Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chung
Der Chyuan
04 Werribee Crescent
Willetton
Professor A. M. Zoubir
Head of school
Please find the attached thesis on the project titled “Stability Improvement of a
requirements of the Engineering Honours Project unit for the Award of Bachelor of
Engineering (Electrical)
The main objective of this final year project is to analyze and simulate the complete
scheme of wind/diesel system. The analysis of typical wind/diesel energy systems for
of the system operation before building the actual system and also the testing and
system.
The first stage of the project is to analyze each individual wind/diesel system
The simulation was done in time domain analysis and the resulting waveforms are
In the second phase of the project, each individual system components were
combined to form the overall wind/diesel system. Dynamic stability analysis on the
wind/diesel system was performed and stability improvement technique was being
i
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the people who have contributed to the development
and progress of this final year project. Without their guidance and patience, the
Many thanks must be extended to Dr. W.W.L. Keerthipala, who has been so
generous with his time in support, guidance, patience and advice throughout the
project. Much gratitude is due to the project co-supervisor, Mr. James Goh for his
interest and time spent in this project, as well as his assistance in providing
Many thanks to the School of Electrical Engineering for the computer facilities and
ii
Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................ ii
Nomenclature .............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 9
iii
2.5 Wind Farm ........................................................................................................... 26
2.6 Flickers................................................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 53
iv
4.4 Diesel Generator Model ....................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER SIX
CHAPTER SEVEN
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 References............................................................................................................ 86
v
List of Figures
Figure 2. 1: Single line diagram for typical wind turbine generator configuration. .. 11
Figure 4. 2: Power curve of manufacturer vs. polynomial fit curve for 225kW turbine
.................................................................................................................. 56
vi
Figure 4. 7: Line and phase voltages generated ......................................................... 61
Figure 5. 11: Diesel generator power with battery bank during increase in wind speed
.......................................................................................................................................82
vii
List of Tables
orders........................................................................................................... 56
viii
Nomenclature
Induction Generator
Lm Magnetising inductance
Tm Mechanical torque
N Number of poles
ix
E’d, E’q Voltages behind transient reactance X’ (p.u)
Synchronous Generator
E’’d, E’’q Voltages behind sub-transient reactance X’’d and X’’q (p.u)
x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The total annual energy consumption in 1997 was 1015 BTUs and almost half of the
total primary energy used is for generating electricity. To meet this demand,
electrical generating capacity installed must be increased. [41] Today, in many parts
of the world, the decisions for new capacity installation become complicated due to
the fact that finding new sites for generation and transmission facilities of any kind
are difficult. Particularly rural areas in the developing world where most of the
population is located, most people lack the essential energy services to satisfy most
of their basic needs. The cost of grid connection in these rural areas is very high due
One of the most economical and reliable alternatives is to use diesel power
generation, but diesel power generation is very inefficient when the load is a small
percentage of the rated power of the engine. The fact that every time, there is a need
for power the engine has to operate makes it very inconvenient and reduces the
efficiency and lifetime of the power generation system. As a result, wind energy
system has been suggested to provide a good solution to supply energy loads in these
rural areas. Wind energy system has been proven to be more profitable than other
1
electrification utilities for rural areas and also it can provide an uninterrupted supply
Farmers have used wind energy for centuries in many different applications, but due
economic to use. [6] Comparing windmills in the early years, today’s wind turbines
uses innovative technology that have substantially reduced the cost of electricity
generated from wind power. In the 1920s and 1930s, farm families throughout the
world used wind to generate enough electricity to power their lights and electric
motors. The use of wind power declined with the government subsidized
construction of utility lines and fossil fuel power plants [41]. However, due to the
energy crisis in the 1970s and growing concern for the environment have gained an
in rural and remote locations again examine renewable generated energy to provide
Wind is a natural resource created by heating of the earth’s surface. Using wind
turbines, wind can be utilized and convert into electrical energy by connecting
2
With the technical advances in wind turbine technology, the efficiency of wind
turbines increases and the cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of wind generated electricity
decreases. The wind industry also achieved in areas such as noise reduction, power
quality and also the power output capacity which is the amount of electricity a wind
turbine can produce at specific wind speed increasing. As a result, world wind energy
capacity is currently doubling every three years and two months; this is shown in
3
1.3 Wind Power
Winds are only an intermittent source of energy. From past investigations and
studies, the intermittency of wind energy is no barrier to large-scale usage. The most
basic and important application of wind is to generate electricity, with the wind
turbines operating with utility grid systems or in parallel with diesel engines in
remote locations. Utilities have the flexibility to accept a contribution of about 20%
or more from wind energy systems and more than 50% fuel savings from wind-diesel
systems. [32]
The kinetic energy in the air mass “m” moving with speed V is given by [41]:
1
Kinetic Energy = . m . V2 joules 1.1
2
The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic energy per second.
