CH131 Note 04 Quantity

Chemical Quantities and
Aqueous Reactions
Chapter 4
Global Warming
• Scientists have measured an average 0.6°C

rise in atmospheric temperature since 1860
• During the same period atmospheric CO2
levels have risen 25%
• Are the two trends causal?
2
The Sources of Increased CO2
• One source of CO2 is the combustion reactions of
fossil fuels we use to get energy
• Another source of CO2 is volcanic action
• How can we judge whether global warming is natural
or due to our use of fossil fuels?
3
Quantities in Chemical Reactions
• The amount of every substance used and

made in a chemical reaction is related to the
amounts of all the other substances in the
reaction
9Law of Conservation of Mass
9Balancing equations by balancing atoms
• The study of the numerical relationship
between chemical quantities in a chemical
reaction is called stoichiometry
4
Reaction Stoichiometry
• The coefficients in a balanced chemical

equation specify the relative amounts in moles
of each of the substances involved in the
reaction
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
2 molecules of C8H18 react with 25 molecules of O2
to form 16 molecules of CO2 and 18 molecules of H2O
2 moles of C8H18 react with 25 moles of O2
to form 16 moles of CO2 and 18 moles of H2O
2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2O
5
Making Pizza
• The number of pizzas you can make depends

on the amount of the ingredients you use
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cu cheese → 1 pizza
• This relationship can be expressed mathematically
1 crust : 5 oz. sauce : 2 cu cheese : 1 pizza
• If you want to make more or less than one pizza,
you can use the amount of cheese you have to
determine the number of pizzas you can make
9 assuming you have enough crusts and tomato sauce
6
Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry
• The amounts of any other substance in a

chemical reaction can be determined from the
amount of just one substance
• How much CO2 can be made from 22.0 moles
of C8H18 in the combustion of C8H18?
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2
7
Practice
• According to the following equation, how

many moles of water are made in the
combustion of 0.10 moles of glucose?
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
8
Practice − How many moles of water are made in
the combustion of 0.10 moles of glucose?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check:
Answer: 0.60 moles
9
Example: Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in
2007 by the combustion of 3.5 × 1015 g gasolne
• Assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, the

equation for the reaction is
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
• The equation for the reaction gives the mole
relationship between amount of C8H18 and CO2,
but we need to know the mass relationship, so
the conceptual plan will be
10
Example: Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in
2007 by the combustion of 3.5 × 1015 g gasoline
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: because 8x moles of CO as C H , but the molar mass of

2 8 18
C8H18 is 3x CO2, the number makes sense
11
Which Produces More CO2;
Volcanoes or Fossil Fuel Combustion?
• Our calculation just showed that the world
produced 1.1 × 1016 g of CO2 just from
petroleum combustion in 2007
91.1 × 1013 kg CO2
• Estimates of volcanic CO2 production are
2 × 1011 kg/year
• This means that volcanoes produce less than
2% of the CO2 added to the air annually
2.0 × 1011 kg yr
13 kg
× 100% = 1.8%
1.1× 10 yr
12
Example 4.1: How many grams of glucose can be
synthesized from 37.8 g of CO2 in photosynthesis?
Given: 37.8 g CO2, 6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6+ 6 O2

Find: g C6H12O6
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: because 6x moles of CO as C H O , but the molar mass

2 6 12 6
of C6H12O6 is 4x CO2, the number makes sense
13
Practice — How many grams of O2 can be made
from the decomposition of 100.0 g of PbO2?
2 PbO2(s) → 2 PbO(s) + O2(g)
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check:
Answer: 6.689 g
14
Stoichiometry Road Map
aA→bB
% A(aq) M A(aq) M B(aq) % B(aq)
Solution
ppm A(aq) ppm B(aq)

M = moles
L
Moles A Moles B
MM equation MM
Substance
22.4 L 22.4 L
mass A mass B
Pure
equation
density Volume A(g) Volume B(g) density
volume A (l) volume B(l)
15
More Making Pizzas
• We know that
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cu cheese → 1 pizza
• But what would happen if we had 4 crusts, 15 oz.

