ABSTRACT

The seminar is about polymers that can emit light when a voltage is applied to it. The structure
comprises of a thin film of semiconducting polymer sandwiched between two electrodes (cathode
and anode).When electrons and holes are injected from the electrodes, the recombination of these
charge carriers takes place, which leads to emission of light .The band gap, ie. The energy difference
between valence band and conduction band determines the wavelength (colour) of the emitted
light.

They are usually made by ink jet printing process. In this method red green and blue polymer
solutions are jetted into well defined areas on the substrate. This is because, PLEDs are soluble in
common organic solvents like toluene and xylene .The film thickness uniformity is obtained by multi-
passing (slow) is by heads with drive per nozzle technology .The pixels are controlled by using active
or passive matrix. The advantages include low cost, small size, no viewing angle restrictions, low
power requirement, biodegradability etc. They are poised to replace LCDs used in laptops and CRTs
used in desktop computers today. Their future applications include flexible displays which can be
folded, wearable displays with interactive features, camouflage etc.

INTRODUCTION

Imagine these scenarios

- After watching the breakfast news on TV, you roll up the set like a large handkerchief, and stuff it
into your briefcase. On the bus or train journey to your office, you can pull it out and catch up with
the latest stock market quotes on CNBC.

- Somewhere in the Kargil sector, a platoon commander of the Indian Army readies for the regular
satellite updates that will give him the latest terrain pictures of the border in his sector. He unrolls a
plastic-like map and hooks it to the unit’s satellite telephone. In seconds, the map is refreshed with
the latest high resolution camera images grabbed by an Indian satellite which passed over the region
just minutes ago.

Don’t imagine these scenarios at least not for too long.The current 40 billion-dollar display market,
dominated by LCDs (standard in laptops) and cathode ray tubes (CRTs, standard in televisions), is
seeing the introduction of full-color LEP-driven displays that are more efficient, brighter, and easier
to manufacture. It is possible that organic light-emitting materials will replace older display
technologies much like compact discs have relegated cassette tapes to storage bins. .
The origins of polymer OLED technology go back to the discovery of conducting polymers in
1977,which earned the co-discoverers- Alan J. Heeger , Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa –
the 2000 Nobel prize in chemistry. Following this discovery , researchers at Cambridge University UK
discovered in 1990 that conducting polymers also exhibit electroluminescence and the light emitting
polymer(LEP) was born!.

Polymers are chemical substances that consist of large molecules that are, themselves, made from
many smaller and simpler molecules: proteins and DNA are examples of naturally occurring
polymers; many others, such as nylon, are artificially created. Because of their flexibility and
strength, polymers are used for products such as car bumpers and bullet-proof vests.

Conjugated polymers had already found favour as conductors in battery electrodes, transparent
conductive coatings, capacitor electrolytes and through-hole plating for double-sided circuitboards.
Then, in 1989, researchers from Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory discovered that
certain conjugated polymers could be made to emit light in addition to carrying electric current. The
idea of developing a display device using these properties soon followed and LEP's developer and
patent holder - Cambridge Display Technology (CDT) - was born.

As described previously, the LEP display is closely related to the humble LED, indeed, sometimes
being referred to as polyLED. However, whereas the LED's light producer is a traditional
semiconductor material, LEP uses a two-layer polymer - a hole-transporting layer of poly(p-
phenylene vinylene) (PPV) and an emissive layer of a cyano-substituted PPV derivative (CN-PPV) - to
achieve the same effect. When electrons and holes - flowing in opposite directions between two
electrodes - meet, the electrons "drop into" the holes and release its extra energy as light. The
greater the difference in energy between the hole and the electron; the further from red and the
closer to blue the light given off. Not surprisingly, early displays produced by CDT were closer to the
red end of the spectrum than the blue and it wasn't until late-1999 that the company announced the
development of a blue-emitting polymer material and therefore the prospect of being able to
produce a full-colour display.
In terms of manufacture, the polymers are extremely simple to produce, and the circuitry doesn't
need to be any more complex than that already used in LCDs. Working with ink-jet veterans Seiko
Epson, CDT has developed a thin film deposition technique that involves the application of drops of
treacle-like polymer liquid as small as 30 microns across onto a patterned electrode array.

