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SUBJECT: BIOCHEMISTRY
TOPIC: CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 3
LECTURER: DR. ESPERANZA UY
DATE: DECEMBER, 2010
ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY FOR CARBOHYDRATE -This pathway is used as an alternative when there is a high
METABOLISM (for clearer images, pls. refer to the ppt) demand for NADPH which is required in FATTY ACID
SYNTHESIS
-carbon dioxide is normally produced in the -common enzyme in glycolysis and HMP shunt
mitochondria but in this pathway, the carbon dioxide is in -re-entry is at FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE
the cytoplasm
-PHOSOHEXOSE ISOMERASE enzyme required for the
-NADPH is important in this pathway (PPP is the major conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate
source of NADPH in cells)
4) Transaldolase
**3 glucose-6-phosphate molecules are required
-will transfer 3 carbon atoms
-sedoheptulose-7-phosphate is a very unstable
**NADPH producing reactions/ important enzymes needed compound that is why it will be acted upon by
in the oxidative phase: TRANSALDOLASE to form erythrose-4-phosphate and
• Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase fructose-6-phosphate which will then be converted to
glucose-6-phosphate through the enzyme
-coenzyme: NADP PHOSPHOHEXOSE ISOMERASE
-water is also needed to be reduced to NADPH + H
-product: 6-PHOSPHOGLUCONATE **Another TRANSKETOLASE (similar with the transketolase
• 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase mentioned above) will act on xylulose-5-phosphate to be
converted to FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE and
-NADP is required in this step
GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE
-decarboxylates 6-phosphogluconate which RELEASES
CARBON DIOXIDE from the cytoplasm
5) Phosphotriose isomerise
-product: ribulose-5-phosphate
-converts glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate
Question: Why do we need 3 glucose-6-phophate
molecules?
6) Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
Answer: To produce 2 fructose-6-phosphate molecules and
1 glyceraldehyde molecule through the interconversion of -also found in GLUCONEOGENESIS because it uses the
the pentoses fructose-1,6-bisphosphate as a substrate
-converts fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-
phosphate
**all the other enzymes are also found in the glycolysis
pathway except the FRUCTOSE-1,6-BIPHOSPHATASE which
is found in the gluconeogenesis pathway
REGULATION
DETOXIFICATION OF SUPEROXIDE ANION AND HYDROGEN
1.Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase PEROXIDE (H202)
-first step; where regulation acts most -Antioxidant enzymes
-rate limiting step -superoxide dismutase
-most important regulator -glutathione peroxidise
-abundant in the RBC -if the glutathione is in the reduced state, hydrogen
2.Allosteric regulation peroxide will be converted to water
METABOLISM OF GALACTOSE
-from LACTOSE
-lactose glucose + galactose
-abundant in human milk
-UDP-galactose is also formed from free galactose derived
from hydrolysis of lactose in the intestinal tract
-galactose is phosphorylated by galactokinase and ATP to
yield galactose-1-phosphate
-galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase froms UDP-
galactose from galactose 1-phosphate displacing glucose
1-phosphate from UDP-glucose
COMPLEX POLYSACCHARIDES
-Glycoproteins
-Proteoglycans
**sorbitol dehydrogenase is not a very important enzyme
but only becomes essential if there is an increased amount
of glucose in the body GLYCOPROTEINS
**sorbitol pathway is NOT FOUND IN THE LIVER -conjugated proteins containing one or more saccharides
LACKING A SERIAL REPEAT UNIT and are bound covalently
**active in tissues that are not insulin sensitive
to a protein
**”UNIFYING PATHWAY OF DIABETICS”
-important in the biological functions of the membrane
**sorbitol attracts a lot of water
-constitutes of the mucus
-IMPORTANCE: lubrication and protection of the tissues
Night: Glycogenolysis: Glucose Fasting inactive sorbitol lining the respiratory, GIT, and female reproductive system
pathway = clear eyesight
-examples: hormones, plasma proteins
Day: Gluconeolysis: Glucose Usage active sorbitol
pathway = unclear eyesight (due to trapping in lens)
PROTEOGLYCANS
-contains 95% or more of carbohydrates
-carbohydrate chains are called GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS or
MUCCOPOLYSACCHARIDES
-present in connective tissues
-6 classes:
-chondroitin sulfate
-dermatan sulfate
-keratin sulfate
-heparan sulfate
-heparin
-hyaluronate
GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGs)
Common Features
1. GAGs are made up of dissacharide repeating units,
hexosamine and a uronic acid; highly (-) charged
2. they contain sulfate groups linked by ester bonds to
ETHANOL METABOLISM certain monosaccharides orby amide bonds to the
amino group of glucosamine
Oxidation to acetate in the liver
3. only hyaluronate is not sulphated and is not
-ethanol is oxidized in the liver by CYTOSOLIC ALCOHOL attached to protein
DEHYDROGENASE to acetaldehyde
4. the carboxyls of uronic acids and the sulfate groups
-the acetaldehyde is further oxidized to acetate by contribute to the highly charged nature of GAGs
MITOCHONDRIAL ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE
5. predominantly components of the extracellular
-much of the acetate produced from ethanol leaves the matrices and cell surfaces, and they participate in
liver and is converted by acetyl coA, which can be used to cell adhesion and signalling
provide energy via the TCA cycle
**GAGs are destroyed in diabetic nephropathy
-alcohol will be used for ATP production
-acetyl coA
may also be -------------------------------------END OF TRANX-------------------------------------
formed in the GOODLUCK ON YOUR EVALUATIONS, BATCH 2014!
liver and used
as a precursor
for lipid
biosynthesis