Hence:
1
Power = . (mass flow rate per second). V2 1.2
2
4
then, the volumetric flow rate is A.V, the mass flow rate of the air in kilograms per
1 1
P= (ρAV). V2 = ρAV3 watts 1.3
2 2
The kinetic energy available in the wind is not possible to be harnessed total. This is
because to utilize all the kinetic energy of the wind and convert it to some other form
of energy, this would mean that the velocity of the air particles after the collector
device would be zero. Provided that one has available an infinite vacuum space to
collect the zero velocity air particles, this would not be possible. Therefore under
most ideal conditions, only 16/27 of wind energy can be utilized and converted to
1
P= CpρAV3 watts 1.4
2
From the above equation, the power output from a wind turbine is proportional to the
cube of the wind speed; therefore site selection is an important factor to consider.
5
1.4 Wind Component
The wind power system is consist of one or more units, operating electrically in
• Wind tower
• Yaw mechanism
• Mechanical gear
• Electrical generator
In addition to modern wind power system the following components are often
included:
• Power electronics
• Control electronics
configuration
6
1.4.1 Wind Turbine Components
Disc Brake: The disc brake is used in case of failure of the aerodynamic brake,
Gearbox: The gearbox has the low speed shaft to the left. It makes the high-
asynchronous generator.
7
Hub: The hub of the rotor is attached to the low speed shaft of the wind
turbine.
Hydraulics System: The hydraulics system is used to reset the aerodynamic brakes of
Body Frame: The body frame is to support the generator and contains the key
electrical generator.
Main Shaft: The rotor main shaft of the wind turbine connects the rotor hub to
the gearbox.
Radiator: The radiator contains an electric fan that is used to cool the
Yaw Motor: The yaw motor uses electrical motors to turn the nacelle with the
wind vane.
8
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction
The generation of wind power is increasingly becoming popular in the past few
years. In the United States, many applications of wind power are related to large-
scale, utility-size wind farms where thousands of wind turbines are interconnected to
generate large-scale electricity and in other parts of the world, smaller scales wind
In the past, wind turbines are used as a direct shaft power. The rotor axle was directly
connected to the millstone at the old windmills. Today the output power from the
wind turbines is utilized in two ways. One is by direct use of the mechanical shaft
power, the other is letting the wind turbine power an electrical generator and then
utilize the power as electrical power. The problem of using mechanical shaft power
is of course that the wind turbine has to be close to the place of the machine used. By
letting the wind turbine drive an electrical generator, one can transfer the power over
The energy produced by wind is clean and safe to use and has low external and social
costs. Liabilities related to decommissioning of obsolete power plants will not occur
production, wind turbines do not produce green house gases. [47] Numerous research
9
and studies were conducted to investigate the environmental impact of wind energy
on the environment. These studies include the noise and visual effects on the
surrounding environment in the early year. In the recent years, studies in the United
States, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark and the United Kingdom had concluded
that wind turbines do not pose any substantial threat to birds. [47]
countries as well as industrialized areas and countries. Wind energy application can
include all types of systems such as: grid connected wind farms, hybrid energy
systems, and stand-alone systems. Wind energy is a reliable technology for both fuel,
and small remote grids and special applications such as desalination as well as large
grids. Since wind power is modular, more power can be added quickly as the demand
countries. [47]
10
2.2 Wind Turbine Generators
Most of the wind turbine generators installed, except for the case of stand-alone
widely used in most of the countries in the world due to its cost-effectiveness and
However the main draw back of this configuration is that the wind turbine generators
consume reactive power for the excitation of the rotors. In order to compensate the
reactive power consumption, the wind turbine uses capacitor bank as shown in
Figure 3.1. Other wind turbines have installed additional capacitors to compensate
for the reactive power consumption in the transformer. The capacitor banks are
reactive power. The capacitor bank for no-load compensation is connected to the rid
in steps, immediately after the connection of the generator to the grid. Also the
capacitor bank is divided into steps to limit the transients during switching.
