Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Back to Behaviour
ANXIETY
Anxiety in humans is defined as the anticipation of a future danger or threat, real or imaginary.
Anxiety can be normal or a sign of an illness. This definition can also be used for animals. Most
dogs and cats presented to the veterinarian are fearful or anxious. Some will remain anxious as
long as they are on the table but are fine when they are back on the floor or out the door from
the veterinary hospital. These patients are normal. On the other hand, separation anxiety, panic
disorder, generalized anxiety, phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorders are sub-groups of
anxiety disorders.
Some animals will have increased motor activity whereas others will have decreased motor
activity. Vigilance may be increased. Reactivity during the appointment may be exaggerated and
may even increase over time. Exploratory behaviour of the consultation room may be absent and
should be distinguished from increased motor activity. These behaviours serve as baseline and can
be compared with behaviours expressed during follow-up visits.
Anxiety during the behavioural consultation is not sufficient to conclude that a given animal
suffers from an anxiety disorder. But clients during the appointment are educated on how to
recognize subtle signs of their animal's anxiety or fear. Following the appointment they will be
much more attentive to the animal's body language and behaviours. They may realize that their
animal is exhibiting signs of anxiety on a daily basis in the home environment in the absence of an
identifiable cause. In the latter case, their animal is perhaps suffering from an anxiety-related
disorder. The veterinarian should make it a point to ask if signs of anxiety (or fear) occur when the
dog or cat is in its familiar environment and determine if that anxiety/fear is appropriate for the
context.
REACTIVITY
Excessive reactivity can also be an indication of illness. An animal becoming more and more
aggressive during the appointment in the absence of any threat may be "over-reactive". An animal
becoming disobedient may in fact be "over-reactive" in that context. This animal is unable to hear
("emergency mode") any commands. Ask a person if following a near miss car accident, he/she
would be able to tell what song had just played on the radio at the time of that close call... The
ears may have heard the song but the brain did not register the information, as it was not
essential for survival... Dogs and cats in "emergency mode" will require medication to decrease the
level of reactivity.
VIDEOTAPES
Objective baseline data are obtained from tapes. Videotapes of the animal at home may reveal
signs compatible with anxiety and in some cases may even be indicative of generalized anxiety.
Videotapes are essential to confirm diagnosis of separation anxiety as well as assess response to
pharmacological treatment. Tapes are also very useful to identify occurrence of silent threats
occurring between household pets (inter-cat or inter-dog aggression) that are often unrecognized
or missed by clients.
Examples of the following criteria will be given with clinical cases and video presentations.
CONCLUSION
Behaviour consultations should be handled like any other request for professional advice. First the
veterinarian must determine if the behaviour changes are within normal limits or whether these
changes are compatible with illness. Differential diagnosis should include the possibility of "mental
illness" if clinical signs are compatible. When mental illness is identified, pharmacological treatment
can accelerate treatment response and in some cases is actually essential to initiate improvement.
References
1. Casey Rachel, 2002. Fear and stress. In: BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine,
Gloucester, UK.
2. Center SA, Elston TH, Rowland PH, Rosen D, Reitz BL, Brunt IE, Rodan I, House J, Banks S, Lynch L, Dring
L, Levy J. (1996): Fulminant hepatic failure associated with oral administration of diazepam in 11 cats. J Am
Vet Med Assoc, Vol. 209 : 618-624
3. Ciribassi J, Luescher A, Paloske KS, Robertson-Plouch C, Zimmerman A, Kaloostian-Whittymore L, (2003).
Comparative bioavailability of fluoxetine after transdermal and oral administration to healthy cats. Am. J. Vet
Res, Vol. 64 (8): 994-998.
4. Dodman NH, Donnelly R, Shuster L, Mertens P, Rand W, Miczek K, (1996): Use of fluoxetine to treat
dominance aggression. J Am Vet Med Assoc, Vol. 209: 1585-1587.
5. Hart BL, Cliff KD, Tynes VV, Bergman L, (2005). Control of urine marking by use of long-term treatment
with fluoxetine or clomipramine in cats, J Am Vet Med Assoc, Vol. 226 (3): 378-382.
6. Hewson CJ, Luescher UA, Parent JM, Ball RO, (2000): Effect of clomipramine on monoamine metabolites in
the cerebrospinal fluid of behaviourally normal dogs. Can J Vet Res, Vol. 64: 123-129.
