together, they are the parametric equations of the evolute in terms
Taken
of the parameter y\. Eliminating ?/i, we obtain
27 pi/
2
=-4(.r ~2 p)\
the rectangular equation of tho evolute of the parabola. This is the same result we
obtained in Illustrative Example 1, Art. 109, by the first method.
PROBLEMS
Find the envelopes of the following systems of straight lines and draw
the figures.
2. = nr. 27 x 2 =4 3
w -f ?y .
//
3. //
= m'2 j' 2 m ;<
. 27 ?/
= ^ :i
.
4. ?/
= 2 mjr -f- ?w
4
. 16 ?/
: ^
-f 27 u*
1
= 0.
5. y tjr t'
2
. 6. // f-s -h /. 7. ?/
= m.r 2 m 2
.
Find tbe envelopes of the following systems of circles and draw the
figures.
8. (x c}'
2
4- ir = 4 r. Am. y 2 4 jr -f 4.
9. a-
2
-h (?/
- O = 2
2 /. 10. (T - O2 + + O = 2 (?/
2
/ -
12. cy' = 1
-
2
c 2
jc.
x sin r a cos 2 r,
(JT- ?/)
= 2 a.
15. Find the envelope of the circles which pass through the origin and
have their centers on the hyperbola x'2 ?/- = r
2
.
16. Find the envelope of a line such that the sum of its intercepts on
the axes equals c.
= r *.
AnKf The parabola ,1 + y
\
posing the gun can be given any elevation and is kept always in the
same vertical plane, what is the envelope of all possible trajectories, the
resistance of the air being neglected?
y = x tan ex - - ~ ,
2 r<r cos- a
(i being the variable parameter.
Ans. The parabola y = - ~^--
2g 2 i,r
2 L
g (x, y)
235. Tangent line and normal plane to a skew curve. The student
is already familiar with the parametric representation of a plane
curve (Art. 81). In order to extend
this notion to curves in space, let the
coordinates of any point P(x, y, z) on
a skew curve be given as functions of
some fourth variable which we shall
denote by t thus, ;
(1) * = 2=x(0-
The elimination of the parameter
t between these equations two by two
will give us the equations of the
projecting cylinders of the curve on the coordinate planes.
472 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Let the point correspond to the value t of the param-
P(.r, y, z)
Ax, A#, Az ;
( }
cos a' __ cos
~ (3 _
" cos y'
Ax Ag Az
AZ At A*
Now let P' approach P along the curve. Then AJ, and therefore
approach zero as a limit, and the secant PP' will
also AJ, Ay, Az, will
approach the tangent line to the curve at P as a limiting position.
Now lim
A* - o
^
A
=^=
at
</>'(0, etc.
When the point of contact is P\(x\, y\, z\), we use the notation
(3)
= value of
c
when x = .TI, y = y\, z = z\,
-j-
(B) \dx I I
The normal plane of a skew curve at a point P\(x\, y\, Zi) is the
plane which passes through PI and is perpendicular to the tangent
line at PI. The denominators in (B) are the direction numbers of
the tangent line at PI. Hence we have the following result.
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 473
The equation of thf normal plane to the curve (1) at Pi (x\, y\, z\) is
(x- (w
-
\dt
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find the equations of the tangent line and the equa-
tion of the normai plane to the circular helix (6 being the parameter)
( x = a cos 0,
(4)
-
y fl sin 6,
=- =- = a cos = -
Solution. -^
do
a sin ?/, ^
du
.r,
-f-
(<('
b.
x ~ x- ~
(5)
V V 1
= T"^' tangent line,
and
normal plane.
When '2 TT, the point on the curve is
or a* = a, &# = a^ 2 O^TF,
REMARK. For the tangent line (5) we have by (2) and (4), p. 5,
6
cos 7 = fo
: = a constant
-f yi
2
+ b'
2
Va~ -f b2
236. Length of arc of a skew curve. From the figure of the pre-
ceding article we have
(D) s =
PROBLEMS
Find the equations of the tangent line and the equation of the normal
plane to each of the following skew curves at the point indicated.
1. x = at, y = bt
2
,
z = </; / = 1.
3. a- = /
2 - 1, ?/
= + / 1, r = /
:<
;
/ = 2.
4. j = P - 1, ?/
= r2 -f /, ^ = 4 /3
- 3 / -hi ; / = 1.
5. a- = 2 /
- S, ?/
= 5 - /
2
,
c = -
;
/ = 2.
6. x = a cos /, // b sin /, z ~ / ;
/ = J TT.
7. x = /, ?/
= r', ^ = r
'
;
/ = 0.
x = a cos 0, y = a sin 6, z = b6
between the points where B = and 6 = 2 TT. Ans. 2 ?rVa 2 -f 6-.
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 475
x = 3 cos 0, y = 3 6 sin 8, c =4
between the points where 6 = and = 4. Ann. 26 + ^ In 5 = 32.70.
11. Find the length of arc of the curve
x = 2 t, y = 2
t' -2, ; =1- t
2
14. (a) If OF, OE, ON in the first figure of Art. 222 are chosen as axes
of coordinates OX, OY, OZ, respectively, and if P(JC, ?/, z) is a point on the
Proof. Let
~
tix dt 'dy dt cz dt
This equation (see (3), Art. 4) shows that the tangent line to (2),
whose direction cosines are proportional to
dx d/n dz
dt dt dt
(4)
(>x
> >
cz
By (3), p. 5
oy
Let PI(:TI, y\, z\) be a point on the surface and
/e\ <)F
-?)F
(O) TT" > >
vx i vy \
H
\i 1
)
F(x
r y
\A., y j
~]
** i
= \/
dF IdF dF\
dx \9y 'dz\\
The preceding argument shows that all tangent lines to the sur-
face (1) at PI are perpendicular to the normal line at PI. Hence
they lie in a plane. Thus the theorem is proved.
This plane is called the tangent plane at (Pi).
We may now state the following result.
The equation of the tangent plane, to the surface (1) at the point oj
contact PI(XI, y\, z\) i-s
<*> i?i(.- = 0.
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
REMARK. If all the denominators in (E) vanish, the normal line and tangent
plane are indeterminate. Such points are called singular points and are excluded
here.
rp^
?>F ?j C'Z (
]
F (f f Z
~~
}
(
}
F ,
i nen -r ~T~ TT~ -r ~r~
~ == !
ra OT ex dy r
}
y (
}
y cz
are
2-
(G) -1
- xi) 4- (y
- yi) - (z
- zi) =
which is then the formula for the equation, of a plane tangent at (x\ t y\, z\)
to a surface whose equation is given in the form z =f(x, y).
(1)
and the point i, y\, z\) on it. Then the total differential of (1) is,
A'hen x = x\ t y~yi,
(2) Ayy,
x = xi + Ax, y = yi + A?/.
Substituting these values in (H) of Art. 237, we find
(3)
478 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Comparing (2) and (3), we get dz =z z\. Hence the
Theorem. The total dif-
Let
and CD &y,
then dz = z - z\ = DP' - DE = EP'.
Notice also that Az = DQ - DE = EQ.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find the equation of the tangent plane and the equa-
tions of thenormal line to the sphere x'2 -f y 2 -f z 2 14 at the point (1, 2, 3).
dF
then
dx
Therefore = 4,
-2_s-3
Substituting in (),
y " '
4 6
PROBLEMS
Find the equation of the tangent plane and the equations of the nor-
mal line to each of the following surfaces at the point indicated.
1. x'
2
+ y'2 + z2 = 49 (6, 2, 3).
;
An*. 6 x 4- J
x-6 ~
= y-2 = z-3
'
6 2 3
2. z = 8
-l; 1,4).
(2, -
1 2-4
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 479
3. r2 + xy
2
4- ?/
3
-f z 4- 1 = ; (2,
- 3, 4).
Ans. 13 .r -f 15 y +*+ 15 = ;
^-^ = i^J = L=-l.
Ao 1 1
4. x~ 4- 2 jry 4- ?/
2
-f z
- 7 = ; (1,
- 2, 6).
2 2 - - =
411
5. j* ?/ -f .nr 2 ?/< 10 ; (2 t 1, 4).
Ans. 4 .r + // -f z - 13 = ;
^-=-? = 2-^ = ^-
6. .r
2 - y
2
-z' 2 =:
1; (3, 2, 2).
7. ar
2
+ 2 - z
2 = 25 ; (5, 5, 5).
8. 2 x2 + 3 j/
2
+ 4z-' = 6; (1, 1, J).
10. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the hyperboloid of two
sheets
a-
1 -
^
6
-
2
!
r-
= i at (.r,, ?/ z,). .4**. l
2
_ M_
?>
2 l|
r2
= ! .