Grid Gear
Transformer Box
Wind
Turbine
Generator
Capacitor
Bank
Figure 2. 1: Single line diagram for typical wind turbine generator configuration.
11
2.2.1 Induction Generator Applications
In most wind energy system applications, the use of self-excited induction generator
(SEIG) is well known. [5, 55] Induction generators are capable of generating power
from variable speed as well as constant speed prime movers, however fixed speed
may not generate as much energy yield as a fully variable speed system. Induction
generator’s configuration is simple and the maintenance cost is low. [5] The
performance during steady state and during transient have been developed. [62]
Several domestic applications of induction machines driven from wind turbine have
been studied. The concept of using a self-excited induction generator driven from a
wind turbine for water storage heating was discussed in [55]. The primary objective
of this paper is to operate the wind turbine at its optimum tip-speed ratio using an
appropriate designed controller. [55] Using induction machine for wind energy
generator has the disadvantage that it is a sink of reactive power and cannot provide
the reactive power requirements of consumers, a static VAR compensator is used for
providing the magnetizing currents of the induction machines in the system. [36]
From the simulated and experimental results presented in [36], through the adopting
of an indirect induction generator stator flux control strategy, the system steady state
meaning that the system can operate better and over wider range of speed range. [36]
12
2.2.3 Analysis Of Induction Generator
For a wind energy conversion system that uses induction generator, a dc link
converter is essential for power conversion. The induction generator produces current
at variable frequency. This current is rectified onto the dc link using a converter with
six active switches. To convert the dc to a fixed frequency of the utility, a second
converter with six switches is needed. This results in many switches needed for wind
energy conversion system. Hence a new method that uses a six-switch current
regulated pulse width modulated inverter and a zero sequence filter is proposed to
eliminate some of the switches used and still retaining the original functionality of
turbines, the terminal voltage may increase to dangerously high levels which have
been reported to cause capacitor failure at wind farms. Over-voltages are the major
terminals of the induction generator will improve voltage regulation and also
13
2.2.4 Dynamic Performance Of Wind Turbine-Induction
Generator
The problem of using wind as an input source of power generation is that wind varies
from time to time due to wind gusts, and is further disturbed by the effect of
supporting tower shadow. However with the advances in power electronics, the use
of static VAR compensator to regulate voltage produced from wind generator system
control the static VAR controller and the mechanical input power to the generator.
From software simulation results, the proposed controller shows good damping
performance for the wind generation system under severe wind gust and large
of induction generator mechanical point of view is to use a sliding mode control. The
14
2.2.5 Unbalanced-Voltage Problem In Wind Turbine Generation
In a utility system, an unbalanced voltage occurs when single-phase loads are not
Unbalanced voltage usually occurs in rural electric power systems having long
distribution lines that are fed by induction generators driven by wind turbines. Other
[18]
In a wind generation system as shown in Figure 3.2, unbalanced loading at the point
unbalanced voltage will cause large negative sequence currents due to low negative
cause unbalanced heating (hot spot) in the machine windings that can eventually lead
to machine failure. Also the unbalanced voltage operation will create a pulsating
torque which produces speed pulsation, mechanical vibration and acoustic noise. [18]
15
Infinite Point Of Common
Bus Coupling (PCC)
Transmission Line
Wind
L Turbine
R
Induction
Generator
Unbalanced Load
Using steady state and dynamic analysis and simulation on the impact of unbalanced
conditions are deduced which are to increase the power capability of transmission
lines, redistribute load periodically to equalize any unbalanced load and to use power
16
2.2.6 Wind Turbine Generator Site Selection
To design and operate a wind energy system efficiently it is important to match the
wind turbine to the potential site. If the matching requirements are not fulfil, the
energy generated from the wind energy system will not be optimal. Factors to
consider are:
To achieve the matching requirements, methods like the Weibull statistical model
and the power curves normalization method are used. Through case studies
