Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Outline
Bernoulli Equation • Review forces on submerged surfaces
• Streamlines
Larry Caretto • Bernoulli equation derivation
Mechanical Engineering 390 • Constant density flows
Fluid Mechanics • Bernoulli equation for ideal gas flows
• Continuity equation
February 12–19, 2008 • Cavitation
• Flow measurement
2

Review Slanted Surface Review

Free surface of liquid, p = 0 h = y sin θ Slanted
θ Surface
Vertical depth, p=0+ x axis facing
h = y sin θ γh = γh outward from figure

Area to be analyzed in x-y

plane along slanted wall

y axis, downward along slanted plane, angle θ Figure 2.17,

Fundamentals of Fluid
with liquid surface, y = 0 at liquid surface Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald Young,
and Theodore Okiishi
3 Copyright © 2005 by John 4
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
rights reserved.

Review Review Resultant Force

Slanted FR = γ sin θ ∫ ydA = γyc A sin θ
Surface • Center of pressure, not yc, is location of
A

FR = pdA ∫ resultant force (in diagram yc = ystart + a/2)

A I I
yCP = x = xc + yc y
Figure 2.17,
Fundamentals of Fluid
∫
= γhdA
Ayc Ayc
Mechanics, 5/E by
A

∫
= γy sin θdA
Bruce Munson, Donald
Young, and Theodore
Okiishi Copyright © Ix = Ixc + AyC2 (in
2005 by John Wiley & A
Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.
diagram Ixc = ba3/12
and A = ab ystart
x
5 Figure 2.18(a), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, 6
Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. All rights reserved.

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 1

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Review Buoyancy Review Buoyancy II

• Buoyant force, FB, due to • If the object is
difference in pressure light enough, it
between top and bottom will float on the
top of the liquid

• FB = γfluidVb
• Passes through the • This analysis ignores the weight of the
centroid of the top layer of fluid assumed to be air
submerged body – Can consider buoyancy of an object be-
tween two fluid layers with different densities
Figure 2.24(b,c), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, 7 Figure 2.24(d), Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, 8
Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. All rights reserved. Inc. All rights reserved.

− γδsδnδy sin θ F= ma Balance

Streamlines + ( p − δp )δnδy − along
Streamline
• A line everywhere tangent to a the
velocity vector is a streamline (s, n) = ( p + δp )δnδy = mas Normal direction,
(in direction facing page)
distance (along, normal to) streamline m = ρδsδnδy n, faces center

Normal direction, Ignore

n, faces center viscous
forces
Figure 3.2,
Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 5/E by
Radius of Bruce Munson, Donald
Young, and Theodore
curvature Okiishi Copyright ©
2005 by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. All rights
Figure 3.1, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald reserved.
9
Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
rights reserved.

− γ sin θ − γδsδnδy sin θ

∂p + ( p − δp )δnδy − F = ma Along Streamline
− = ρas ( p + δp )δnδy =
∂s • Start with equation from previous slide
ρδsδnδyas and define acceleration terms
(in direction facing page)
dp dV ⎡ ∂V dV ds ⎤
Figure 3.2,
− γ sin θ − = ρas = ρ = ρ⎢ +
⎣ ∂t ds dt ⎥⎦
Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 5/E by
ds dt
Bruce Munson, Donald
Divide by
• Assume steady flow so ∂V/∂t = 0 and
Young, and Theodore

δsδnδy and
Okiishi Copyright ©
2005 by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved. substitute V for ds/dt
let size go to
zero
− γ sin θ −
dp
=ρ
dV ds
=ρ
dV 1 d V2
V= ρ
( )
ds ds dt ds 2 ds
δz dz
sin θ = =
δs ds 12

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 2

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

F = ma Along Streamline II Bernoulli Equation

• From diagram sinθ = dz/ds; substitute • Limited to steady, inviscid, streamline
this for sinθ, multiply by ds and integrate flow

− γ sin θ −
dp dz dp 1 d V 2
= −γ − = ρ
( ) • Restriction to steady flow comes from
assumption that velocity changes in
ds ds ds 2 ds space, but not with time (∂V/∂t = 0)
ρgdz dp 1
ρ
+ + d V 2 = gdz +
ρ 2
dp 1
( )
+ d V2 =0
ρ 2
( ) • Have to know ρ-p equation to integrate
– Simplest relation is constant density

(V ) For constant g (z − z ) + p 2 − p1 + (V2 − V1 ) = 0

2 2
− V12
2 2
g ( z 2 − z1 ) + ∫
dp
+ 2
=0 density
2 1
ρ 2
1
ρ 2
13
Bernoulli Equation 14

