Catherine Fu

Monohybrid Cross - Tt x Tt

A cross between two organisms that are each hybrid for one trait.

The phenotype (appearance) ratio from the cross below is 3 tall to 1 short plant.

The genotype (type of genes) ratio, 1 to 2 to 1, given as percentages is 25% homozygous

dominant (TT) to 50% heterozygous (Tt) to 25% homozygous recessive (tt).

These results are the same for every monohybrid cross in the ratio of 1:2:1.

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 Catherine Fu

Dihybrid Cross

A cross between two F1 (first generation) plants that are hybrid for two different traits,
such as the color (yellow or green) and texture (round or wrinkled) of a seed. This cross
can produce four different types of gametes: RY, Ry, rY, ry. The figure below shows the
Punnett square for this cross. Since there’s 16 squares, all the ratios are out of 16.

Many genotypes are possible from the resulting F2 generation. However, the most
important concept is to know the phenotype ratio of a dihybrid cross: 9:3:3:1—9 yellow
round; 3 yellow, wrinkled; 3 green, round; and 1 green, wrinkled.
 Catherine Fu

Testcross

A way to determine the genotype of an individual plant or animal that is showing the
dominant trait. In this method, the individual in question (R_) is crossed with a
homozygous recessive individual (rr).

If the individual being tested is actually homozygous dominant (RR), all offspring of the
testcross will be Rr and will show the dominant trait. There can be no offspring showing
the recessive trait.

However, if the individual being tested is hybrid (Rr), ½ of the offspring can be expected
to show the recessive trait.

Therefore, if any offspring show the recessive trait, the parent of the unknown genotype
cannot be homozygous dominant and thus must be a hybrid.

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 Catherine Fu

Probability

The likelihood that a particular event will occur. If an event is certain to occur, the
probability is 1. If the even cannot ever happen, the probability is 0. The probability of
anything else happening is between 0 and 1.

Probability cannot predict whether a particular event will actually happen. However, if
the sample is large enough, an average outcome can be predicted.

Punnett squares enable us to predict outcomes in genetics.

Multiplication Rule

To find the probability of two independent events happening, multiply the chance of
one by the chance of the other. For example, the chance of a couple having two girls
depends on two independent events. The chance of the first child being a girl is ½, and
the chance of the next child being a girl is ½. The chance that the couple will have two
girls is therefore ½ x ½ = ¼. The chance of having three girls is ½ x ½ x ½ = 1/8, and vice
versa.

Addition Rule

When more than one arrangement of events with a specific outcome is possible, the
probabilities for each outcome are added together. For example, if a couple is planning
on having two children, what is the chance that they will have one boy and one girl (in
either order)? This is how you solve the problem: the probability of having a boy and
then a girl is ½ x ½ = ¼, and the same goes for the other way around. Therefore, the
probability of having one boy and one girl is ¼ + ¼ = ½.