tomato sauce, and 10 cu cheese?
16
More Making Pizzas (cont’d)
• Each ingredient could potentially make a different

number of pizzas
• But all the ingredients have to work together!
• We only have enough tomato sauce to make
three pizzas, so once we make three pizzas, the
tomato sauce runs out no matter how much of the
other ingredients we have.
17
More Making Pizzas (cont’d)
• The tomato sauce limits the amount of pizzas we

can make. In chemical reactions we call this the
limiting reactant.
9 also known as the limiting reagent
• The maximum number of pizzas we can make
depends on this ingredient. In chemical reactions,
we call this the theoretical yield.
9 it also determines the amounts of the other ingredients
we will use!
18
The Limiting Reactant
• For reactions with multiple reactants, it is likely that one of
the reactants will be completely used before the others
• When this reactant is used up, the reaction stops and no
more product is made
• The reactant that limits the amount of product is called the
limiting reactant
9 sometimes called the limiting reagent
9 the limiting reactant gets completely consumed
• Reactants not completely consumed are called excess
reactants
• The amount of product that can be made from the limiting
reactant is called the theoretical yield
19
Limiting and Excess Reactants in the
Combustion of Methane
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

• Our balanced equation for the combustion of
methane implies that every one molecule of CH4
reacts with two molecules of O2
20
Limiting and Excess Reactants in the
Combustion of Methane
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
• If we have five molecules of CH4 and eight molecules
of O2, which is the limiting reactant?
21
Practice — How many moles of Si3N4 can be made from
1.20 moles of Si and 1.00 moles of N2 in the reaction
3 Si + 2 N2 → Si3N4?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Answer: 0.400 moles

22
More Making Pizzas
• Let’s now assume that as we are making pizzas,

we burn a pizza, drop one on the floor, or other
uncontrollable events happen so that we only
make two pizzas. The actual amount of product
made in a chemical reaction is called the actual
yield.
• We can determine the efficiency of making pizzas
by calculating the percentage of the maximum
number of pizzas we actually make. In chemical
reactions, we call this the percent yield.
23
Theoretical and Actual Yield
• As we did with the pizzas, in order to determine

the theoretical yield, we should use reaction
stoichiometry to determine the amount of product
each of our reactants could make
• The theoretical yield will always be the least
possible amount of product
9 the theoretical yield will always come from the limiting
reactant
• Because of both controllable and uncontrollable
factors, the actual yield of product will always be
less than the theoretical yield
24
Example 4.4:
Finding limiting reactant, theoretical
yield, and percent yield
Example 4.4
• When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2
kg of TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are
obtained. Find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield,
and percent yield.
TiO2 (s) + 2 C(s) → Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
26
Example 4.4
When 28.6 kg of C reacts with
88.2 kg of TiO2, 42.8 kg of Ti
are obtained. Find the limiting
reactant, theoretical yield, and
percent yield
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) → Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
• Write down the given quantity and its units

Given: 28.6 kg C
88.2 kg TiO2
42.8 kg Ti produced
27
Example 4.4 Information
Given: 28.6 kg C, 88.2 kg TiO2, 42.8 kg Ti
Find the limiting
reactant, theoretical
yield, and percent
yield
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) →
Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units

Find: limiting reactant
theoretical yield
percent yield
28
Find the limiting Given: 28.6 kg C, 88.2 kg TiO2, 42.8 kg Ti
reactant, theoretical Find: lim. rxt., theor. yld., % yld.
yield, and percent
yield
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) →
Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
• Write a conceptual plan
kg smallest
C amount is
from
kg limiting
TiO2 reactant
smallest
mol Ti
29
yield, and percent CP: kg rxt → g rxt → mol rxt → mol Ti
yield pick smallest mol Ti → TY kg Ti → %Y Ti
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) →
Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)
• Collect needed relationships