11. Find the equation of the tangent plane at the point (.r,, ?/ ]t z\) on
the surface ax 2 + 6//
2
-f re
2
+ d ~ 0. ^^,s. a.ri.r -f ^?/i// -f rr,^ -f d = 0.
12. Show that the equation of the plane tangent to the sphere
x2 + r -f z- -f 2 L.r -f 2 Af?/ -f 2 A^ + /> =
at the point (xi, y it z\) is
13. Find the equation of the tangent plane at any point of the surface
j% rr a",
-f y* -f 2
and show that the sum of the squares of the intercepts on the axes made
by the tangent plane is constant.
14. Prove that the tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes and
4
15. The surface x 2 4 y2 4 z = is cut by the curve x
/2
>
y = -
2 = /
-- _ 9
- /2
at the point (2, 2, 3). What is
J
the angle of intersection?
t
z = 2 f
2
intersect at the point on the curve given by / = 1. What is
- vF
(x
tix tiy c)z
(1)
f)G
<*-"> = 0.
IrJx ^ (z Zi)
bF\ 8F dG
c)JP
B= VvG_
f)Z 'dy 'c)z i cjy dx dz
(2)
C= c)F_ c)G
8y fry
(3)
_y y\ ^z
A B C
The equation of the normal plane PHI is
Solution. Let F= a-
2
4 ?/
2
4- z
2 -4 r2 and G=x + 2
y
2 - 2 nc.
aF
ax
= 0, dG]
dy\
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 481
A = -4r 2
\/2, B = 0, C = 4r2.
Hence, by (3), we have
x r y r z rV2
- V2
or ^ = r, z
- r) 4- 0(y - r) + (z - r\ V =. 0.
or \ 2 x - z 0.
These are a =2 r, b =2 r, r
- 2 r\/2.
PROBLEMS
Find the equations of the tangent line and the equation of the normal
plane to each of the following curves at the point indicated.
1. x2 + y
2
+ z2 = 49, x* + y
2
13 ; (3, 2,
- G).
2. 2 = a-
2
+ y
2 - 1, 3 ?2 + 2 //
2
+ z2 = 30 ; (2, 1, 4).
Am.
5 -11
3 x*
. + y*
_ Z2 = 16. x- + 4 ?/* + 4 z2 = 84 ; (2, 4, 2).
,4ns.
x 2 _ y 4 _ 2 2
16 j-- 5 + 6,7 = 24.
16 -5 6
; ?y
4. xa + ?y
2
+ 3 z2 = 32, 2 r2 + ?/
2 - z2 = ; (2, 1, 3).
5. x2 - y
2 - z2 = 1, x2 - y
2
+ z2 = 9 ; (3, 2, 2).
6. x 2
+ 4 # 2 - 4 z2 - 0, 2 x + +2- ?/ 24 = ; (8, 3, 5).
482 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
7. The equations of a helix (spiral) are
X2 + y'2
_ f2>
iy
= x tan -
r
Show that at the point O], ?/i, zj) the equations of the tangent line are
c(x - si) -f 1/1(2- ?]) = 0,
r(?y
- ?y } )
- xi(z
- Zj) = 0;
and the equation of the normal plane is
.
7/1 .r
~ x\y r(z
~ z\) = 0.
x 2
-f y'
2
+ z'
2 - 4 y - 2 z -f 2 = cut orthogonally at the point (1, 1, 2).
at
v-/y(aro
at
+ kt, .2/0 + kt) = hf,(x + hi, // + kt) + kf tw (x + ht, y + kt).
()
(7) F"(t)
= k*fxf (x<> + ht, ?/ + + 2 hkfxu (xo + kt. + kt)
kt) //o
We may easily prove now the extended Law of the Mean for a
function of two variables by substituting in (8) from (5), (4), and (7).
Thus we get
(9) /(jr + h, + k) =/(TO, ?/o + + A/i/to), v/o) A/r(:r<>, ?/o) ?/o)
+ Ar
2
/^(y + 0//, ?/o + 0*)]- (0 < < 1).
when /(a, b) greater than isf(x, y) for all values of x and y in the
neighborhood of a and b. Similarly, /(x, y) is said to be a minimum
a, y = b when /(a, 6) is less than f(x, y) for all values
at x of x and y
in theneighborhood of a and 6.
Q) j( a +h f
b + k) /(a, 6) =a negative number,
then /(a, b) is a maximum value of f(x, y). If
21= /(a, 6)
(3)
c)x 8y'
shall be satisfied by x a, y b.
(4)
=
ftp 8z
By differentiation we have
dx
dA =
-r 24 x cos a 2 .r- cos a -f a*" (cos-' a sin- a).
d
Setting the partial derivatives equal to zero, we have the two equations
2 sin (12
- 2 x + x cos a) = 0.
A consideration of the physical problem shows that there must exist a maxi-
mum value of the area. Hence this maximum value occurs when a = 60" and
x = 8".
^
\h^fxx (x y y}+2 kkf (x, y) fll
+k*fw (x,y)\,
where we have set x = a + Oh, y b + 6k. By (1) and (2), /(a, b) will
be a maximum (or a minimum) if the right-hand member is negative
(or positive) for all values of h and k sufficiently small in numerical
value (zero excluded). Set
#= 0,
#= 0.
c)x ( j
>\i~
/J^LY\
\<rxvyj
determined by the First Step may cause A to vanish, and may lead
to a maximum or a minimum or neither. Further investigation is
therefore necessary for such values. The rule is, however, sufficient
5
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Examine the function 3 axy x3 y for maxi-
x = 0, x a,
y = 0, y = a.
APPLICATIONS OF PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 487
SecondStep. =- 6 x, =3 a, = -6 V ;
-"
\dxdyj
ditions for a maximum value of the function fulfilled at (a, </K Substituting u* = a,
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3. Divide a into three parts such that their product
shall be a maximum.
Solution. Let x = first part, //
= second part ; then a-(x + y)=a-x-y*=*
third part, and the function to be examined is
= - 2 xy - 2 = = -r
- 2 J?/ - x2 = 0.
First Step.
| ay y' 0,
^
(7
_ a
-
we -' y -
get as one pair of values
.r
Solving simultaneously,
Second Step. =- 2 = a - 2 ar
- 2 =- 2 x ;
^ ?/,
^ ?/,
~^T,
A= 4 xy - (a - 2 .r
- 2 //)".
that our product is a maximum when x = -' Therefore the third .part is
y^r^'
PROBLEMS
Discuss for maxima and minima the following functions.
1. x2 4- xy + y'
2 - 6 x 4- 2. Arts, r = 4, = - 2 gives min.
?/
2. 4 j. + 2 - r 4 r// ?/
a - ?/
2
. ^ =J = S gives max.
.'?, ?/
3. 2 x 2- 2 A// 4- 2 + 5 /y
j-
- 3 ?/.
^ = - L = i gives min. //
4 x >3
3 a^y 4- if- x = y a gives min.
x =y -- gives min.
o
6. x2 - xy 4- !/
2
+ oar 4- 60 4- c.
7 '
^
^ ,
2!
x
+
y
L
2
J2 .
^
is a2 + fr2 "^ c2 '
488 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
9. Find the rectangular parallelepiped of maximum volume which
has three faces in the coordinate planes and one vertex in the plane
5
a
+ 2+5
b c
= 1. Ans. Volume = ~27
10. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can
13. A
manufacturer produces two lines of candy at constant average
costs of 50 cents and 60 cents per pound respectively. If the selling price
of the first line is jr cents per pound and of the second line is y cents per
pound, the number of pounds which can be sold each week is given by the
formulas
N _ 25Q(?/ _ ^ ^ ^
= 3 ^ ()00 + 25Q(x __ 2 y).
Show that for maximum profit the selling prices should be fixed at 89 cents
and 94 cents per pound respectively.
14. A
manufacturer produces razors and blades at a constant average
cost of 40 cents per razor and 20 cents per dozen blades. If the razors
are sold at x cents each and the blades at y cents per dozen, the demand
.,
of, the
,
is - --
4,000,000
.r?/
-
razors and
,
--
8,000,000
- -
ry
,
dozen ,,
blades.
,
' "
(2)
- a) +/y (a,
- a)(y
-
fA\ U W
(4) Mo +I
l
+I
ii
+
I
'"'
[T f|"
etc.
/(!, 2 T) = T.
= 2
xy
2
+ sin xy = l + -J
:
1) +7r(2/ ITT)
PROBLEMS
1. From (1) above, show that
+3 +3
dr
2. Verify the following expansion.
4- 6
cos x cos y = 1 TTT *
J4
6
_ x6 + 15 J 4 ?/ 2 + 15 j-V 4- y ....