Indeed, the technology has many potential advantages over LCD: only one sheet of plastic is
required instead of two sheets of glass, LEPs don't need backlights, so they consume less power, and
since it's the surface of the LEP which emits light, wide viewing angles are possible. Furthermore, not
only can it be applied to very large surfaces but, since they use flexiblesubstrates, LEP displays can
be curved, and possibly even made flexible.

On the strength of these advantages CDT claims that LEP screens will replace LCDs within the next
few years. The company's exploitation route for the technology is through licensing and technology
transfer, coupled with corporate partnerships, joint ventures and developments and device
manufacturing. Whilst it's still early days for LEP in terms of real products, by late-2001 licenses had
already been granted to the likes of DuPont Displays, OSRAM, Philips and Seiko-Epson, some of
whom had already announced imminent start of production whilst others were actively
implementing their manufacturing strategies.
Polymers provide nanoscale LEDs

James Long, Hiromichi Yamamoto, John Wilkinson, Konrad Bussmann, Joseph Christodoulides, Zakya
Kafafi

Nanoscale light-emitters have been made as small as 60nm in diameter and will play an important
role in future nanophotonic applications.

23 May 2006, SPIE Newsroom. DOI: 10.1117/2.1200604.0123

Nanophotonic applications will ultimately rely on nanoscale light sources. Nanoscale

electroluminescent (EL) devices therefore could find use in areas as diverse as direct-writing nano-
photolithography and quantum-communication schemes that depend on single-photon emitters.
Other potential applications include optical interconnects, chemical and biological sensors, and
sources for nanoplasmonic circuits. While it is not difficult to excite an isolated nanoscale emitter
(such as a quantum dot) by optical means, electroluminescent devices pose challenges in confining
either the electrical current, or the light source, or both.

Inorganic semiconductors provide one approach to nanoscale EL, but require architectures that
overcome the micron-scale diffusion lengths often exhibited by current carriers and the light-
emitting excitons they form.1 A promising alternative builds on the processability of organic
materials developed for conventional organic LEDs targeted for flat-panel displays, solid-state
lighting, and lasers.2 Although comprising only several hundred polymer molecules, these nanoscale
organic light-emitting diodes (nanOLEDs) performed similarly to millimeter-scale devices.

The organic materials can easily be spun or evaporated into predefined lithographic nanostructures.
Prior work has employed a variety of approaches to forming nanoscale light sources, including use of
templates, such as formed in nanopore filters3 or by nanosphere lithography,4 and use of electron-
beam (e-beam) lithography,5 which allows controlled placement of the nanOLED. In our efforts to
produce even smaller devices, we have used conventional e-beam lithography and a single
polymeric emissive layer (seeFigure 1) to achieve devices as small as 60nm in diameter (see Figure
2).6

Devices were fabricated as sketched in Figure 1. First, a semi-transparent gold anode was patterned
on glass via photolithography. Then we deposited an insulating 100nm-thick film of silicon nitride by
chemical-vapor deposition. Next we etched nanoscale holes into the film, down to the anode at
locations defined by electron-beam lithography: see Figure 2(a) and (b). The etching of the holes was
followed by spin-casting the light-emitting polymer MEH-PPV poly[2-methoxy- 5-(2′-ethylhexyloxy)-
1,4-phenylene vinylene] over the entire device. The dynamics of the spinning process led to dried
films of MEH-PPV that maintained a 50nm thickness inside the holes. To further ensure that light
emission was confined to the nano-holes, we adopted a single-layer architecture, and so evaporated
the cathode materials (LiF followed by Al) immediately on top of the MEH-PPV film. This single-layer
approach departs from the typical multilayer architecture, in which additional organic layers are
optimized to improve efficiency. It is a challenge to keep multiple layers from overfilling the depth of
the hole, which can lead to spreading the current—and attendant light emission—over a larger area
than desired.5

Figure 1. The device architecture for a nanoscale organic LED includes electrical contacts as well as
holes that confine the light vertically. The nanoscopic hole on the right emits light (hν) down through
the substrate. The hole is partially filled with the light-emitting polymer MEH-PPV.