Stagnation Point Flow Stagnation Streamline

• External flow over a body • What is the pressure at a stagnation
• At one point, called stagnation point, point if, at another point along the
velocity is zero streamline, the pressure, elevation and
velocity are p1, z1 and V1?
Stagnation
streamline • Assume steady, inviscid, incompres-
sible flow along the streamline
• For stagnation, V2 = 0

g (z 2 − z1 ) +
p 2 − p1
+
(V
2
2
)
− V12
=0
Figure 3.5, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce ρ 2
Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 15 16
2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stagnation Streamline II Stagnation Streamline III

• Solve Bernoulli equation for p2 with V2 = 0 • Find p2 – p1 for V1 = 30 m/s and ρ =
g (z 2 − z1 ) +
p 2 − p1
+
(V 2
2
− V12
=0
) 1.2 kg/m3 (air) and ρ =1000 kg/m3 (water)
ρ 2
ρV12 1 1.2 kg ⎛ 30 m ⎞ kPa ⋅ m ⋅ s 2
2
ρV12 ρV12
p 2 − p1 = − ρg (z 2 − z1 ) = − γ (z 2 − z1 ) p 2 − p1 = = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.54 kPa
2 2 2 2 m3 ⎝ s ⎠ 1000 kg
ρV12
• For z1 = z2 p 2 − p1 = ρV12 1 1000 kg ⎛ 30 m ⎞ kPa ⋅ m ⋅ s 2
2
2 p 2 − p1 = = = 450 kPa
⎜ ⎟
• Find p2 – p1 for V1 = 30 m/s and ρ = 2 2 m 3 ⎝ s ⎠ 1000 kg
1.2 kg/m3 (air) and ρ =1000 kg/m3 (water)
17 18

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 3

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Head Terms Head Terms II

• Bernoulli equation between two points • Terms in equation just written have
along a streamline (ρ = constant) dimensions of length called head

g (z 2 − z1 ) +
p 2 − p1
+
(V
2
2
− V12 )
=0 z+
p V2
+ = Constant along a streamline
ρ 2 γ 2g
• This is equivalent to saying that p + – z is elevation head
ρV2/2 + γz is constant along a – p/γ is pressure head
streamline – divide by g (recall γ = ρg) – V2/2g is velocity head
p V2
z+ + = Constant along a streamline
γ 2g
19 20

Energy Terms Forces Normal to Streamline

• Bernoulli equation terms ρV2/2 + γz + p • Similar force balance involving pressure
can also be interpreted as energy terms and weight as forces
dz ∂p ρV 2
=0 ℜ
per unit volume is radius of
• Result is γ + +
– Kinetic energy mV2/2 divided by volume so dn ∂n ℜ curvature

that m/volume = density, ρ

∂p ρV 2
– Potential energy mgz divided by volume so • For negligible density =−
that mg/volume = γ ∂n ℜ
– Pressure energy is product of p times • For swirling flows, pressure decreases
volume – dividing (p times volume) by towards the center
volume leaves p
21 22

Dynamic and Total Pressure Static and Stagnation Pressure

• Bernoulli equation analysis of • Parallel streamlines
stagnation point flow shows stagnation • h is static pressure What is
pressure, p2 = p1 + ρV12/2 at (1) V1 = V?
• Call ρV2/2 the dynamic pressure • H is stagnation
• Call p + ρV2/2 the stagnation pressure pressure at (2)
• Call pressure, p, static pressure to Figure 3.4,
Fundamentals of Fluid
distinguish this from other pressures Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald Young,

• Total pressure is p + γz + ρV2/2

and Theodore Okiishi
Copyright © 2005 by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved.

23 24

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 4

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Finding V1 = V Pitot-static Tube

• Piezometer relations • Concentric tubes (2) faces flow,
– p1 = γh and p2 = γH (1) normal to flow
• Bernoulli with z2 – z1 • Measures difference between
= V2 = 0 static and stagnation pressure, p3
p1 + ρV12 = p2 – p4 = ρV2/2
γh + (γ/g)V12 = γH • Used to measure velocity
V12 = g(H – h) • V = [(p3 – p4)/ρ]1/2
V1 = g(H – h)1/2
Figure 3.4, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Figure 3.6, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 25 Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 26
2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Free Jets Ideal Gas Isentropic Flow

• Look at streamline from (1) to (2) to (5) • For ideal gas P = ρRT
V1 ≈ 0 g (z 2 − z1 ) +
p 2 − p1
+
(V 2
2
− V12
=0
) • For ideal gas with frictionless flow and
ρ 2 no heat transfer (constant entropy or
h = z1 – z2 isentropic flow) P/ρk = C (k = cp/cv)
– k = 1.4 for air at room temperature
– For P/ρk = C, P = Cρk and dp = Ckρk-1dρ
2
Ckρ k −1dρ Ckρ k −1
2 2 2
dp
∫1 ρ ∫1 ρ ∫1 ρ ρ
k −2
V22 = = Ck d = =
p 1 = p2 = 0 − gh + =0 k −1 1
2 k ⎡ Cρ 2k Cρ1k ⎤ k ⎡ p2 p1 ⎤
⎢ − = −
ρ1 ⎥⎦ k − 1 ⎢⎣ ρ 2 ρ1 ⎥⎦ 28
Figure 3.5, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright ©
2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
27 k −1 ⎣ ρ2