=x+y
-
3 x *y + 3
+
.
sin (x 4- !/)
7. r
r
sin T/
= ?/ -f .r//. (
8. P
J
In (1 -h /)
= I'
4- ry
CHAPTER XXV
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
243. Partial and successive integration. Corresponding to partial
differentiation in the differential calculus we have the inverse process
of partial integration in the integral calculus. As may be inferred
from the connection, partial integration means that, having given a
differential expression involving two or more independent variables,
we integrate it, considering first a ///(//< on.e only as varying and all
the rest constant. Then we integrate the result, considering another
one as varying and the others constant, and so on. Such integrals
are called double, triple, etc., according to the number of variables,
and are known as multiple integrals.
In the solution of this problem the only new feature is that the
constant of integration has a new form. We shall illustrate this by
means of examples. Thus, suppose we wish to find u, having given
u^\ I
(x
2
dxdy
491
492 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Integrating first with respect to y, regarding x as constant, we get
()U 0,2,
(1) *=f(*,V)
isthe equation of a surface, as KL. Take some area 5 in the A'OY-
plane and construct upon S as a base the right cylinder whose
elements are parallel to OZ. Let this cylinder inclose the area S'
on KL. Let us now find the volume V of the solid bounded by
S, S', and the cylindrical surface. We proceed as follows :
us replace these columns by prisms whose upper bases are found thus :
(3) y'-vv j( .
(4) V = Hm
A./ (I
- (I
A/y
and JTL'K'. The thickness of this slice is Ax. Now the values of z
along the curve HI are found by writing x ~ OD in the equation
z = /(x, y) that ; is, along ///
Ax -
area FIHG = Ax f /(OD, y)dy.
JDF
494 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
The required volume of the whole solid is evidently the limit of
the sum of all prisms constructed in like manner, as x (= OD) varies
from OA to OB ;
that is,
/ OB /^DG
(5) V= /
dx I J(x, y)dy.
JOA JDF
Similarly, it may be shown that
/m r
S*KV
(6) V=l dy f(x,y)dx.
Joe JKW
The integrals (5) and (6) are also written 'in the more compact fonn
no II nlHi nOV nEU
I I /(*, y)dy dx and I I f(y, y)dx dy.
JOA JDF Joe JEW
In (5) the limits DP and DO are functions of a% since they are
found by solving the equation of the boundary curve of the base of
the solid for y.
/
Hx.
.
_2 JV2
where v\ and r L> are, in general, functions of //, and ?/i and y/2 functions
of ;r. The second integral sign in each case applies to the first dif-
ferential.
I
/Or, y)dy d2
Ja-2 J/
u-t
the base of the cylinder being the area in the XOY -plane bounded by the
CM/IM.
/7,/r?v><?
|/
= 1*1, y = U2, x = ai, x a2 .
x~
I (.r -f y)dydx.
Jo Jo
Solution, J ( O -f y)dy dx
'
Jo Jo
Jo I Jo
= v a- - x' 2 - 1
I (x -f
ir )^
Anx.
Interpreting this result geometrically, we have found the volume of the solid of
cylindrical shape* standing on OAB
as base and bounded at the top by the surface
(plane) z = x + y.
The solid here stands on a base in the A'OV-plane bounded by
y v a~ x~ (quadrant of circle
,
AH] J
^
x- (line OA) ,
f rom x
..
limits.
..
^ lo -
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Jo
3. Verify
JQ
b
/ a
/
L
JVa^
_
/ ~\/a 2
Jft
x2
x2
xdydx
9 ^j.'i
"
-
Solution.
/*
/
JQ
/*
I
J_V a _
"
_
v/a "
^
y2
x2
xdydx=l
J
, , /* a f
\xy\
L
_
"|"v/a
J-Vaa-x^
2 - a; 2
dx
496 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
In successive integration involving three variables the order of
integration is denoted in the same way as for two variables; that
is,the order of the limits on the integral signs, reading from the
inside to the left, is the same as the order of the corresponding
variables whose differentials are read from the inside to the right.
c3 r2 c r> *}
**
Ai -h J'2.
" fr /->;>
r>" nr^ rjj /*2f ~15
=
j '
2
dz dy dz dy dr dy dx
nt> J'
I
j-y~ '
dj-
-k
I I
'! \.'h
/ .n/- '
I
*k J\
I
L
xy z
J2
r'2. r<\\ r2 ~\
35
PROBLEMS
Work out the following definite integrals.
^
/(/ -" ^ "*
"'
''''
l 8.
t/
f l./o
f (.r
2/
4. rr ^ "
'
<''/
= 7
,
9 -
('" f()
(j
~"
+ " 2) ''-" ^
Ji /o
2 rr ? ri r r '-'
-
\ //f///(/.r
' '
= ]
-
'
r
'. 10. I
;o
/
At
f dij(Lr= I.
- ., ./o -
~
15. //-'c (/c c/// (^ = i a^ia-* - 6 3 ).
16.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 497
~
x
c "
r^ c *
=
17. /
I I jrdzdjrdii 3*5.
Jo <Jtf 'o
1 1
"
x 1
is. r r f "'zdzduds --
Jo Jo /o
/? rr^ I
r
/2 Jo /
Jo
20.. f
'
Jo Jo Jo
f f
T r +
V ' " '
*d: <ln itr = i r
1 -
Finally let Ax
-
0, and A?/
* 0.
(1) lim
Aa'-O*""'^
y V/(x, ?y)Az A?y -.''
ff/Yz, y}dx dy,
y->Q S
positive or always negative. The reasoning will hold for each sub-
region and therefore for the combined region S. Hence the con-
clusion: the double integral in (1; may be evaluated in all cases by
successive integration .
The area of any region is the value of the double integral of the
Or, also The area equals numerically the volume of a right cylinder
:
Am.
Or we may begin by summing up the elements dr dy
a vertical strip, and then sum
in
up these strips. We
shall then have
~
'*
/ /
^ IJ d r '
~
I
^"r
~ jl> ^ r " i
~
Solution. Here we
integrate with respect first
to x to cover a horizontal strip, that is, from the
parabola to the circle. then have, for the We
entire area.
i<{
A = I I d.r (///,
Jo .'IK;
Hence
^_
y i
(' C fly ,1*, \ li - ^- -|3
=6.75.
i/M Ans.
27 |
/^ Io /
dydx+ /
na'v'j Ji Jo
or
A=ffdydx
500 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
according to the nature of the curves bounding the area. The figures
below illustrate, in a general way, the difference in the summation
processes indicated by the two integrals.
PROBLEMS
1. Find by double integration the area between the two parabolas
l
,'J
\f 25 jr and 5 jr'' 9 //, (a) by integrating first with respect to y ;
,<\
~^LL ^5 /-V ^'
*> 25
2. y =: 4 .r
- .r
1
', y ~ jr.
3. y' =
2
4 j-, 2 j-
- //
= 4. 9.
4. ?/
~ .r
2
, 2 .r
- // + H = 0.
5. r' = 2 .r, .r
2 ^ (> //.
4.
6. y'
2
4 .r, jr = 12 + 2 // ?/~.
7. //
2
2 .r, .r
2
+ //'' 4 jc.
8. ?/
2 = 9 + J, //
2 = 9 - :i s. 48.
9. (j-
2
+ 4 2
)//
= 8 \ 2 //
= .r, j- = 0. a 2 (7r-l).
12. = -2
?/
= 6 -~ r
j-
:i
j-, // .r
:
. 16.
14. 4 2 =
x'\ u
- x. //
17. (2 a - 2 =
.r)// .r
3
, ?/ = or.
15. ?/
2 = .r + 4, /y
2 = 4-2 .r. 18. ;r
2 - = 14,
7/
2
x- + = 36. ?/
2
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 501
The order and the limits are the same as for the
of integration
area of the region The volume of a solid of this type is the "volume
S.
under the surface (1)." The analogous problem for the plane, "area
under a curve," has been treated in Chapter XIV. As a special case
the volume may be bounded by the surface and the A'OF-plane itself.
Note that the element of volume in (2 is )
(4) 2 = 4- a
>J - 1 //'.
Letting 2 = 0, we obtain
(5) 4 J
JT' + //-
= 16,
V -- 4 1 I (4 - x- - 2
}dy dx = 16 TT. Am.
(6) \ ij'
The limits are taken for the area OAB of the ellipse (5) lying in the first quadrant.
(7) -r* + ?r
- nz,
the A'Oy-plane, and the cylinder
2 =
(8) .r- 4 !i 2 ax.
l
-
dy dx Ans.
:<
7ra .
Jo Jo
For the area ON A (see figure), MN = v2 ax - x'2 , (solving (8) for #), and OA = 2 a.
These are the limits.
502 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
PROBLEMS
1. Find the volume under z =4 x'
2
, above z 0, and within y'
1 = 4 x.