developed in [64-66], these methods being implemented can serve as useful tool to
make judicious choice of potential site and wind turbine generator system from the
17
2.3 Wind/Diesel System
Some years ago, “wind-diesel” system was configured as putting a wind turbine into
a small diesel network. These early and unsophisticated systems saved little if any
diesel fuel. As technologies advances and research being carried out, the necessary
loaded diesels run very inefficiently. [44] Grid connected wind energy conversion
system influences the system to certain extent due to varying power output from the
wind energy conversion system. On a large interconnected grid system, this is seen
load control, so that sudden drops in wind power can be buffered in one way or
another. [54]
18
2.3.1 Wind/Diesel System Fundamental
In low wind penetration, the diesel generator will run at full time with the wind
power reducing the net load on the diesel generator. All the wind energy generated
will be supplying the primary load. Low wind penetration system is the easiest to
integrate with existing diesel system and modification to the diesel plant is not
necessary; therefore it has the lowest capital cost. Due to the simplicity of this
In medium wind penetration, the diesel generator will operate at full time. During
high wind power levels, the secondary loads will be dispatched to ensure sufficient
diesel loading and alternatively, wind turbines are curtailed during high winds and
low loads. To achieve this dispatching of loads, simple control system is required. As
compared to low wind penetration, medium wind penetration required some diesel
loads. It also has higher capital cost and greater fuel savings of ~40%. [72]
19
In high wind penetration, the diesel generator can be shut down during high wind
frequency. Conventional diesel control will be modified with new diesel control and
This configuration provide as high as ~70% of fuel savings and higher capital cost.
[42]
When the wind generator output is sufficient to supply the load demand, it is
impractical to keep the diesel generator on-line as spinning reserve to cover short-
term deficits in wind generator output. Hence frequent start-stop cycling of diesel
fuel-inefficient mode that also may have a detrimental impact on engine and engine
starter life. Also, there are certain types of diesel engines that have warm up
under these typical circumstances it is favorable for short-term energy storage system
periods or when the wind generator output is insufficient to supply the load demand.
[1]
Seal lead-acid battery is used as a form of energy storage for the wind/diesel system.
Past objections of lead-acid batteries usage due to the requirement watering and the
hydrogen gas explosion hazard have been eliminated by the improved sealed design.
However, lead-acid batteries are ill suited to short-term storage application, which is
characterized primarily by the rate, rather than by the amount of energy transfer. As
20
such that a battery system of suitable power rating will be considerably oversized
with respect to its energy storage rating and thus not cost effective. [1]
deficits. In the system the synchronous generator can be decoupled from the diesel
by clutch means but it is still connected to the load bus. The advantage of using
flywheel is that it is simple to construct. But the specific energy capacity of steel
flywheel is relatively low and especially so for rotor disks which are pierced to
receive shaft. [1] Power electronic drive capable of bi-directional power flow is
required between the diesel generator and synchronous machine so that energy from
accurate control of the power in and out of the flywheel requires fast and accurate
control of the torque on the shaft of the synchronous machine. With the combination
of flywheel energy buffer and fast-response power electronic integrated into the
distribution system due to frequent wind power fluctuations will be avoided, also
prevented. [29]
21
2.3.2 Wind/Diesel System Strategies
isolated power system supplied from diesel and wind under 100% wind penetration
policy was developed to minimize frequency and voltage disturbances due to wind
turbulence and gusts and load demand fluctuations. An eigenvalue analysis followed
stability of the system. Through simulation results, the implementation of the control
policy into wind diesel system under 100% wind penetration has achieved acceptable
performance.
The difficulties of integrating wind energy and various approaches in solving these
problems have been discussed in [13]. Also the role of energy storage is examined,
both to deal with operational problems and to improved wind energy utilization. A
expected from the different system designs in practice. It was emphasize that it is
misleading to suggest that there exists one preferred design for wind/diesel systems.