Light emission from the individual nanOLEDs was recorded through the semitransparent gold anode
by using an optical microscope (with a numerical aperture of 0.6), which was equipped with an
electron-multiplying charge-coupled-device (CCD) camera for high sensitivity as well as an imaging
spectrometer. Consequently, we could record both images and spectra from operating devices with
the same CCD camera. Figure 2(c) shows EL images from two arrays of nanOLEDs with 100nm and
60nm diameters patterned on the same anode. The EL spectra were found to be entirely consistent
with MEH-PPV, as determined from the emission band (∼550–700nm) and phonon progression.

Figure 2. (a) A scanning electron micrograph of 3 × 3 arrays of 100nm- and 60nm-diameter holes
patterned in a 100nm-thick film of silicon nitride. (b) A close-up of a 60nm hole. (c) The
electroluminescent image of nanOLEDs corresponding to the hole pattern in (a).

We determined the electrical characteristics by including organic LEDs as large as 1 μm in diameter

on the same anode as the nanOLEDs, which increased the current to conveniently measured values.
Plots of the current density versus the applied electric field show that the device arrays behave
much like a large, 2 × 2mm2, reference organic LED.6 At the same time, the EL emission integrated
over the 100nm and 60nm devices also turns on at the same electric field as the current. Taken
together, the data show that the nanoscale devices behave much like a standard single-layer organic
LED.

The ability to fabricate working 60nm nanOLEDs using electron-beam lithography suggests that
devices several times smaller should be possible at the lithographic limit. The use of standard
nanofabrication techniques, and the well-behaved operating characteristics of the nanOLEDs
described here, hold great promise for future nanophotonic applications.

Plexcore® OC

Plexcore® OC ink is a multi-functional conductive material compatible with a number of printing

techniques including spin-coating, ink jet printing, and contact printing. The inks are customizable to
possess a wide variety of film properties, dependent upon its desired function and performance
requirement.

The inks are ideal for integration into various printed electronic applications. They can be tailored to
the specific needs of a given application and meet the stability needs required for high volume
manufacturing.

Produced in Plextronics’ manufacturing facility in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Plexcore® OC is available

in development and production quantities.
Plexcore® OC Applications

• OLED Mobile Phone Displays

• OLED Point of Purchase Signage

• Flexible OLED Displays

• Printed Solar Cells

• Organic Photodetectors

• Organic Smart Labels

• Organic Field Effect Transistors

Organic Conductive Ink Performance Characteristics Plexcore® OC

Solution Customer

Benefits

Highly tunable properties · Control of key properties such as work function, resistivity and
viscosity · Optimized device performance

· Application-specific inks

Choice of solvent system · Available in aqueous-based solutions and in many water-miscible

organic solvents · Suitable for multiple deposition techniques

Controlled acidity level · Acidity that is up to ten times lower than conventional materials ·
Increased device lifetime

· Reduced acidic degradation of deposition equipment

Effective planarization agent · Well controlled HIL film morphology ensures planarization ·
Prevents shorts in device display pixels

· Increased manufacturing yield

Chemical and thermal stability · Stable, robust formulations

that maintain properties · Long shelf life

· Reduced storage costs

High transparency · Greater than 90% transmittance at commercial film thickness · Minimal
loss of spectral characteristics.

Plexcore® OC in Lighting & Power Applications

Polymer organic light emitting diode (P-OLED) displays and lighting: Used to create a hole-injection
layer (HIL) in P-OLEDs (see figure 1), Plexcore® OC ink is a low acid specialty formulation that results
in low moisture absorbing films for longer OLED lifetime. The tunable nature of Plexcore® OC ink
allows for unsurpassed control of final work function and conductivity of the HIL film—two
important parameters that affect the hole injection and charge balance with the light emitting
polymer (LEP) films and, ultimately, the overall efficiency of the P-OLED device.