2 2 X Z
Ann. V= 2 f' f (4
- x 2 )dy dx = 17.24.
Jo Jo
?y
An*. F = 2/ / (2
- .r;c/?/ dr = 8 TT.
J- 2 J()
15. The axes of two circular cylindrical surfaces intersect at right angles
and their radii are equal (= r}. Find the common volume. .4??.s\
}
^ r3 .
3
on each coordinate plane is the astroid, Chapter XXVI.) Ans. $ ?ra .
(2 TT + J
#)a
3
.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 503
FIRST STEP. Draw the curves 'which bound the region,, or area, con-
corned.
SECOND STOP. At any point I\.r, y) irithin the area construct the
rectangular element of area AJ A//.
THIRD STEP. Work out the function f(jr, //), which, 'when, multiplied
by AT A?/, gives the required property for the rectangular element of area.
FOURTH STEP. The required integral is
ffi
taken over the given region, or area. The order of integration and limits
are determined in the same wanner a,s in finding the area, itself.
Hence for the entire area, using the notation of Art. 177, we have
M =
*
(C) M x y
ffxdxdy.
=j*J*ydxdy,
The centroid of the area is given by
(D) x = "
area area
f(x, y)
= y an(l fte, y) = x >
My ==
I
Ja Jo
I
x ^ dx= Ja
c I
xy dx.
504 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
These agree with (2), Art. 177. Note that y in (!) is the ordinate
of a pointon the curve, and its value in terms of x must be found
from the equation of the curve and substituted in the integrand be-
fore integration.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. Find the centroid of the area in the first quadrant
bounded by the semicubical parabola y~ j and the (
straight line y x.
~J() Jy Jo
2
M =11v
y djc dy = i / (.v
a
y~)dy = fa.
Jo J y ,/o
Since A area i
1
,,,
// a plane area is reroltwl about an axis lying in its plane and not
crossing it, the volume of the solid of revolution, thus generated is equal
to the prod net of the plane area by the circumference described by its
centroid.
form fix, //) Ax A//, and, by (1), Art. 245, and (C),
ii) rx = 2
- 12S
Vu = 320 7T
TT
PROBLEMS
Find the centroid of the area bounded by each of the following curves:
y = Am.
3
1. y
.r 4, (Area in first quadrant.)
jr.
([ Ji, !j
\).
2. y = 6 x 2
jr , ?/ .r.
(. 5).
3. ?/
=4x- = 2 - 3. j'~, //
jr (1, I)-
4. x = 4
2 r - 2 -f 4 - 0.
?/, ?/ 0. g)-
5. ?/
= ^ 2 - y 4-3 = 0.
2
,
.r
0. -'e
1
)-
6. y = x
- 2 - 3, = 2 - 3.
2
.r ?/ .r
(2,-f).
7. y* = 4-
jr f = 2, = 0. (First quadrant.)
jr ?y ?y (I!. A)-
8. ?/
= r -f = 2, x = 0.
2
.r, ?/
/ H
V2 T,'
1
TOV'
1 \
9. ?/
3 =
J2 2 = r., //
/J
V 3"
4
dn)-
ON
- 2 2 = 9 x.
2 / 9 2 7\
10. 4 ?/ 3 j- , ?/ Vii)' J'o>
11. = 2 x, = r ~ x 2
2
H -
?/ ?/ .
(U-
12. ?/ = 8 x, x + = 6, ?/ (-4).
13. y = 4
2
y = 5
- x.
.r,
2
(.0).
14. y = 6 x - 2
x x 4- = 6. , ?/
506 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
15. x = 4 y y 2 y = x. , Ans. (-V-, I).
16. ?/
= 4 x x2 # 5 - 2 , a;. (3, I).
17. ?/
2 =
4 x, 2 x - y = 4.
18. ?/
= x - 2 x - 3, y = 6 x - x 2 - 8.
2
(2, 1).
19. * + 2 = l, z +
2 = l. jy (0.58.5. 0.585).
20. x 2 + 2 = 32, 2 = 4 x.
?/ ?y
2 =
21. i/ 4 x, 2 x + y = 4.
22. x + 2 - 10 x = 0, x = y.
2
?y
2
23. x2 = 2?y,
= 6 x - x2|/ .
/25B(7 256 a \
24. x -f y = a
3 3 3
(Area in first quadrant.)
.
25. x * -f
1
?y^
= a*, x = 0, y = 0. (-' -V
\5 5/
26. P'ind the controid of the area under one arch of the cycloid
x = a(9 sin 0), y = <j(l cos 0). *
^
/ *
5 o\
71 '
I 6 /
28. Using the Theorem of Pappus, find the centroid of the area of the
a2 ft- \3 TT 3 7T/
29. Using the Theorem of Pappus find the volume of the torus gen-
2 =
erated by revolving the circle (x ft)
2
-f- ?y a 2 (ft > a) about the ?y-axis.
A M. 2 ?T 2 a 2 ft.
30. A rectangle is revolved about an axis which lies in its plane and is
perpendicular to a diagonal at its extremity. Find the volume of the
solid generated.
(D
'
I yxdx.
Ja
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 507
The turning moment of this force about the axis OY is the product
of dP by its lever arm OK (== .r), or, using (2),
Solving for /<> and using (1 ), we get the formula for the depth of the
center of pressure
f *x 2 dA
(6) a-o
= -
xdA
/'
Jii
(8)
in which
(2)
2 _ 2 *U
area area
In (E) the functions whose integrals are taken over the area are,
respectively,
/(.r, y)
= y 2 and f(x, y) = .r 2 ,
.
Formulas (E) become simple for an area "under a curve," that is,
an area bounded by a curve, the x-axis and two ordinates. Thus we
obtain r ry ~b \,
2
I*= /
V dydx=l I
y*dx,
Ja J() J u.
(3) /*& rv rb
,= \ x 2 dydx= / yzydx
J a Jo Ja
In these equations y is the ordinate of a point on the curve, and
itsvalue in terms of x must be found from the equation of this curve
and substituted in the integrand.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 509
Since A - area = 1 n
J
,
we find, by (F),
rt = 0.48, rt = 0.53. Am.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Find I s and I v for the parabolic segment BOC in
the figure.
Solution. With the axes of coordinates as drawn, the equation of the bounding
parabola is
(4) y'
2 = 2 px. B(a,b)
2 = &*jr
or ~ bx*
O
(5) y ,
2/
a ^7
15
If we denote this axis in any figure by s, then the depth of the center
of pressure, is by (7), Art. 251
r = 8 - y, dA = 2 x dy.
(7)
(8) M, =
The equation of is y = 2 x - 8.
AB
Solving this for x, substituting in (7) and (8), and integrating with limits y = 0,
y = 4, we obtain 4
/. = f (8
- i/)
2
(8 + y)dy = 1429 J,
A)
4
M. = f (64
- y*)dy = 234.
Hence, by (7), Art. 251, x tt
= 6.09. Ans.
y
(1) (^ + \
(3) /.
lo-jy^dxdy+JJy*
Hence we have the following theorem.
The moment of inertia of an area about the origin equals the sum oj
its moments of inertia about the x-axis and the y-axis.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 511
PROBLEMS
Find /*, /, and / for each of the areas described below.
~2/ '^"iSr
3. The right triangle whose vertices are (0, 0), (b, a), (b, 0).
8.
r
1x
- ^ a2
'
7 - Ab * *
T7 -
y Q
4.
5.
The
The
ellipse
area in the
a2
+ |b 2
first
= 1.
quadrant bounded by
4ns. /x
y'
2
4
= 4r~ ^ =
x = 4,
.r,
44
= 0. ?/
'
j ~ ~
5 7
2 2
6. The area included between the ellipse
J*
-
+
77
*- = 1 and the circle
4
y* = 2y. ; 19 A 53 A
Am. r 7
y^-^-,/^-^.
7. The area included between the ellipses
j-2
-f
^i2
TT 1 ano^ x 2 + 4- = 1.
f<2
16 9 4
,
^ 5 A ^ 19 A
Arts. /r x , 7r V
|
6Q 4
gate having its vertex below the base, which is horizontal and on a level
with the surface of the water.
gate 8 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep when the level of the water is 5 ft. above
the top of the gate. Ans. 7.19 ft. below the surface of the water.
512 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
14. Find the depth of the center of pressure on the end of a horizontal
ft. when the depth of oil is (a) 2.5 ft.;
cylindrical oil tank of diameter 5
(b) 4ft.; (c) 6ft. ==1 .47f t .. (b) approximately 2.4 ft.
(a) ;
= 3*95 ft.
r
U
-x
-A
FIG. 1
draw radial lines from O such that the angle between any two con-
secutive lines is the same and equal to A0. Thus, in Fig. 1, angle
FOR = A0.