The optimum design will depend on the particular needs of the consumer. [13]
22
System sizing is an important factor to consider when implementing a stand-alone
wind/diesel system. Through correct sizing of the system, the required power
supplied to consumer is enhance and energy produced will not be wasted [51]. A
reliable/cost evaluation model described in [51] has been applied to obtain optimal
expansion. A useful concept regarding appropriate dates, types of energy sources and
for composite small isolated power system. In [22], a sizing methodology was
developed based on the power curve of wind turbine, physical (charge current
limitation) and cost considerations. The optimized energy system for various levels
of satisfaction (LLP), i.e. both able to satisfy the load with a certain percentage of the
load not satisfied and to offer the lowest kWh cost was determined and studied. An
existing isolated system is being use to justify the methodology developed and
Besides using battery or flywheel as a form of short-term energy storage, the use of
wind/diesel system. Due to its fast acting characteristics, SMES can effectively damp
the generator rotor. Through simulation results, it was shown in [57] that the system
dynamic and transient stability with SMES increases as compare to the system
23
are shown in [35]. A complete model of the wind/diesel system with SMES was
developed and was used for eigenvalue analysis and in the design of controllers.
24
2.4 Wind Hybrid System
In a wind hybrid system, the certainty of meeting load demands at all time is greatly
enhanced using more than one power source. Besides using diesel generator with
wind turbine for electrical generation, batteries are used to meet the daily load
fluctuation in short terms and diesel generator are used to meet long term load
fluctuation. [39]
In some hybrid systems the wind turbine is combined with PV panels to generate
electricity for stand-alone applications. Such systems usually consist of wind turbine
generators, PV panels, storage batteries and backup generators. The hybrid wind/PV
power system greatly enhance the generation of electricity and being emission free,
the energy coming from the wind and sunrays is available at no cost. [12,39]
When there is more than one source of generation in a system, a smart controller is
needed so as to protect the equipments in the system and to ensure sufficient power
flow to the load. Most controllers are electronic controller, which based on
parameters such as load demand, generator status and battery sate of charge to
perform the necessary tasks required. [12] Due to the high complexity in designing
the controller, most controllers are custom designed. Besides controllers, an inverter
also a rectifier is required to charge the battery from engine generator. [20]
25
2.5 Wind Farm
Wind farms are clusters of wind turbines that generate electricity. Wind farms are
usually located in areas with reliably favourable wind speeds. [50] Most of the wind
farms developed by private companies are in the United States. These private
companies uses their own land from farmers and ranches or in some cases from the
government to developed wind farm and sell the electricity produced to power
The largest wind farms, in terms of the number of turbines in a single area, are in
California. The reasons for the California wind farms being the largest are because
the California wind farms are in places where very favourable wind occur and also
they are near to electric power transmission lines and large cities. Hence, peak winds
in these areas occur approximately at the same times as the peak electricity demand
The three largest wind farms in the world presently are at Altamont Pass, California,
just east of San Francisco, in the Tehachapi Mountains in Kern Country, and at San
Gorgonio Pass, just north of Palm Springs, where there are thousands of wind
26
2.5.4 Wind Farm Power Quality
In remote/rural regions where electric power supplies are not economically favored,
the use of renewable energy resources is of great importance. Wind energy being the
most commercially interesting applications are widely used in these areas. However,
the problem with wind power installations is the power quality impact that wind
turbines have on weak or rural grids. Variations in the wind speed and also variations
in output power from wind turbines create power pulsations. This has led to high
costs for connecting the wind turbines to the grid, up to 20% of the total cost of a
wind turbine installation. [68] From the technical point of view the integration of the
power produced by standard wind turbines in a weak grid should be dealt with care
and the requested design tools must be developed and used in order to maintain the
On weak networks in rural areas, the majority of customer loads are single-phase. If
these are not correctly shared out between the phases, voltage unbalance will result.