1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
30
CP: kg rxt → g rxt → mol rxt → mol Ti
yield, and percent pick smallest mol Ti → TY kg Ti → %Y Ti
yield Rel: 1 mol C=12.01g; 1 mol Ti =47.87g;
TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) → 1 mol TiO2 = 79.87g; 1000g = 1 kg;
Ti(s) + 2 CO(g) 1 mol TiO2 : 1 mol Ti; 2 mol C : 1 mol Ti
• Apply the conceptual plan to determine the limiting

rxt
31
• Apply the conceptual plan to calculate the

theoretical yield
32
• Apply the conceptual plan to calculate the percent

yield
33
• Check the solutions

limiting reactant = TiO2
theoretical yield = 52.9 kg
percent yield = 80.9%
Because Ti has lower molar mass than TiO2, the T.Y. makes
sense and the percent yield makes sense as it is less than 100%
34
Practice — How many grams of N2(g) can be made from 9.05 g of NH3
reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Choose
smallest
Relationships: 1 mol NH3 = 17.03g, 1 mol CuO = 79.55g, 1 mol N2 = 28.02 g

2 mol NH3 : 1 mol N2, 3 mol CuO : 1 mol N2
35
Practice — How many grams of N2(g) can be made from 9.05 g of NH3
reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?
Solution:
Check: Answer: percent yield = 86.8%
36
Solutions
• When table salt is mixed with water, it seems to

disappear, or become a liquid – the mixture is
homogeneous
9 the salt is still there, as you can tell from the taste, or
simply boiling away the water
• Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions
• The component of the solution that changes state
is called the solute
• The component that keeps its state is called the
solvent
9 if both components start in the same state, the major
component is the solvent
37
Describing Solutions
• Because solutions are mixtures, the

composition can vary from one sample to
another
9pure substances have constant composition
9saltwater samples from different seas or lakes have
different amounts of salt
• So to describe solutions accurately, we must
describe how much of each component is
present
9we saw that with pure substances, we can describe
them with a single name because all samples are
identical
38
Solution Concentration
• Qualitatively, solutions are

often described as dilute
or concentrated
• Dilute solutions have a
small amount of solute
compared to solvent
• Concentrated solutions
have a large amount of
solute compared to
solvent
39
Concentrations—Quantitative
Descriptions of Solutions
• A more precise method for describing a
solution is to quantify the amount of solute in a
given amount of solution
• Concentration = amount of solute in a given
amount of solution
9occasionally amount of solvent
40
Solution Concentration
Molarity
• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution

• Used because it describes how many
molecules of solute in each liter of solution
41
Preparing 1 L of a 1.00 M NaCl Solution
42
Example 4.5: Find the molarity of a solution that
has 25.5 g KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the

answer makes sense
43
Practice — What Is the molarity of a solution containing
3.4 g of NH3 (MM 17.03) in 200.0 mL of solution?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solve:
Check: Answer: 1.0 M
44
Using Molarity in Calculations
• Molarity shows the relationship between the

moles of solute and liters of solution
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M, then
1 liter of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar
92 liters = 4.0 moles sugar
90.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar
• 1 L solution : 2 moles sugar
45
Example 4.6: How many liters of 0.125 M
NaOH contain 0.255 mol NaOH?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: because each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH, it makes

sense that 0.255 mol should require a little more than 2 L
46
Practice — Determine the mass of CaCl2
(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M solution
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check:
Answer: 291 g CaCl2
47
Example: How would you prepare 250.0 mL of a
1.00 M solution CuSO4•5 H2O(MM 249.69)?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: the unit is correct, the magnitude seems

reasonable as the volume is ¼ of a liter
48
Practice – How would you prepare 250.0 mL of
0.150 M CaCl2 (MM = 110.98)?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: Answer: Dissolve 4.16 g of CaCl2 in enough

water to total 250.0 mL
49
Dilution
• Often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock

solutions
• To make solutions of lower concentrations from
these stock solutions, more solvent is added
9 the amount of solute doesn’t change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
• The concentrations and volumes of the stock and
new solutions are inversely proportional
M1·V1 = M2·V2
50
Example 4.7: To what volume should you dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: because the solution is diluted by a factor of 5, the volume

should increase by a factor of 5, and it does
51
Practice – What is the concentration of a solution prepared
by diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check:
Answer: 2.75 M
52
Practice – How would you prepare 200.0 mL of
0.25 M NaCl solution from a 2.0 M solution?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: Answer: Dilute 25 mL of 2.0 M solution up to