The area will now contain a large number of rectangular portions,
such as PSQR in Fig. 1.
(1) AA == i
^ Ap 2 A0.
The functionf(x, ?/) of Art. 245 is to be replaced by a function
using polar coordinates. Let this be F(p, 6). Then, proceeding as
in Art. 245, we choose a point (p, 6) of AA, form the product
F(p, 0)AA
for each AA within the region S, add these products, and finally let
Ap and A0 > 0. It is shown in Art. 258 that the limiting value
of this double sum may be found by successive integration. We now
write (compare (1), Art. 245)
and call it the double integral of the function F(p, 8} taken over the
region S.
Note in (2) that the value of AA in (1) has been replaced in the
integral by p dp dO.
The simplest case of (2) is that of finding the area of the region S.
We then have
r r?
=% r
ft
+
= I pdpdd
Jot t/0 Jci
(3) ffF(p,0)pdpd0 or
JjF(p,0)pdOdp.
514 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1. Find the limits for the double integral giving some
required property related to the ar^a inside the circle p = 2 r cos 6 and outside the
circle p ~ r.
p = O//-2r costf;
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Find the area inside the circle p =2 r cos 6 and
outside the circle p r.
2 2
r(4 r cos 6
- r*)d6 = r 2 (i IT + J Vs) = 1 .91 r\ Ans.
(1) M x = ffp
2
sin 9 dp d6.
(2) M v
= CCp*ca&8dpdO.
2
(3) /,= CCp*siY\ 6dpd8.
(4) /
(5)
(6) 7 =
A = area x
'
In words The polar moment of inertia of a circle with respect to its center equal*
:
theproduct of half the area and the square of the radius; the polar moment of inertia
with respect to any diameter equate the product of one fourth the area and the square
of the radius.
p* = a'
2
cos 2 6.
" Vros2
Jo
p" f
'(}
V'cos
"
3 * - 2 sin 2 0)* cos 9 dO by Art. 2
3 f
Jo
(1 (5),
.
Ann.
Or, summing up first for the elements in a circular strip (as QR), we have
PROBLEMS
4 p cose = 3. Arts .
3(4, -3Vi).
ID
2. Find the area which is inside the circle p = 3 cos and outside the
circle p =f .
A 718. 3(2 7T + 3V3)
516 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
3. Find the area which is inside the circle p = 3 cos 6 and outside the
circle p = cos 6. Ans. 2 IT.
4. Find the area inside the cardioid p = 1 + cos 6 and to the right of
the line 4 p cos 6 = 3. ^ 9\/3
Ans. + -16-
g
5. Find the area which is inside the cardioid p =1 -f cos 6 and outside
the circle p = 1.
AnK I+ 2.
8. Find the area which is inside the circle p =1 and outside the cardi-
oid p=a + cos0.
AnSt 2 __]r t
7. Find the area which is inside the circle p = 3 cos 6 and outside the
cardioid p =1+ cos 9. Ans. IT.
8. Find the area which is inside the circle p 1 and outside the parab-
ola p(l + cos 0) = 1.
4ws .
-in.s. !_?.
2 3
9. Find the area which is inside the cardioid p =1 -f cos 6 and outside
+ cos 0) = x_ 3jr,4.
the parabola p(l 1.
43
10. Find the area which is inside the circle p = cos -f sin and out-
side the circle p 1. Ans. %.
11. Find the area which is inside the circle p = sin 6 and outside the
cardioid p = 1 cos 0.
Ans. 1
4
2
12. Find the area which is inside the lemniscate p 2 a 2 cos 2 6 and
outside the circle p = a. Ans. 0.684 a 2 .
13. Find th area which is inside the cardioid p = 4(1 -f cos 6) and
outside the parabola p(l - cos 9) = 3. Ans. 5.504.
Find the area which is inside the circle p = 2 a cos 9 and outside
14.
the circle p a. Find the centroid of the area and I f arid /.
-+ -
17. Find the centroid of the area bounded by a loop of the curve
= acos30. A
Ans -
-
x ~ 81 Via.
SO IT
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 51
1
48
19. Find I r for the cardioid p = a(l -h cos 6}.
lim
mil
-
o p Ap SO
and therefore SA "differs from p Ap SO by an infinitesimal of higher
order" (Art. 99). Then SA in the left-hand member of (2), Art. 254, may
be replaced by p Ap SO. (Proof omitted.)
256. General method for finding the areas of curved surfaces. The
method given in Art. 164 applied only to the area of a surface of
revolution. We shall now give a more general method. Let
(1; z=f(jc,y)
be the equation of the surface KL in the figure, and suppose it is
f
or Sy Sx = area PR -
cos 7
518 DEFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Now 7 is equal to the angle between OZ and a line from per-
pendicular to the tangent plane. Hence from (H), Art. 237, and (2)
and (3), Art. 4, we have
1
cos 7 =
L \f)x) W
Then Area PR = 1 1 + (-Y+ (\~ |
J
Ay Ax.
L \tixl J \vy!
This we take as the element of area of the region S'. We then define
the area of the region S' as
lim
Ax
^y -* o
(/) A-
'
S
where the limits are found from the boundary of the region S, which
is now the projection of the required area on the A'OZ-plane.
S
the limits being found from the projection of the required area on the
VOZ-plane.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 519
Similarly, ire eliminate ij to find the projection o)i, the XOZ-plane, and
x to find it on the YOZ-plane.
I
lf(jr, z)dz dx and I
z}dy dz,
ff(y,
dx
s
and
(f
\dy/
)'=
. The projection of the area required on the A'OV-plane is AOB, a region bounded
by x = (= OB) ; y = (= OA ) ;
& + ^- r- (= 7M ).
A= r p-'- r d y dx _ irr
2
8 J Jo Vr- x' 2 2 %
y JfU.
A=4 Trr 2 . Ans. 5
520 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. The center of a sphere of radius r is on the surface
of a right cylinder, the radius of whose base is - Find the area of the surface of
Solution. Taking the origin at the center of the sphere, an element of the cylin-
der for the z-axis, and a diameter of a right section of the cylinder for the .r-axis, the
equation of the sphere is
x'2 + y'
2
+ z'2 = r 2
,
a vertical strip (as the z-limits being zero and Vr- - rx. Then, on integrating
7V,
with respect to j, we sum up all such strips, the j-limits being zero and r.
Since the required surface lies on the cylinder, the partial derivatives required
for formula (J) must be found from the equation of the cylinder.
dy r 2 x dy _
Hence '
TH
-^ ^ ?/
Substituting in (7),
A= rr^^~
4 Jo Jo
PROBLEMS
1. In the preceding example find the surface of the sphere intercepted
by the cylinder. A
rr r^'-** dy dx _ 9( 9 2 ,
A o C f^r a -*2
r
dy dx = o
Ans. 8 r r-.
v r2 _
,
/
Jo Jo x2
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 521
In the preceding example find the area of the portion of the pa-
7.
In the preceding problem find the arra of the surface* of the cylinder
9.
( 1
) V 1 ) 1 )
^r
Vii
10. Find the surface of the cylinder
J
-f (.r cos c\ -f // sin -: cv)
2 ~ r
2
which
is situated in the positive compartment of coordinates.
HINT. The axis of this cylinder is the line 2
- jr cos a -f sin a and the
0, // ;
2
radius of the base is r. r
An*.
sin (\ cos rv.
11. Find the area of that portion of the surface of the cylinder
- !5
y* -|~ a'
!
x% + y
r* = a*. An*. V 5
a2 .
12. P"ind by integration the area of that portion of the surface of the
+ -f z- - 100 which lies between the parallel planers jc =
2 2
sphere jr ?y
8
and x 6.
which is, of course, the limit of a triple sum analogous to the double
sums we have already discussed. more advanced treatises it is
In
shown that the triple integral (2) is evaluated by successive integra-
tion. The limits are found in the same manner as for (L).
Simple examples of (2) are afforded by the formulas for thecentroid
&> y> z) (center of gravity) of a homogeneous solid, namely,
Vx = f f y dx dy dz, Vz = z dx dy dz.
I '
i 1, ) . i
a* o- r*-
(3)
= i (= ABC),
c2
(4) 2 = (= GAB),
(5) y = (= OAC),
(6) x = (= OBC) .
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 323
(as ftS), the z-limits being zero (from (4)) and TR = rWl - - (from (3) by
V (/
~ f-
6*
solving for z).
Integrating next with respect to //, we sum up all such columns in a slice (as
Lastly, integrating with respect to .r, we sum up all such slices within the entire
region O-ABC, the .r-limits being zero (from ((>)) and OA a.
Hence dz dy dx
z
~ 4 - .r~ -
(7) ', //-,
(9) 4 Ja + 1 y- =4,
which is the equation of the cylinder AB(^I> (see figure)
(4
- 4 x~ - \ y*)dy dx.