Small-molecule organic light emitting diode (SMOLED) displays and lighting: Plexcore® OC inks can
also be used to form HIL films that are compatible with vapor deposited small molecule OLED
(SMOLED) devices. The improved hole injection and planarization properties of HIL films printed with
Plexcore® OC inks have been shown to extend SMOLED device lifetimes and provide a pathway to
future solution-processed SMOLED devices.

Printed solar cells: Plexcore® OC ink is a component of the Plexcore® PV ink system which is
designed to maximize the efficiency and lifetime of organic photovoltaic (OPV) solar cells. Used as a
hole transport layer (HTL), Plexcore® OC inks work well with a broad range of photoactive layer inks
by matching the energy levels of the p/n film (i.e., band gap) by virtue of its tunable work function.
HTL films printed using Plexcore® OC inks produce better interfaces with many p/n films than do
conventional HTL films. The results are better charge transfer and higher fill factor, which lead to
improved device efficiency.

polymer LED

Polymer LED ( light-emitting diode ) - sometimes called light-emitting polymer or polyLED - is a

technology based on the use of polymer as the semiconductor material in LEDs. Polymers are
chemical substances that consist of large molecules that are, themselves, made from many smaller
and simpler molecules: proteins and DNA are examples of naturally occuring polymers; many others,
such as nylon, are artificially created. Because of their flexibility and strength, polymers are used for
products such as car bumpers and bullet-proof vests.
Because polymers are lightweight and flexible, they can simply and inexpensively be used for the
creation of thin film displays for future technologies such as the electronic newspaper . Polymer
LEDs have a number of inherent qualities that are ideally suited to such applications: they enable
full-spectrum color displays, high brightness at low drive voltages, glare-free viewing, and long
operating lifetimes. It is currently possible to create a small text display by structuring the polymer
material and electrodes. The technology also offers a great deal of promise as a basis for cheaper,
simpler lighting sources.

Light-emitting polymers were first announced by J. H. Burroughes, Richard Friend, and others in an
article in Nature in 1990.

FLAT PANEL MONITORS

With a 100-year head start over flat panel monitor technologies like LCD and PDP, the CRT is still a
formidable technology. It's based on universally understood principles and employs commonly
available materials. The result is cheap-to-make monitors capable of excellent performance,
producing stable images in true colour at high display resolutions and used in applications like
Computer Aided Design.

However, no matter how good it is, the CRT's most obvious shortcomings are well known:

it sucks up too much electricity

its single electron beam design is prone to misfocus

misconvergence and colour variations across the screen

its clunky high-voltage electric circuits and strong magnetic fields create harmful electromagnetic
radiation

it's simply too big.

With even those with the bi

Since the invention of luminescent polymers, considerable effort has been made to produce
viable flexible displays using the polymers in thin films. The luminescent properties of these
films depend on the processing conditions of the polymers, and it has been established that the
conformation of the luminescent polymer is directly related to its light emitting properties. This
project studies the properties of MEH-PPV, a common luminescent polymer, by molecule
orientation and single molecule spectroscopy, in order to gain a better understanding of how an
ideal light emitting film can be produced.

This research will assist Australian industries to further advance these processes and devices
leading to better quality, cheaper and more efficient products. The Australian community will
benefit through economic and technological advances. These advanced materials will promote
health and environmental wellbeing.

[1]  E.K. Hill, K.L. Chan, A.B. Holmes and D.E Dunstan, “Rheofluorescence studies of poly(p-
phenylenevinylene) derivatives in simple shear flow”,Synthetic Metals, Elsevier, 153, pp. 213-
216, 2005.

[2]  D.E. Dunstan and Y. Wei, “Compressive Elasticity in Polymer Couette Flow”, European
Physical Journal Applied Physics, 38, pp. 93-95, 2007.

St Andrews and Heriot-Watt Physics departments have long been known for their pioneering work in
lasers and optoelectronics.  The academic staff teaching on the MSc course are the same people who
lead and work in the research teams at the two sites.  We list a few highlights of relevant St Andrews
research here, but more details on research at St Andrews and at Heriot-Watt can be found from the
two links in this sentence.  A summary of the Heriot-Watt activities is also given below.