200.0 mL
53
Solution Stoichiometry
• Because molarity relates the moles of solute to

the liters of solution, it can be used to convert
between amount of reactants and/or products
in a chemical reaction
54
Example 4.8: What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to
completely react with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 in the
reaction 2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships: 1 L Pb(NO3)2 = 0.175 mol, 1 L KCl = 0.150 mol, 1 mol Pb(NO3)2 : 2 mol KCl
Solution:
Check: because you need 2x moles of KCl as Pb(NO3)2, and the

molarity of Pb(NO3)2 > KCl, the volume of KCl should be
more than 2x the volume of Pb(NO3)2
55
Practice – 43.8 mL of 0.107 M HCl is needed to neutralize
37.6 mL of Ba(OH)2 solution. What is the molarity of the
base? 2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(aq)
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check:
Answer: 0.0623 M
56
What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?
• There are attractive forces between the solute

particles holding them together
• There are also attractive forces between the solvent
molecules
• When we mix the solute with the solvent, there are
attractive forces between the solute particles and the
solvent molecules
• If the attractions between solute and solvent are
strong enough, the solute will dissolve
57
Table Salt Dissolving in Water
Each ion is attracted
to the surrounding
water molecules and
pulled off and away
from the crystal
When it enters the
solution, the ion is
surrounded by water
molecules, insulating
it from other ions
The result is a solution
with free moving
charged particles able
to conduct electricity
58
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
• Materials that dissolve
in water to form a
solution that will
conduct electricity are
called electrolytes
• Materials that dissolve
in water to form a
solution that will not
conduct electricity are
called
nonelectrolytes
59
Molecular View of
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
• To conduct electricity, a material must have
charged particles that are able to flow
• Electrolyte solutions all contain ions dissolved in
the water
9 ionic compounds are electrolytes because they
dissociate into their ions when they dissolve
• Nonelectrolyte solutions contain whole molecules
dissolved in the water
9 generally, molecular compounds do not ionize when
they dissolve in water
¾ the notable exception being molecular acids
60
Salt vs. Sugar Dissolved in Water
ionic compounds molecular compounds

dissociate into ions when do not dissociate when
they dissolve they dissolve
61
Acids
• Acids are molecular compounds that ionize when
they dissolve in water
9 the molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the
water
9 when acids ionize, they form H+ cations and also anions
• The percentage of molecules that ionize varies
from one acid to another
• Acids that ionize virtually 100% are called strong
acids
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
• Acids that only ionize a small percentage are
called weak acids
HF(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + F−(aq)
62
Strong and Weak Electrolytes
• Strong electrolytes are materials that dissolve

completely as ions
9 ionic compounds and strong acids
9 their solutions conduct electricity well
• Weak electrolytes are materials that dissolve
mostly as molecules, but partially as ions
9 weak acids
9 their solutions conduct electricity, but not well
• When compounds containing a polyatomic ion
dissolve, the polyatomic ion stays together
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq)
63
Classes of Dissolved Materials
64
Dissociation and Ionization
• When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the

anions and cations are separated from each
other. This is called dissociation.
Na2S(aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + S2-(aq)
• When compounds containing polyatomic ions
dissociate, the polyatomic group stays together
as one ion
Na2SO4(aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
• When strong acids dissolve in water, the
molecule ionizes into H+ and anions
H2SO4(aq) → 2 H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
65
Practice – Write the equation for the process
that occurs when the following strong
electrolytes dissolve in water
CaCl2
HNO3
(NH4)2CO3
66
Solubility of Ionic Compounds
• Some ionic compounds, such as NaCl, dissolve