(1 Jo
.,
\
The limits on this double integral are those for the region OAB, the portion of
the area of the base of the cylinder (9) which lies in the first quadrant. Working
out (11), we find V ~ 4 ?rV2 = 17.77 cubic units. Ans.
The problem given may be such that the first integration should
(1) x p cos 6, y
~ p sin 0.
(2) z = F(p, 0)
(3) V = z AA.
The volume V is found by summing up the prisms (3) whose bases
within S and finding the limit of this sum when the radial lines
lie
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 525
AH-O
We now show that the double limit in (4) may be found by suc-
cessive integration. (Compare Art. 244.) done by finding This is
p
-
area DEFG = f pz dp = pf(p, 0)dp.
$*
The integral will be a function of 0.
Now revolve area DEFG about OZ. By Art. 250, the volume of the
solid of revolution thus generated is 2 ir~p area DEFG. The planes
ROZ and SOZ cut out a wedge from 1 his solid of revolution whose vol-
ume is A0p area DEFG, since angle ROS A0 (radians). Therefore
(5)
Hence
(6) V
where a - Z XOA, O/> =/,(), P2 = OE =/->(0),
=Z A'O/*, pi -
values to be found from the polar equations of the curves bounding S.
The element of the integral in (6j, namely,
F(p, e)p<lpd6 zpdp(W, =
may be thought of as the volume of a right prism of altitude z and
base of area p dp d6. Thus AA in (3) is replaced by p Ap A0, as in
Art. 254.
We have now the formula*
(M) V
=//*P dp
d6
=fff(p, fl)P ^P ^
\s s
*The orf/<T of integration is immaterial. Proof is omitted.
526 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
for the volume under the surface (2), and the limits are found as in
Art. 254 for the area of the region S.
From (M) and (4) we may derive (2), Art. 254.
r\"K f'U
/) COH
(7) V = *7,f i
o-Jo Jo
Evaluate this integral.
for 0, zero and \ TT. Substituting in (M) the value of z from (8) and the above limits,
we get (7). Integrating,
V= a 2 &(3 TT - 4)
- 1.20G 2
a' b.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2. Find the volume of the solid whose upper surface
is on the sphere
(in .r~-fr+2- = 8
and whose lower surface is on the
paraboloid of revolution
(12) .r-4 r' = --.
(14) p'
2
-f z
2 = 8 (the sphere
(ID);
2 - 2 2
(15) p' (the paraboloid
(12));
The limits are found as follows: Integrating with respect, to z (holding p and
6 fast), we sum up the elements of volume (10) in a column from the surface (15)
to the surface (14) (M/Vt^J/7'i in the figure). From (15), z
= MP-> = J p 2
;
from (14), 2M/'i = V8 - p~, the 2-limits. The limits for p and
= are those
for the area of the circle (16). Integrating with respect to p gives the sum of the
columns in the slice included between the plane passing through ()Z and and OM
the plane passing through OZ and ON. The final integration sums up these slices.
Integrating in (17),
AUK.
(18) p
2 = 2
y' 6 = arc tan ->
x
to which may be added
/"I /"2 x 1
-
J -'
/*4 - J2
Ans. V 4 /
/ / dzdydx =
J() JO J3 j" -I y-
1
4. Two planes forming an angle <* radians with each other meet along
5. Find the volume below the plane z = .r and above the elliptic
paraboloid z = .r
2
4- y'
2
. Ans. TT. ^
6. Work Problem 5 using cylindrical coordinates.
/?, 7T /^COS fl
//) COS ^?
= 2/- / /
Jo Jo Jp^
Ans. | TT.
ellipse 4 a*
2
-f y'
2 = 4, and 7X and / tf
are moments of inertia for this ellipse
as given by (E), Art. 252.
22. Derive formula (2), Art. 178, from the first formula in (;*), Art. 257.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
ft,
= ft + A^ using the result in the preceding ])roblem. CTho solid
f
is like 0-Pi/iQS in the figure of Art. 222 when OR arid OQ are drawn.)
Xb/x. r> A/i sin (0 -f- A0) sin \ A0. ']
-\
radii OPi, OR, OQ, OS a distance Ar to /',', /'', Q', S on the sphere
2
(r 4- Ar)-. The cones intersect this sphere in the circular arcs
p* -f z
-
JYA" and Q'S', and the planes in the ar^s of great circles /Y,S", H'Q'- The
solid has the vertices PJtQS-Pi'H'Q'H'.)
AV
Ar->o r 2 sin Ar A0
v , o
A./.
-
7 2
Therefore AT differs from r sin </>
Ar A0 A0 by an infinitesimal of higher
meeting at any vertex are mutually perpendicular, and that the lengths
of those intersecting at (r, 0, 0) are, respectively, Ar, r A0, r sin A0.
Describe the three systems of surfaces (spheres, cones, planes)
6.
r
member Al may be replaced by r sin <^ Ar A< A0
In the left-hand 1 -'
(see Problem
4), that is, by the product of the throe edges in Problem 5.
The right-hand member is calculated by successive integration. (Proof
omitted.)
7. Work out the integral in the preceding problem if F(r, </>, 0) = r,
and A' is the sphere r = "2 a cos (/;, that is, .r~ -f /r -f z- 'J a^.
2 7T /^ *
TT /^2 <l COS
'-'
/ /
./o .At
8. Work out the integral in Problem 6 if /^tr, 0, 0) = r-' cos and A'
y
2 = ax 3 .
x 2y = 4 a 2 (2 a y).
2/
2
(2 a - x) = x3 .
532 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
THE LEMNISCATE OF BERNOULLI THE CONCHOID OF NICOMEDES
2 2 2
(x -+ y/ )
- = a- cos 2 0. p a csc + 6.
~ a arc vers ~~
V2 a// - /r .r =a arc vers ^ + V2 a?/ y
2
a
:r = d(0 sn ^),
-
sin 0),
PARABOLA
a cosh - -
a
CURVES FOR REFERENCE 533
+ (ft//)"
- (a-- ft
2
)
~~ 5
a cos' 0,
= a siv . /) sin ;<
f?.
CARDIOIP
yr + ^^* = 3 axy = 0.
p a(l cos 0).
'
= sin x. i = COS X.
534 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
STROPHOID
p = fr a cos 0.
(in the figure, b
-
a.)
p = c'
l(
*, or
p= a0. log p ad.
= a. = a2 .
CURVES FOR REFERENCE 535
|37T II
y = sec y = tan x.
53G DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
THREE-LEAVED ROSE THREE-LEAVED ROSE
-~ a sin =: a cos 3 6.
p 13 0. p
p = a sin 2 p = cos 2 0.
= a 2 sin 2 5. p = a sin 4 0.
CURVES FOR REFERENCE 537
.r//
= a.
INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
r cos -f rO sin 6,
r sin rO cos 0.
CHAPTER XXVII
TABLE OF INTEGRALS
Some Elementary Forms
=ff'(s)dx=f(s) +
C.
l.fdf(x)
2. fa du = aCdu.
u dv dw )
= Cdu C dv Cdw
U ~ ln (a + ''" )] +C
-
= a + bu ~ - 2 a in (a + -f c.
J T-T-T r 6zoX
-
(a -f ftw)
2
b 3 {_ a -
-f
r rfM i r i a
J (a 3 2
a 6w
^ 2
-h 6w) ^>
L -f 2(a -h 6w)
IA r
14 -
/ "~77
2
J u
<*M
,
(a 4- OM)
r x
_
= ---
1
--
aw
,
1
^>
o
a^
In /a
i
-f *>M\
(
\
-x,
-f C.
C
u
.
+
)
,
15 f du = 1
- 1 In ^
a ftM>
\ 4- r
538
TABLE OF INTEGRALS 539
= 1 , bu
arc tan +r -
2
2 ab \a - (a
bu ~
C d
= JL in (
a
\ 4- r (a
2
J 2
b' u
2
-a'2 2ab \bu + a'
18. f *(a 2
'
20 2 2 2 ~
(a b' u' )'' b 2 (m 2 p -f l)(a'
2 2
b' u'
2
}
l1 l
2
J b-u'2 ) 2 2 2
'
(a'
1
2 a' (p 1 )(a~ b' u )
v l
_ _L1 L f _ i __ ,
22.
f u((i"
' ..*!".. .,
= ^ In
\a-..";.,
(
+ C.
_
f .,)
/>*//-) J a*- n*M*/
23.