Although induction machines connected to such networks will act to reduce the
overheating. It is known that in some cases voltage unbalance has been above the
specified levels, and significant wind turbine downtime has occurred. [4]
One way to improve power quality is to use turbines of various kinds in order to
optimize the energy output per invested amount of money. Or, to use converters only
at lower powers where there is an energy gain and use directly connected induction
27
generators at higher wind speeds. Also the converter at this configuration can, at high
The real and reactive power problems due to the wind turbines in wind farm will
affect voltages on the network as it flows through the network impedances. For
weak/rural networks, the connections of wind farms can results in significant impact
STATCOMs, can be used to improve both the steady state and dynamic impact of a
wind farm on the network. To further improve the use of STATCOMs, control
conditions. [77] Another method to minimize voltage variations is the use of reactive
requirements can be met by using higher frequency pulse width modulation, PWM,
switching technique together with a relatively low cost harmonic filter. [76]
Power utilities have also specified limits on the maximum instantaneous step change
in voltage that a customer can cause. Wind turbines can cause voltage step changes
when starting, or when changing between generators. For very weak points on a
network, this issue may be the limiting factor on the number and size of wind
28
2.5.1 Wind Farm Protection
In a wind farm the protection of equipments against fault is necessary because when
a fault occur, the wind farm reliability is maintained and also lower the cost of
more medium voltage power collection circuits. In a wind farm the main protection
of the generator transformer is through a medium voltage fuse that is house in a ring
main unit. In case of a low/high current fault occurrence, the fuse is able to clear the
fault in the low voltage winding as well as in the medium winding. [61]
In [61], an alternative relay is use to replace the fuse currently used to reduce the
wind farm construction cost. This proposed relay have the ability of protecting the
power collection circuit and the medium and low voltage windings of each generator
against faults and thus eliminating the use of medium voltage fuse and the ring main
unit that houses them. However the elimination of low voltage fuses is not necessary
since the low voltage fuse are inexpensive. Several monitoring studies have been
carried out based on practical feasibility of proposed relay in wind farm and
29
2.6 Flickers
Flicker is the technical expression for root mean square, RMS, voltage variation in
the frequency range above 1Hz which occurs in the electric power systems and
causes light bulbs to flicker. The cause of flicker has commonly been attributed to
lower flicker than fixed-speed machines. Flicker can be an important issue for weak
networks. The limits on the flicker produced by an installation vary between utilities.
Some have a fairly simple process, whereas the international standards describes a
complex methodology designed to share out equitably the flicker capacity of the
In paper [78], two models have been developed to use as an analysis tool for
prediction of flicker induced by large wind turbine. A simple model was developed
and used to identify important busbars where flicker levels are critical. The complex
model was used to predict accurately flicker severity. In this model, all types of
existing static loads are accommodated and input to the model to investigate the
enabled the effects of spinning loads and their dynamics on flicker to be predicted.
[78]
30
2.7 Noise
One of the obstacles currently standing in the way of wind farms development is the
fear that noise from the wind turbine operation will adversely affect the living
environment near to wind farm. This fear of possible noise nuisance action against
the wind farm s makes the risk of development too high, and consequently
wind farm noise levels is essential in the development phase of wind farm design.
[49]
Calculating the far field noise levels requires two major steps. First, the sound power
output of the wind turbines must be known across the entire range of operational
wind speeds. Second, the manner in which sound attenuates as it travels from the
31
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Introduction
In the wind energy conversion system studies, there are many elements affecting the
stability of the system. These factors are required to be addressed first before
Take for example; when the stability analysis involves simulation times longer than
about one second, any effects due to machine controllers such as automatic voltage
regulators (AVR) and speed governor must be incorporated. The AVR has a
substantial effect on the transient stability when varying the field voltage to try to
maintain the terminal voltage constant. Also that the stability factor contributed from
the wind turbine in the overall system should not be discarded as the variation of
32
3.1 Induction Machine
The operation of induction machine will be determined from the sign of the
electromagnetic torque and the slip, that is negative torque and slip correspond to
generator operation whereas positive torque and slip correspond to motor operation.
In order to model the induction machine, the d-q equivalent circuit of induction
equations.