  St Andrews staff lead the 12 million pound collaborative project

"Ultrafast Photonics Collaboration".  This involves includes
university research groups at Imperial College, Bristol, Glasgow,
Sheffield and Heriot-Watt universities and eight major industrial
partners (Agilent (formerly Hewlett-Packard), Marconi, Nortel
Networks, JDS-Uniphase, Kymata, Sharp and Vitesse).

One of the research students in the ultrashort pulse group at St

Andrews is shown adusting the pump beam into a KLM
modelocked Ti:sapphire laser.
 Prof Wilson Sibbett, FRS, invented a new form of modelocking,
which is now widely used in commercial ultrashort pulse lasers.  His
group's work in the generation and measurement of ultrashort
pulses has been recognised in various ways, including him being
invited to give plenary and invited papers at European and Global
conferences,   the award of the Rank Prize in Optoelectronics, and
a Fellowship of the Royal Society.  A new type of device for
measuring ultrashort pulses of light has recently won an
international award.  Dr Derryck Reid (now at Heriot-Watt
University) and Prof Wilson Sibbett are shown with a new type of "autocorrelator" that is much more
compact and able to be used with a wider range of wavelengths than existing designs. 

Prof Malcolm Dunn's group has produced tunable coherent light

from Optical Parametric Oscillators from the blue to the mid-infra-
red.  The St Andrews in this area spans femtosecond, picosecond,
nanosecond, and continuous wave regimes.  One of these systems
has been engineered for use in the Photonics Teaching Laboratory.

A "Photonics Innovation Centre" has been set up at St Andrews,

and further strengthens the links between the applicable photonics
research in the School and end-users in industry and elsewhere. 
The picture alongside shows an infra-red OPO being developed for
one particular "customer".

Dr Bruce Sinclair's group invented award-winning greenmicrochip

lasers.  Recently, in tandem with basic physics investigations,
ultraminiature lasers for remote sensing have been developed, as
featured in the EPSRC Impact magazine.

Prof Ulf Leonhardt joined the School in St Andrews the first

part of 2000.  His work in theoretical quantum
optics recently predicted the existence of the optical analogue
of "black holes".  This exciting discovery hit the
international popular press.

New colleagues who arrived in autumn 2003 have starting major

work in quantum computing. Dr Natalia Korolkova works on
theory in this area, while Dr Dr Frieder Koenig test some of
these and other ideas experimentally. Quantum Optics and Quantum Information Research. 

Lasers can be used to slow down and trap atoms.  Prof Kishan
Dholakia's work takes this a stage further, using a laser beam with
a zero intensity on axis to guide cold atomsfrom one place to
another.  The arrow alongside points to a clump of cold rubidium
atoms in a vacuum cell.

Dr Donatella Cassettari has recently joined the School and is

setting up experiments in Bose Einstein Condensation and related
topics.
Prof Alan Miller's team explores the fundamental science of
electrons in low-dimensional semiconductor structures, and
how these interact with light.  This work is in collaboration with a
wide range of academic and industrial laboratories, as such
studies may impact on the current and future generations of
semiconductor lasers, detectors, and all-optical switches.
Prof Ifor Samuel and Dr Graham Turnbull's teams work on the
science of light emitting polymers under both electrical and photo-
excitation.  These have great potential for use in displays, in some
parts of telecommunications, and also in more general lighting
applications.

Photonic crystals have repetitive perturbations engineered into

them on the scale of a wavlength of light.  These devices can then
be used in guiding and multiplexing applications, amongst others. 
Professor Krauss has recently had a new cleanroom built in the
School to allow him to manufacture and investigate these intriguing
structures.

Medical and biological applications of lasers and other light

sources are being addressed by Profs Wilson Sibbett and Kishan
Dholakia in collaboration with Ninewells Hospital, Dundee,
biologists in St Andrews and Dundee, and Prof Miles Padgett in the
physics department at Glasgow University.  Recent work from St
Andrews has produced systems for detecting cancer of the
digestive system, and cancers on the skin. St Andrews
biophotonics collaboration.