24 f
f u m (a'2
__
(/
-
"
2
b' u' )"
2
-
_
a-(m
fe
2
~
(7w
a 2 (m
l)ir'-
+ 2 7)
-
-
!
l
(u'
- 3)
2
./
/
_ __
6 2 M 2 )""
v rn
-
<2
(a'
!
duu
2
b'W) p
'
J u r"(a'2 2
b' i(
12
)" 2 a'2 (p
- l)u
"-
r [
(a'
2
b*u*)"
m -f- 2 p 3 r a?/
'
25.
fu V^T^rf K
*/
=- 2(2 a ~ 3 6<
lo jV
o2
fl + M *+ C.
28 a2 ~ 12
26.
105 b3
2
27.
MtfM 2(2 a - bu
28. =- 6M)V(/ -f
^f Va bu 3b'2
-f
540 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
u'2 du __ 2(8 a
2 - 4 abu + 3 6 2 M 2 ) Va + bu
+
'
29 C.
-/;
~
u r"du 2 Km
Va -f 2am um l
du
30. f-
>
/a + bu b(2m+l) b(2m+ 1) J \^~+~ l
~
31./'-
/a 4- bu
- 4=
Va
In (
VVa
V "*"
4- btt
""
^
+ Va
v
) 4- T, for a > 0.
(/K
32.
f~
arc tan 4- T, for < 0.
4-
~ a
/
~"
dw,
oo. f
J w
\/a (^ v ' w ~ 1 ^
" '
2 a r/?
a
t 4- />M ^ (
4-
34 :
fu + budu 2 Va
tl ,/~~TT~
ow 4- 4-
,
a
/' d?/
-/ f-u Va 4- ?>M
(a -f- 2 rr/ a 4-
a(m 1 )//"' 1 )
Forms containing Vu 2 a2
u 4- Vw 2
a 2) by cosh" 1
=
a 4-
~
Vu 2 4- a
2
36. Vw 2
a2 ~ln (w. 4- Vw^ia 2
) 4- C.
?/ -f 1 4-
38. /'//CM 1
'
a 2 Y~dn ~ r^ (*
fl2
\" h C,
'
?/ 4- 2
// 4- m+ 1
= ln (M 4- VM- aj ) 4- C.
TABLE OF INTEGRALS 541
4- In (M -f Vw 2
a2 ) + r.
~'2
nm du
i'. _ i m n -f 1 J
J
49.
f 2 -
'
a2"
u*(u*<i*)*
-}/ f >/
*v +
50
*/~; 7"^ 77
=
^aw'*
+
^ ln
(
q
^
QW
c
51.
, r ^M = V?/ 2 a2 .1
-
-f r arc sec - -f C.
J/
ii(w
2 - a 2
)*
- M - a
C/M 1
52.
2-1
a 2 (m - O 2
a 2)2
-f n
_ J^_-ZLzi:L f.
a 2 (m l)J
u
C/M \
53./- - 1
a 2 (n 2)?/
m "
!
( a2 )2
,
m -f n - 3 r" du
a 2 (n - 2)J
u m (u 2 a2)2
.A
54.
r(u
I
2
+ a^du = V
A /~r^ 2
u -f a ^
2
a In
, /a
I
-f Vu 2
-f a2^
/
,
-f
^
C.
J M V u /
2
KK /r(u
^
a 2 L)^du
55,
t/ 24
542 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
66 rluiI
J u*
m ~
2
a'2 (w 1 )' n
2
(u*a*p ,
fl w
58.
(n~ TW -f 1 )"
r" J
w - w -h
Forms containing v a2 i/
2
- = 1 '
- M* -h if arc sin C.
^ Vr/
2 -f
59. w^^r/w
f(a ^
Tl
60. (,^
- *^ du = "(--' )5
+ (
z -
61.
62.
/
<
.,
- .,
-)-d
n j
=
J
-f
63 ^ = arc sin -
w
+ C.
(,/
2
-,/^
r///
^ -f C.
}
.> r>
1 "
C t /" // dn ((J M*) i r-
bO. rr h ( .
'
IL N 2
66 arc sn
" a
67. r
?<2(///
,=
" - arc sin - 4- C.
^
fa 2 - ?/
2 )
3 V 2 - w2
a 2 (m 1) rj
/u 2-1 m n + lJ
(a
2 - w2 )
2
AQ r_irdu_- -u
m+ l
m-n + Zr <u^au
69 n-
J - 2-1 a 2 (n-2)J
-
il -i
(a
2 - w 2 2
) a 2 (n-2)(a 2 i/
2
)
2 (a
2
w2 )2
TABLE OF INTEGRALS 543
70.
2 2
u' fi
a
u(a
,
71
r (in V- u*
-J
u w-*^~~*^~
72 f .
& . = .
1
cosh
, ~ ,
' -a -f
.
^
C.
{
a-
1
73
-/
'"
a -(m 1 ) //
m 4- // '* /'
<r(m - 1 )-'
(In
-f- <///
2 - 2) J .
!
wm (
a ~ ""/"
5 .
r( >
_ a ln
.'
va j ?/
'
L
a cosh" J -
-f C.
w
77.
2 2 2
(a f/ )
70 ,
(n m -f 1 jM"'""
1
n m+
Forms containing V2 au i/
2
-2i 2 -f
~ arc + C.
3 a 2 -f an - 2 ws
80. V2^
a3 '
/i w\
+,
arc cos
(1 ~-)+C>
i /-
544 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
. ,,^ 3
8L/>V2au-w dw--
2
m -f-
m+ 2
M - M f M _ V2 - -
82. f aw w 2
-f a arc cos (
1 -) -f C.
J u \ a/
- *) 1
fj }! Ij'^filJ
--
'^
~ \/'^ fl 11 It '*
- arc cos
/
1 - 1J\
- + C.
/"\/ w 2
w \ a/
aw K 2 dM _ aw w2
04 r^/2 __
(2 )^ ,,
2 a?/ w 2 dw
~ (2 aw w2 )
7 w J /^"v 2 a?/
wm Mm
"
f'V a(2 ?w ,S)w'" a (2 w 3)J !
86. f
?/
=== = arc cos 1
-
J V2
y
aw - u'2
(
\ a
87. -
= In (w -f a -f V2 a?^ -f u2 ) -f r.
V2 aw -f- u2
89.
?/(/?/
= - V^CIW-H* 4- a arc cos 1 - + C.
^f V2 ^)
.
f
aw - w2
(
v a/
"*<*"
QH f =
J V2a?/-?/ 2
V2 aw - w2 m
dw .
V2 au w^
-f r.
92./ wV2 aw w2
dw V2 a?/ i/
2
w _ 1 / a
93.
7/
m \/2 aw w2 a(2 m-1 ).' M
-
^V2
-f C.
94./ aw - w 2 )* a2 V2 aw - w2
(2
r udu
95. -f C.
^ aw w 2 )* aV2 aw w2
(2
96.
J
Cu m (a -f dM = ll
- -
Binomial Reduction Formulas
m-<]+
b(pq+ m
1
( n i
7)7/';V'
1.
-f 1)
4 *
m
TABLE OF INTEGRALS 545
u m (a + bu q Ydu - -~^-
+^ m + 1
97.
J/ pq
pq -f w -f 1
'
r tj "
8i
v ?/
m
(<i -f a(m l)n
tn ]
(a -f
fo^w (/ -f jx/ 1 ]
<i( w 1 )
'
M
ni
"( -f
99.
(/;/
_ 1
u '(d
n
bu' 1 1
'
1 }u
m l
(n -f btcn*' l
-f- )
uq(}>
,
~ (
/ ~^ y )fy
"""
^
'
'^ w
/
d"
100 .r
c/
M( -f f>"
<;
>
== -Li n
ar/
/-j^)
\a bu'
+c -f
1
'
.
1A1 f (a 4- bit'1 )
1
'
~- 1 ,'(a -f
b(_m __~
i
</ j>(]
102 r(.
a + bnWdu _ (// + bit")'
1
'
;>r/ m -f 1 //"
u
m du //'"
(/
'
'
103.
f (a -f ^> M </)/' ?>(m - pq + 1 )(a 4- />//
(/
)
;
'~ '
_ (m (/ -f 1 ) r H"' ''
dn
b(m pq -f 1).' (a -f bu v )*
u m dn u
7" 4 l
104.
m 4- g - p(( H- 1
'
(iq(p 1) (a -f
w = z AC =
4 r2
Then
i lien a
u +
f 6w -f r//
wo, r?^
2 =
- r(z
(\z
2 - A;.
A").
The expression a 4- bu cu 2
may be reduced to a binomial by writing
==2: "f =
"27' 4r 2
Then a -f bu - cu 2 - c(k - z 2 ).
106 f -^ . = 2
arc tan(
2 CU +6
. .