The direct-axis is assumed to align with the stator terminal voltage phasor, therefore
all the rotor variables are referred to the stator side. Hence, the current equations that
describe the dynamic behavior of the induction machine is given by the following
ids ( peak ) = (we + K 2 Lm wr )iqs − K1rs ids + K1 Lm wr iqr + K 2 rr idr − K1Vds 3.2
(r + Lm K 2 rr )
iqr ( peak ) = K 2 rs iqs + Ls K 2 wr ids − r iqr + (Ls K1 wr − we )idr 3.3
Lr
(r + Lm K 2 rr )
idr ( peak ) = − Ls K 2 wr iqs + K 2 rs ids − (Ls K1 wr − we )iqr − r iqr + K 2Vds 3.4
Lr
3N 2 Lm
B (iqs idr − ids iqr ) +
N
wr ( peak ) = − wr + Tm 3.5
J 8J 2J
Lr Lm
where K1 = and K 2 =
(Ls Lr − L2m ) (Ls Lr − L2m )
33
The induction machine equations are derived from Park equations after some
simplifications [30]. The most important is that the stator electrical transients are
neglected as much faster compared to the rotor ones. The equations are in per-unit
The differential equations describing the dynamics of the rotor windings are:
dE ' d
dt
=
1
T 'o
[ ]
− E ' d +( X − X ')I q + sωE ' q 3.8
dE ' q
dt
=
1
T 'o
[ ]
− E ' q −( X − X ')I d − sωE ' d 3.9
The output active and reactive power, voltage and current under steady state
{
Pe = Re Vt I * A } 3.11
{
Qe = Im Vt I * A } 3.12
I A = I d2 + I q2 3.14
34
For a wind farm consisting of more than one induction machines, the number of
under the same wind conditions. Or the wind farm can be partitioned into groups of
n-machines which operate identically and each group can than be replaced by
ids
Rs Lls Llr rr
λdswe λdr(we-wr)
idm Lm idr
Vds
d-axis
iqs
Rs Lls Llr rr
λqswe λqr(we-wr)
Iqm Lm Iqr
Vqs
q-axis
35
3.2 Synchronous Machine Model
3.3.
36
Figure 3. 2: Illustration of the positions of d-q axis on a two-pole machine
37
These equations do not take into account the stator transients as much faster
The differential equations corresponding to the rotor winding dynamics in p.u. are:
dE ' 'd
dt
=−
1
T ' 'qo
[
E ' ' d −(X ' q − X ' ' q )I q ] 3.17
dE ' ' q
dt
=−
1
T ' ' do
[
E ' ' q − E ' q +( X ' d − X ' ' d )I d ] 3.18
The equations for synchronous machine current, output power and output voltage are
38
3.3 Synchronous Machine Automatic Controller
include the effects of the machine controllers, at least for the machine most affected
by the disturbance. Also the use of controller representation is becoming a must for
first swing stability with systems being operated at their limits with near critical fault
Two main controllers used for a turbine generator set are the automatic voltage
regulator (AVR) and the speed governor. In the AVR model, there consists of a
machine that can be generating or motoring. In the speed governor there consists of
similar equipment used in the AVR but in addition it requires taking the turbine into
account [30].
39
3.3.1 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
Many different AVR models have been developed for different types of power
systems. The importance of AVR is to provide the synchronous machine the proper
field voltage, hence maintaining the desired voltage and reactive power that the
synchronous machine generates. The main advantage of using AVR is that it can
operation [38].
The IEEE had defined several AVR types and the main and most commonly used
two are the Type1 and Type2 model [30]. The differential equations of the IEEE
Type 1 AVR model (Fig 3.3.1) can be written in a matrix form for convenience:
40
KR
− T 0 0 0 K
R
.
V R Vt1
V. R − K A −
1
−
KA
0 R TR
V A TA TA TA V A K A
. = KF 1
+ V
K F K E VF TA ref
3.21
V F 0 − −
. TF TE TF TF TE Vr 0
V r 1 K 0
0 0 − E
TE TE
Exciter
Regulating amplifier SE
Vmax -
Vref + KA 1
V +
- 1 + STA K E + STE
- A
Vmin
Derivative Feedback
VF SK F
1 + STF
Input Filter
VR KR
|Vt|
1 + STR
41
Figure 3. 4: IEEE Type 1 AVR model [38].
42
Typically the excitation system is a fast response system where the time constant is
small. Its basic function is to provide a direct current to the field winding.
optimal control.