very well in water at room temperature
• Other ionic compounds, such as AgCl, dissolve
hardly at all in water at room temperature
• Compounds that dissolve in a solvent are said to
be soluble, where as those that do not are said
to be insoluble
9 NaCl is soluble in water, AgCl is insoluble in water
9 the degree of solubility depends on the temperature
9 even insoluble compounds dissolve, just not enough to
be meaningful
67
When Will a Salt Dissolve?
• Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in

water is not easy
• The best way to do it is to do some
experiments to test whether a compound will
dissolve in water, then develop some rules
based on those experimental results
9we call this method the empirical method
68
Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Soluble in Water
69
Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Insoluble in Water
70
Practice – Determine if each of the
following is soluble in water
KOH
AgBr
CaCl2
Pb(NO3)2
PbSO4
71
Precipitation Reactions
• Precipitation reactions are

reactions in which a solid forms
when we mix two solutions
9reactions between aqueous
solutions of ionic compounds
9produce an ionic compound that
is insoluble in water
9the insoluble product is called a
precipitate
72
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
73
No Precipitate Formation =
No Reaction
KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + NaI(aq)

all ions still present, ∴ no reaction
74
Process for Predicting the Products of a
Precipitation Reaction
1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2. Determine formulas of possible products
9 exchange ions
¾ (+) ion from one reactant with (-) ion from other
9 balance charges of combined ions to get formula of
each product
3. Determine solubility of each product in water
9 use the solubility rules
9 if product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will
precipitate
4. If neither product will precipitate, write no
reaction after the arrow
75
Process for Predicting the Products of a
Precipitation Reaction
5. If any of the possible products are insoluble,
write their formulas as the products of the
reaction using (s) after the formula to indicate
solid. Write any soluble products with (aq)
after the formula to indicate aqueous.
6. Balance the equation
9 remember to only change coefficients, not
subscripts
76
Example 4.10: Write the equation for the precipitation
reaction between an aqueous solution of potassium
carbonate and an aqueous solution of nickel(II) chloride
1. Write the formulas of the reactants

K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) →
2. Determine the possible products
a) determine the ions present
(K+ + CO32−) + (Ni2+ + Cl−) →
b) exchange the Ions
(K+ + CO32−) + (Ni2+ + Cl−) → (K+ + Cl−) + (Ni2+ + CO32−)
c) write the formulas of the products
¾ balance charges
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → KCl + NiCO3
77
3. Determine the solubility of each product

KCl is soluble
NiCO3 is insoluble
4. If both products are soluble, write no reaction
does not apply because NiCO3 is insoluble
78
5. Write (aq) next to soluble products and (s) next to

insoluble products
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → KCl(aq) + NiCO3(s)
K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → 2 KCl(aq) + NiCO3(s)
79
Practice – Predict the products and
balance the equation
KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) →
Na2S(aq) + CaCl2(aq) →
80
Practice – Write an equation for the reaction that
takes place when an aqueous solution of (NH4)2SO4 is
mixed with an aqueous solution of Pb(C2H3O2)2.
81
Ionic Equations
• Equations that describe the chemicals put into the water
and the product molecules are called molecular
equations
2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
• Equations that describe the material’s structure when
dissolved are called complete ionic equations
9 aqueous strong electrolytes are written as ions
¾ soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases
9 insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes are
written in molecule form
¾ solids, liquids, and gases are not dissolved, therefore molecule form
2K+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) → 2K+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
82
Ionic Equations
• Ions that are both reactants and products are called
spectator ions
2 K+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) → 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
y An ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

removed is called a net ionic equation
2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
83
Practice – Write the ionic and net
ionic equation for each
K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
84
Acid-Base Reactions
• Also called neutralization reactions because

the acid and base neutralize each other’s
properties
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
• The net ionic equation for an acid-base
reaction is
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)
9as long as the salt that
forms is soluble in water
85
Acids and Bases in Solution
• Acids ionize in water to form H+ ions