C,
J a -h 6w -f rw 2 V4 - b2 \ V4 or - & 2 )-f
/
ac whei
when 52 < 4 ac<
540 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
106.^J a
C
+
du
Jm -f cw 2
=
Vb 2 -
1
4 a
In (
2cu
\2 rw
+b-
-f 6 -f
^
Vfc 2
-
-
4 ac \
4 or/
.
c '
[
>
2
4 4 ar 2 rw
-^
4
+ c<
b/
2 ^ ~
~cv*du =
?/ /;
110. Va
4 r
/>
2
4- 4 (ic . / 2 r? - 6
urc sln
'
tf
Va 4- bu rw Vr 2 v
Vh +2
ar/
// du -f />// 4-
113.
Jf
4 ow 4 r?/
2 <'
i
4. r
I .
^ " ?/
_
__ v 4-
-j- ^
f>?/.
^
J Va 4 ww- rw 2 r
H
~ arc sin / 4 C.
-y >(
j
Va w -f V?> -f
_ M)+ C.
-f (a
+M
b) log,
_ -
+ C.
118. f
\ T 1/
du Vl M2 4 arc sin ?^ 4- C.
= 2arcsin x /^-^4C.
^w a)(b u)
TABLE OF INTEGRALS 547
120. C can dw = -f T.
J a
121. Cb
au
du = -^-r + C.
J a In o
122. Cue*"
J
du = ^ a-
ut - 1) -f C.
124. /V'ft
a"
J
du = ^^
(Mn ft (i
r-r
In ftJ
f " !
ft'
1 "
dw + C.
"
/"ft d?/ ft"'
11
a In ft rb"" du
105
J u" ( H 1 )//"
l
n IJ u" l
126. An u du = ?/ In u - u 4- r.
10 - T u"N i ;
M"
127. I In ?/ d// 4- C.
l 1)-'
128.
J
I u"' In" // d?/ = --
m -f 1
In" //
----
m -f
;
IJ
I u m In" '
/( d//.
inn
129 .
J
r f"
I
,
3 " i
In u
7
du ---
r
""
a
i n ?/ i rr
aJ n
dn.
I
""
;
Trigonometric Forms
In forms involving tan //, ctn ?/, sec M, esc //, which do not appear
below,first use the relations
sin u cos u
tan // = ctn
.
?/ = -: sec ?/ = 1
esc u = 1
//" sec ?/ dw /
J cos
d ?^
?/
= In fsec w -f tan w)
7
+ C
136. /esc u du I .
( ?/
= In (esc w ctn w) -f C
J J sin w
= In tan - -f C.
648 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
2
M dw = ctn u
138.
J esc 4- C.
141.
j
sin 2 u du ~ \ u \ sin 2 u + C.
142. / cos 2 u du = ^ M 4- ;J
sin 2 ?/ 4- C.
(w + " '" ~
145. fsin mn sin WM rfw = - -" +
s
'^
(wt n)u
+ c.
w) 2(?w w)
/ _f_ (\
-/ 2(m 4- w) 2(rw ?o
du
2 esc a arc tan (tan a tan w) 4- r.
+ cos a cos
?,
J
149.
cos a 4- cos u \1
1 - tan i a tan I ul
= 2 esc a tanh ]
(tan i a tan A ?/ ) -f r i tan- J
u < ctn 2 J
1. f
J cos a
-^__ 4- sin ?/
= cscaln / tan
\tan a
a- tan
4- tan
.^i/
J ?/
-
4-
secax
sec a I
f
" (a sin M " ~ M cos " M)
163. ff sin rf = 2
+C .
?
= '"" a cos
154. cos d
^/> a1 4- w2
155.J
M sin w dw = sin ?/ u cos M -f C.
156.J
w cos M du = cos w 4- u sin M 4- r.
TABLE OF INTEGRALS 549
/sin*sm n udu
1 "
u cos
n
?/
h
it "~
n
1
J
i
/*
sin"
~'2
u du.
r cos"" 1
sin M 1
ito j
168. / COS"M du = !/ ,
h
r? /
I cos"~ 29 w du.
_ ,
J n n J
du = cos M 2 r dj/
159 C
>?
V sin" M (n 1 ) sin"
~ l
u
j_
n 1 J sin" ~ 2 M
160 f-rfJL-
. = smj/ + !L -^ r__clu "
J cos" w (n 1 ) cos" '
u n 1 J cos" 2
?/
icos~'2 u sin^wdu.
J m -f n
1
m -f nJ
^ c s ~2
162. fcos m u sin" M du = -f
^-^ m
fcos M sin" w du.
J m+ n m -f n/
"
V cos m w sin n M (m IJsin""
1
?^ cos" 1 1
!/
,
m+n 2 r du
"*"
m- 1 J cosB m"
./
7 -2z u
,
sin" M
164. f - -
^cos m usin n w (n 1) sin"~
'
u cos*" 1
u
m+ n 2 / dw
~
n 1 J cos m i< sin" 2
u
rcos m udu cos" ^ 1 1
u m r? -f- 2 rcoR m udu
~
'J sin" u (n 1 ) sin" ]
M, n / sin"~ 2 ii
1
~2
IAA rcos m ?/ d/>< ___
~"
cos*"" 1
?/ m 1 rcos m u (
V sin"w (m w) sin""
1
it m nJ sinn u
- fl
* W
/sin n M d?i sin" 4 ]
w n m+ /sin n i
2 rt
"J m~ w m cos m 2 w
~
cos'"?/ (m l)cos 1
1 ./
~ ~
r^Hllli-^ sin" ]
i/ n 1 rsin n 2 u du
16 "
J cos m u (n m) cos" 1 1
?/ n mJ cos m u
169. ftan"?/ dw = 2
w
^- Jftan"~
d?>t.
./ n 1
""
= - ctnW~ lM _
170. fctn
n
w du r c tr\ n ~ 2 u du.
J n 1 J
n(n 1) / _t
cosn
o ,
+
.
^T^/^ wrfM -
M dM = -"n-'(asin - n COBU)
172./e-"8in a + n
550 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS
173. Cu m coa au du = (au sin au 4- m cos au)
v a
777(771
,
1 )/"*,
L I
~o
u m 2 cos au aw.
j
a J
174. /
M m sin aw dw = ~
(m sin a?v au cos a?/)
*/ a
in ( m ___
1 ) r
/
Mw
m . r,
^
.
sln aw ,
C / Wy-
175.
J arc sin w dz/ = M arc sin u 4- Vl w2 4 C.
176. J
arc cos u du ?/ arc cos w Vl u* 4 C.
Hyperbolic Functions
183. |
tanli // du In cosh w -}- C.
184.
j
ctnh // d>'/ = In sinh u 4- (\
185.
|
sech M </// = arc tan (sinh ?/) -f C = gd M 4 C
186.
/"csch
M du = In tanh J M 4- C.
L>
M du = tanh ?^ 4- C.
187.j"sech
188.
|csch'
J
?f dw = ctnh ?/ 4- C.
=
___
/>
sinh '
u du u sinh '
u VlH- n~ + (\
198.
j
cosh *
u du ?/ cosh '
// vV- 1 -f r\
199. f tanh J
// c/// = M tanh '
// -f \ In (1 - u :
) -f C.
// -f arc sin u + C.
202. f csch J
?/ du ?/ csch '
?/ -f sinh '
?/ 4- r.
-+ -- sinh --
203.
n~A
204.
nn -
205.
J
f
J/
r
/
sinh
ft,
sinh
.
u
cosh mu cosh
.
.
,
m?-<
?^^?/
.
u
cosh
.
sinh nu du
7
nu du
nu du
_
;
=
~
sinh OH -
^~
sinh
-
fw
-
-f ?/)w
}
-
u)
?V)M Cm ---
-\
--
,
.
f'osh
--
sinh ---
(m
-
u)u
~r.
l(m-~
'Km
--
(?w
?/)//
;
n)
n)
n ') u
.
-\-
f,
.,
<
,,
(
,,
(\
.
.
/
(m^n\
\
(
[
\
/
>
m >^^
m ^><
n
n
\
J 'Km + n] 2(w-r/) \ /
-
. :
" ?/
.', i
J cosh a -f cosh u
- +
f
---
(tanh*i W <ctn*Ja)
-
209. f- sinh m/ du = c<
J aj n2
a
rt , rt r a , ,
= p "(a cosh TIU n
-
sinh nw)- ~,
210. r Icosh '^
n?( du - ,
-f C.
J a2 n2
INDEX
(The numbers refer to pages)
137, 477; as an infinitesimal, tion, 37; graph of, 10, 444; hy-
146; total, 449 perbolic, 414, 415; implicit, 39,
Differential coefficient, 21, 136 73,458; increasing, 50 inverse, ;
375 ; first order, 378 higher ; rithmic, 89 mean value of, 333
; ;
323 ;
surface of, 277 volume ; of, forced harmonic, 405 simple;
01113 <4fiM<4
51? G?6ea
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