7. Hewson CJ, Conlon PD, Luescher UA, Ball RO, (1998): The pharmacokinetics of clomipramine and
desmethylclomipramine in dogs: parameter estimates following a single dose and 28 consecutive daily oral
doses of clomipramine. J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap., Vol. 21: 214-222.
8. Hughes D, Moreau RE, Overall KL, Van Winkle TJ, (1996): Acute hepatic necrosis and liver failure associated
with benzodiazepine therapy in six cats, 1986-1995. J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care: Vol. 6, No 1: 13-20.
9. King JN, Steffan J, Heath SE, Simpson BS, Crowell-Davis SL, Harrington LJ, Weiss AB, Seewald W, CLOFUS
Study Group, (2004). Determination of the dosage of clomipramine for the treatment of urine spraying in
cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc, Vol. 225 (6): 881-887.
10. King JN, Maurer MP, Hotz RP, Fisch RD, (2000): Pharmacokinetics of clomipramine in dogs following single
dose intravenous and oral administration. Am. J. Vet Res, Vol. 61: 74-79.
11. King JN, Maurer MP, Altmann BO, Strehlau GA, (2000): Pharmacokinetics of clomipramine in dogs following
single dose and repeated-dose oral administration. Am. J. Vet Res, Vol. 61: 80-85.
12. Landsberg GM, Wilson Al, (2005). Effects of clomipramine on cats presented for urine marking. J Am Animal
Hospital Association, Vol. 41 (1): 3-11
13. Landsberg GM, (2001): Clomipramine-Beyond Separation Anxiety. J Am Animal Hospital Association, Vol. 37:
313-318.
14. Landsberg G., Hunthausen W., Ackerman L., 2003. Handbook of Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat.
London, Saunders.
15. Litster AL, (2000): Use of Clomipramine for Treatment of Behavioural Disorders in 14 cats-Efficacy and Side-
Effects. Aust. Vet Practit., Vol. 30 (2): 50-53.
16. Mertens PA, Torres S, Jensen C, (2006). The effects of clomipramine hydrochloride in cats with psychogenic
alopecia: a prospective study. J Am Animal Hospital Association, Vol. 42 (5): 336-343.
17. Neilson JC, 2002. Fear of places or things. In: BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine,
Gloucester, UK.
18. Overall KL, 2002. Noise phobias in dogs. In: BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine,
Gloucester, UK.
19. Overall KL, 1997. Fears, Anxieties, and Stereotypies. In: Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals. St.
Louis, Mosby-Year Book Inc., 209-250.
20. Overall KL, 1997. Protocols for behaviour modification. In: Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals. St.
Louis, Mosby-Year Book Inc.
21. Pfeiffer E, Guy N, Cribb A, (1999). Clomipramine-induced urinary retention in a cat. Can Vet J., Vol. 40 (4):
265-267.
22. Pouchelon JL, Martel E, Champeroux P, Richard S, King JN, (2000): Effects of clomipramine hydrochloride on
heart rate and rhythm in healthy dogs. Am. J. Vet Res, Vol. 61 No 8, 960-964.
23. Pryor PA, Hart BL, Cliff KD, Bain MJ, (2001): Effects of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor on urine-
spraying behavior in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc, Vol. 219, No 11: 1557-1561.
24. Reich MR, Ohad DG, Overall KL, Dunham AE, (2000): Electrocardiographic assessment of antianxiety
medication in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc, Vol. 216: 1571-1575.
25. Seksel K, Lindemans MJ, (2001): Use of clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder,
separation anxiety and noise phobia in dogs: a preliminary, clinical study. Aust Vet J., Vol. 79 (4): 252-256.
26. Seksel K, Lindemans MJ, (1998): Use of clomipramine in the treatment of anxiety-related and obsessive-
compulsive disorders in cats: Aust Vet J., Vol. 76: 317-321.
27. Simpson BS, Papich MG, 2003. Pharmacologic management in veterinary behavioural medicine. In:
Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animals; vol. 33, 365-404.
SPEAKER INFORMATION
(click the speaker's name to view other papers and abstracts submitted by this speaker)
Copyright 1991-2011, World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings, 2007