9 more precisely, the H from the acid molecule is
donated to a water molecule to form hydronium ion,
H3O+
¾ most chemists use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably
• Bases dissociate in water to form OH− ions
9 bases, such as NH3, that do not contain OH− ions,
produce OH− by pulling H off water molecules
• In the reaction of an acid with a base, the H+ from
the acid combines with the OH− from the base to
make water
• The cation from the base combines with the anion
from the acid to make the salt
acid + base → salt + water
86
Common Acids
87
Common Bases
88
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
89
Example: Write the molecular, ionic, and net-ionic
equation for the reaction of aqueous nitric acid with
aqueous calcium hydroxide
→
a) determine the ions present when each reactant
dissociates or ionizes
→
b) exchange the ions, H+ combines with OH− to make
H2O(l)
→
c write the formula of the salt
→
90
3. Determine the solubility of the salt

Ca(NO3)2 is
4. Write an (s) after the insoluble products and
an (aq) after the soluble products
91
6. Dissociate all aqueous strong electrolytes to get

complete ionic equation
9 not H2O
7. Eliminate spectator ions to get net-ionic equation
92
HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) →
H2SO4(aq) + Sr(OH)2(aq) →
93
Titration
• Often in the lab, a solution’s concentration is
determined by reacting it with another
material and using stoichiometry – this
process is called titration
• In the titration, the unknown solution is added
to a known amount of another reactant until
the reaction is just completed. At this point,
called the endpoint, the reactants are in their
stoichiometric ratio.
9 the unknown solution is added slowly from an
instrument called a burette
¾ a long glass tube with precise volume markings that
allows small additions of solution
94
Acid-Base Titrations
• The difficulty is determining when there has been

just enough titrant added to complete the reaction
9 the titrant is the solution in the burette
• In acid-base titrations, because both the reactant
and product solutions are colorless, a chemical is
added that changes color when the solution
undergoes large changes in acidity/alkalinity
9 the chemical is called an indicator
• At the endpoint of an acid-base titration, the
number of moles of H+ equals the number of
moles of OH−
9 also known as the equivalence point 95
Titration
96
Titration
The titrant is the base
solution in the burette.
As the titrant is added to
the flask, the H+ reacts
with the OH– to form water.
But there is still excess
acid present so the color
does not change.
At the titration’s endpoint,
just enough base has
been added to neutralize
all the acid. At this point
the indicator changes
color.
97
Example 4.14:
The titration of 10.00 mL of
HCl solution of unknown
concentration requires 12.54
mL of 0.100 M NaOH solution
to reach the end point. What
is the concentration of the
unknown HCl solution?
• Write down the given quantity and its units
Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
98
Example 4.14: Information
Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
HCl solution of unknown
• Write down the quantity to find, and/or its units
Find: concentration HCl, M
99
Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
HCl solution of unknown Find: M HCl
• Collect needed equations and conversion factors
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
∴ 1 mole HCl = 1 mole NaOH
0.100 M NaOH ∴0.100 mol NaOH ≡ 1 L sol’n
100
The titration of 10.00 mL of Given: 10.00 mL HCl
HCl solution of unknown 12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
concentration requires 12.54 Find: M HCl
mL of 0.100 M NaOH solution Rel: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
to reach the end point. What 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
M = mol/L
• Write a conceptual plan
mL L mol mol
NaOH NaOH NaOH HCl
mL L
HCl HCl
101
The titration of 10.00 mL Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
of HCl solution of unknown
Find: M HCl
Rel: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
mL of 0.100 M NaOH 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
solution to reach the end M = mol/L
point. What is the CP: mL NaOH → L NaOH →
concentration of the mol NaOH → mol HCl;
unknown HCl solution? mL HCl → L HCl & mol ⇒ M
• Apply the conceptual plan
102
12.54 mL NaOH
Find: M HCl
• Apply the conceptual plan
103
12.54 mL NaOH
Find: M HCl
• Check the solution