Ideal Gas Isentropic Flow II Incompressible Error

dp (V − V )
2 2 2
• Start with integral • What is the error for assuming
g (z − z ) + + =0 ∫ 2 1
ρ
2 1
form of Bernoulli 1
2 incompressible flow in a gas
k ⎛ p2 p1 ⎞
2
• Substitute ideal gas dp • Compute pressure ratio p2/p1, where p2
isentropic flow result
∫
1
ρ
= ⎜ − ⎟
k − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ 2 ρ1 ⎟⎠ is stagnation pressure, as a function of
initial Mach number, Ma1 = V1/a1
g (z 2 − z1 ) +
k ⎛ p2 p1 ⎞ V22 − V12
⎜ − ⎟+ =0
( )
• a = sound speed; a2 = kRT where k =
k − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ 2 ρ1 ⎟⎠ 2
heat capacity ratio cp/cv (T in kelvins)
• Equation applies to steady, frictionless
– Use of Mach number based on accurate
ideal gas flow along streamline with analysis of compressible flow
no heat transfer or viscous forces 29 30

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 5

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Stagnation Pressure Error

k = 1.4
7 1.E+01
Usual Rule of Thumb
6 1.E-01
• Accurate results for gas flows can be
Stagnation Pressure Ratio

5 1.E-03 found from incompressible flow

equations provided that the Mach

Relative Error
4 Compressible 1.E-05
Incompressible number is less than 0.3
Relative error
3 1.E-07 – Ma = 0.3 gives relative error of 0.13% for
computation of stagnation pressure
2 1.E-09
• Results less accurate for Ma > 0.3
1 1.E-11
• Catastrophic errors for Ma > 1
0 1.E-13 – 1145% relative error for Ma = 4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Mach Number
– Shock wave for Ma > 1 changes equation
31 32

Continuity Equation Continuity Equation II

• Consider internal (confined) flow • Volume flow rate, Q = δV/δt, = VAδt/δt = VA
• Look at simple example shown in figure • & = ρQ = ρVA
Mass flow rate, m
• Conservation of mass for steady flow • Mass in = mass out gives m &1=m &2
• Mass flow in = mass flow out • Continuity equation: ρ1V1A1 = ρ2V2A2

Figure 3.15 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald Figure 3.15 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald
Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
33 Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
34
rights reserved. rights reserved.

Continuity Equation III Continuity Equation III

• For more complex confined flows there
∑ m& in − ∑ m& out = ∑ ρin AinVin − ∑ ρout AoutVout
dm
=
may be several inflows and outflows dt control
volume
• Also, flow • Still
may be conserve • For steady
unsteady mass flow dm/dt = 0

Figure 4.13 Fundamentals of Figure 4.13 Fundamentals of

Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald Young, and Munson, Donald Young, and
Theodore Okiishi Copyright © Theodore Okiishi Copyright ©
35 36
2005 by John Wiley & Sons, 2005 by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. All rights reserved. Inc. All rights reserved.

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 6

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Cavitation Cavitation II
• Change from small to large velocity (V1 • Large flow
<< V2 will cause large pressure needs need
decrease: p2 = p1 + ρ(V12 – V22)/2 very high
• Could reduce pressure to vapor velocity for
pressure of liquid smaller area
• This causes vapor bubbles to form and • Will decrease
burst exerting pressure on surfaces p, but cannot
• Cavitation can, over time, damage decrease p
surfaces and must be avoided below pv
Figure 3.16 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
37 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald38 Young, and
Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Bubbles from Propeller Flowrate Measurement

Figure 3.17
Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics,
5/E by Bruce
Munson, Donald • Venturi meter shown here is example of
Young, and
Theodore Okiishi
Copyright © 2005
flow meter
by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. All
rights reserved.
– Measure velocity (and flow rate) by
measuring pressure difference p1 – p2
Figure 3.18 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson,
39 Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley &
40
Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Flowrate Measurement II Flowrate Measurement III

• Flow meters use basic idea of Bernoulli • Result of substitution
equation and continuity – Continuity: V2 = V1A1/A2
– Continuity: area differences give related – Bernoulli: V22 – V12 = 2(p1 – p2)/ρ
velocity differences: V2 = V1A1/A2 – Combination: V22 – V12 = (V1A1/A2)2 – V12 =
– Bernoulli: velocity differences give V2 V12[1 – (A1/A2)2] = 2(p1 – p2)/ρ
difference in terms of pressure difference: 2( p1 − p2 ) • For circular pipes
V1 =
V22 – V12 = 2(p1 – p2)/ρ
• Assumes z2 = z1
[
ρ 1 − ( A2 A1 )2 ]
(A1/A2)2 = (D1/D2)4