HCl solution = 0.125 M
The units of the answer, M, are correct.
The magnitude of the answer makes sense because
the neutralization takes less HCl solution than
NaOH solution, so the HCl should be more concentrated.
104
Practice — What is the concentration of NaOH solution that
requires 27.5 mL to titrate 50.0 mL of 0.1015 M H2SO4?
2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(aq)
Given:
Find:
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
Check:
Answer: 0.369 M
105
Gas-Evolving Reactions
• Some reactions form a gas directly from the ion

exchange
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
• Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition
of one of the ion exchange products into a gas
and water
K2SO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3 → H2O(l) + SO2(g)
106
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) →
NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
107
Compounds that Undergo
Gas-Evolving Reactions
108
Example 4.14: When an aqueous solution of sodium
carbonate is added to an aqueous solution of nitric acid,
a gas evolves

Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) →
a) determine the ions present when each reactant
dissociates or ionizes
(Na+ + CO32−) + (H+ + NO3−) →
b) exchange the anions
(Na+ + CO32−) + (H+ + NO3−) → (Na+ + NO3−) + (H+ + CO32−)
c) write the formula of compounds
9 balance the charges
Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3 + H2CO3
109
a gas evolves
3. Check to see if either product is H2S - No

4. Check to see if either product decomposes –
Yes
9 H2CO3 decomposes into CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
110
a gas evolves
5. Determine the solubility of other product

NaNO3 is soluble
6. Write an (s) after the insoluble products and
an (aq) after the soluble products
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) → 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) → 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
111
HCl(aq) + Na2SO3(aq) →
H2SO4(aq) + CaS(aq) →
112
Other Patterns in Reactions
• The precipitation, acid-base, and gas-evolving

reactions all involve exchanging the ions in the
solution
• Other kinds of reactions involve transferring
electrons from one atom to another – these
are called oxidation-reduction reactions
9also known as redox reactions
9many involve the reaction of a substance with O2(g)
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s)
113
Combustion as Redox
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
114
Redox without Combustion
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)
2 Na → 2 Na+ + 2 e−
Cl2 + 2 e− → 2 Cl−
115
Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals
• Consider the following reactions:

4 Na(s) + O2(g) → 2 Na2O(s)
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)
• The reactions involve a metal reacting with a
nonmetal
• In addition, both reactions involve the conversion
of free elements into ions
4 Na(s) + O2(g) → 2 Na+2O2– (s)
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)
116
Oxidation and Reduction
• To convert a free element into an ion, the atoms
must gain or lose electrons
9 of course, if one atom loses electrons, another must
accept them
• Reactions where electrons are transferred from
one atom to another are redox reactions
• Atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized,
atoms that gain electrons are being reduced
Ger
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)
Na → Na+ + 1 e– oxidation
Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– reduction
Leo 117
Electron Bookkeeping
• For reactions that are not metal + nonmetal, or do

not involve O2, we need a method for determining
how the electrons are transferred
• Chemists assign a number to each element in a
reaction called an oxidation state that allows
them to determine the electron flow in the
reaction
9 even though they look like them, oxidation states are
not ion charges!
¾oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based
on a set of rules
¾ion charges are real, measurable charges
118
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
• Rules are in order of priority

1. free elements have an oxidation state = 0
9 Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0 in 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)
2. monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal
to their charge
9 Na = +1 and Cl = −1 in NaCl
3. (a) the sum of the oxidation states of all the
atoms in a compound is 0
9 Na = +1 and Cl = −1 in NaCl, (+1) + (−1) = 0
119
3. (b) the sum of the oxidation states of all the

atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the charge on
the ion
9 N = +5 and O = −2 in NO3–, (+5) + 3(−2) = −1
4. (a) Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1
in all their compounds
9 Na = +1 in NaCl
4. (b) Group II metals have an oxidation state of +2
in all their compounds
9 Mg = +2 in MgCl2
120
5. in their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation

states according to the table below
9 nonmetals higher on the table take priority
121
Example: Determine the oxidation states of all
the atoms in a propanoate ion, C3H5O2–
• There are no free elements or free ions in

propanoate, so the first rule that applies is Rule
3b
• Because all the atoms are nonmetals, the next

rule we use is Rule 5, following the elements in
order:
9 H = +1
9 O = −2 Note: unlike charges,
oxidation states can
be fractions!
122
Practice – Assign an oxidation state
to each element in the following
• Br2
• K+
• LiF
• CO2
• SO42−
• Na2O2
123
Oxidation and Reduction
Another Definition
• Oxidation occurs when an atom’s oxidation
state increases during a reaction
• Reduction occurs when an atom’s oxidation
state decreases during a reaction
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
124
Oxidation–Reduction
• Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously
9 if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them
• The reactant that reduces an element in another reactant
is called the reducing agent
9 the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized
• The reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant
is called the oxidizing agent
9 the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)

is oxidized, is reduced
is the reducing agent, is the oxidizing agent
125
Example: Assign oxidation states, determine the element
oxidized and reduced, and determine the oxidizing agent
and reducing agent in the following reactions:
Fe + MnO4− + 4 H+ → Fe3+ + MnO2 + 2 H2O
126
Practice – Assign oxidation states, determine the element
oxidized and reduced, and determine the oxidizing agent
and reducing agent in the following reactions:
Sn4+ + Ca → Sn2+ + Ca2+
F2 + S → SF4
127

CH131 Note 04 Quantity

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CH131 Note 04 Quantity

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Chemical Quantities and

• Scientists have measured an average 0.6°C

• The amount of every substance used and

• The coefficients in a balanced chemical

• The number of pizzas you can make depends

• The amounts of any other substance in a

• According to the following equation, how

• Assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, the

Check: because 8x moles of CO as C H , but the molar mass of

Given: 37.8 g CO2, 6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6+ 6 O2

Check: because 6x moles of CO as C H O , but the molar mass

ppm A(aq) ppm B(aq)

volume A (l) volume B(l)

• But what would happen if we had 4 crusts, 15 oz.

• Each ingredient could potentially make a different

• The tomato sauce limits the amount of pizzas we

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

Answer: 0.400 moles

• Let’s now assume that as we are making pizzas,

• As we did with the pizzas, in order to determine

• Write down the given quantity and its units

• Write down the quantity to find and/or its units

• Collect needed relationships

• Apply the conceptual plan to determine the limiting

• Apply the conceptual plan to calculate the

• Apply the conceptual plan to calculate the percent

• Check the solutions

Relationships: 1 mol NH3 = 17.03g, 1 mol CuO = 79.55g, 1 mol N2 = 28.02 g

Check: Answer: percent yield = 86.8%

• When table salt is mixed with water, it seems to

• Because solutions are mixtures, the

• Qualitatively, solutions are

• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution

Check: because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the

Check: Answer: 1.0 M

• Molarity shows the relationship between the

Check: because each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH, it makes

Check: the unit is correct, the magnitude seems

Check: Answer: Dissolve 4.16 g of CaCl2 in enough

• Often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock

Check: because the solution is diluted by a factor of 5, the volume

Check: Answer: Dilute 25 mL of 2.0 M solution up to

• Because molarity relates the moles of solute to

Check: because you need 2x moles of KCl as Pb(NO3)2, and the

• There are attractive forces between the solute

ionic compounds molecular compounds

• Strong electrolytes are materials that dissolve

• When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the

• Some ionic compounds, such as NaCl, dissolve

• Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in

• Precipitation reactions are

KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + NaI(aq)

1. Write the formulas of the reactants

3. Determine the solubility of each product

5. Write (aq) next to soluble products and (s) next to

y An ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

• Also called neutralization reactions because

• Acids ionize in water to form H+ ions

3. Determine the solubility of the salt

5. Balance the equation

6. Dissociate all aqueous strong electrolytes to get