– Substitute continuity result, V2 = V1A1/A2 • Bernoulli-continuity combination

important in problem solving
41 42

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 7

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Flowrate Measurement V Flowrate Measurement VI

• Is measuring flow rates really this easy? • Basic relation: velocity (or flow rate)
– No. The approach used here ignores proportional to square root of Δp
viscous forces that are ignored in the
Bernoulli equation 2( p1 − p2 )
Q = V1 A1 = A1
– Consideration of these forces is usually
done by empirical modifications to basic
[
ρ 1 − ( A2 A1 )2 ]
equation on previous chart • Problem: Find V1 for D1 = 0.1 m, D2 =
– Can also apply these ideas to open channel 0.05 m, p1 – p2 = 100 Pa, water (ρ =
flows where flow rates are measured by 1000 kg/m3)
elevation differences
43 44

Flowrate Measurement VI Flowrate Measurement VII

N kg ⋅ m ⎛ lb f ⎞ slug ⋅ ft
2(100 Pa )
2( p1 − p2 ) Pa ⋅ m 2 N ⋅ s 2 2⎜⎜10 2 ⎟⎟
V1 = = 2( p1 − p2 ) ⎝ ft ⎠ lb f ⋅ s
2

[ ] 1000 kg ⎡ ⎛ π π ⎤ V1 = =
2
ρ 1 − ( A2 A1 )2 (0.1 m )2 ⎞⎟
⎢1 − ⎜ (0.05 m )
[ ]
2
0.00238 slug ⎡ ⎛ π
⎥ 2⎤
m 3 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ρ 1 − ( A2 A1 )2 ⎢1 − ⎜ (4 in )
2 π
(2 in )2 ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
3 4
ft
0 .2 m
V1 = 20 ft 2 1
⎛ 0.05 m ⎞
4 s • V1 = 0.462 m/s V1 = • V1 = 94.7 ft/s
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 0.00238 s 2 ⎛ 4 in ⎞
4
⎝ 0 .1 m ⎠ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 in ⎠
• Problem: Find V1 for D1 = 4 in, D2 = 2 in,
p1 – p2 = 10 psf, air (ρ = 0.00238 • A given Δp means a larger V with air as
slugs/ft3) compared to water
45 46

Other Flow Meters

Flow Rate Measurements
Figure 3.18 Fundamentals 250
of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by For Δp in Pa
Bruce Munson, Donald
Young, and Theodore
A2/A1 = 0.99
and ρ in
Okiishi Copyright © 2005
200
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. A2/A1 = 0.98 kg/m3, V is
All rights reserved. A2/A1 = 0.96
A2/A1 = 0.93
in m/s
Orifice 150 A2/A1 = 0.90
A2/A1 = 0.85
For Δp in psf
ρV1 A2/A1 = 0.80

100
A2/A1 = 0.60 and ρ in
Both less ideal A2/A1 = 0.10
slugs/ft3, V
is in ft/s
than Venturi 50

0
Nozzle 1 10
Δp 100 1000

47 48

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 8

Bernoulli Equation February 12–19, 2008

Open Channel Flows Sluice Gate

• Measurements by sluice gates and
weirs C = z2/a =
contraction
• Measure height difference, z1 – z2 = H,
at between two points with p = 0 coefficient ≈
0.61 for a/z1
• Rectangular flow areas with width b has < 0.2
areas bz2 and bz1 so that V2bz2 = V1bz1
and z1 + V12/2g = z2 + V22/2g = z1 +
(V2z2/z1)2/2g
2 g ( z1 − z 2 )
V2 =
1 − ( z 2 z1 )2 49 50
Figure 3.19 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald Young, and
Theodore Okiishi Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sluice Gate II Weir

Here a/z1 =
(0.8 m)/(5 m)
b=
= 0.16 < 0.2
so z2 ≈
0.61(0.8 m) =
z1 = 0.488 m

a • Height H is measure of flow rate: Q ~

Hb(2gH)1/2
Figure 3.19 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce 51 52
Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi Copyright ©
2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Energy/Hydraulic Grade
• Natural definition of lines in a flow from
Bernoulli equations
– Energy line = z + p/ρ + V2/2g = H = total
head, a constant for an inviscid steady flow
• A series of pitot tube measurements will always
Figure 3.21 Fundamentals
produce the energy line of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by
Bruce Munson, Donald
– Hydraulic Grade Line = z + p/ρ = energy Young, and Theodore
Okiishi Copyright © 2005

line – V2/2g by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved.

• A series of piezometer tubes will always

produce the hydraulic grade line
53 54

ME 390 – Fluid Mechanics 9