43
Figure 3. 5:Synchronous excitation control system
Induction generator absorbs reactive power for its excitation and therefore causing an
increased in the reactive load in the power system. The capacitor banks are
44
The capacitor banks are connected in steps to the wind/diesel system. In the
~
~ V
I cap = j t 3.22
X cap
When the wind/diesel system experienced disturbances, the generating units are not
always able to respond rapidly enough to keep the system. However, if high-speed
real or reactive power control is available, load shedding or generator dropping may
45
be avoided during disturbances. One of the high-speed reactive power controls
However, a better alternative would be to have the ability to rapidly vary real power
without impacting the system through power circulation. Hence, energy storage units
are important in the role of maintaining system reliability and power quality. Ideally
for energy storage units is to be able to damp oscillations, respond to sudden changes
voltage profiles with rapid reactive power control, and still allowing the generators to
The following sections will present a few of the energy storage units available and
Batteries are one of the most cost-effective energy storage technologies available,
46
electrical characteristic. Batteries are charged up when they undergo an internal
chemical reaction under a potential applied to the terminals. They delivered the
absorbed energy when they reverse the chemical reaction. Some of the advantages of
using battery energy storage system are: high energy density, high energy capability,
an ac system. The used of power electronics converters which can provide bi-
directional current flow and bi-directional voltage polarity with rapid response
improves the battery technology. A simple block diagram, Figure 3.6, summaries the
Control
System
Battery
Discharging AC/DC
System
Power Power
Conditioning system
Charging system
47
efficiency can be very high. SMES can respond very rapidly to dump or absorb
power from the grid, limited only by the switching time of the solid-state
components doing the DC/AC conversion and connecting the coil to the grid [45].
energy in the magnetic field generated by DC current flowing through a coiled wire
(Fig 3.7). If the coil were wound using a conventional wire such as copper, the
magnetic energy would be dissipated as heat due to the wire's resistance to the flow
of current. However, if the wire is superconducting (no resistance), then energy can
Current I
The SMES unit being considered here consists of a superconducting coil, a forced-
turn-off, GTO, thyristors so that the SMES system is able to generate and absorb
active and reactive powers in four-quadrants. An SMES system with the above
48
mention functions can be considered as a controllable current source, with amplitude
Figure 3.8 shows the configuration of SMES units with twelve GTO thryistors based
power converters. If Pd and Qd represent the active and reactive powers that are
required by the SMES unit, then the firing angles of the thryistors are calculated
using:
Note that Edo is the DC voltage of one converter when the firing angles equals to zero
and this voltage will be changing with the voltage at the bus where the SMES unit is
to be connected.
3φ AC
Bus
ISM
+
VSM LSM
−
49
Figure 3. 8: Schematic Configuration Of A Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Unit.
[38]
Using equation 3.24 and 3.25, the firing angles of the converters are calculated at
Flywheels can be used to stored energy for power systems when the flywheel is
50
drive the electric machine to provide a wider operating range. Stored energy depends
on the moment of inertia of the rotor and the square of the rotational velocity of the
flywheel, as shown in 3.26. The moment of inertia, I, depends on the radius, mass,
and height or length of the rotor, as shown in 3.27. Energy is transferred to the
flywheel when the machine operates as a motor, charging the energy storage device.
The flywheel is discharged when the electric machine regenerates through the drive.
1 2
E= Iω 3.26
2
r 2 mh
I= 3.27
2
The energy storage capability of the flywheel can be improved either by increasing
Flywheel energy storage has been considered for several power system applications,
enhancement [41].
CHAPTER FOUR
51
4.0 Computer Simulation
software package is a much useful tool. The computer simulation software package
utilities, manufacturers, research and academic institutes are using this software in
EMTDC is the software that performs the electromagnetic transient analysis on the
user-designed system. Ideas, concepts and models of portions of planned and existing
wind/diesel systems can be evaluated quantitatively using the EMTDC program. The
development of PSCAD, which is a graphical user interface for EMTDC, has greatly
simplified the tasks required to setup, run, and analyze the results of a simulation.
EMTDC does all the necessary calculations and the results can be plotted out in the
PSCAD was designed to support multiple simulator architectures. One of these is the
EMTDC. PSCAD consists of a group of software modules. There are six modules
that make up PSCAD: the File Manager, Draft, T-Line/Cable, RunTime, MultiPlot
and UniPlot.
52
4.1 Introduction
diagram. This wind/diesel system is used in the computer simulation studies and the
system configuration is similar to Western Australia Ten Mile Lagoon wind farm.
From the Albany load profile, Appendix, provided by Western Power Corp, the
system parameters were determined based on this load profile with some
assumptions made.
• Capacitors banks
• Transmission lines
• Resistive load
A battery unit is to be included into the system to improve the stability performance
of the system.
53
Figure 4. 1: Wind/Diesel system block diagram
Due to confidential reasons, the load demand obtained is only given for a particular
summer day on 3rd December 2001. The wind speed data of Ten Mile Lagoon could
not be obtained and hence theoretical wind speed is used for the simulation.
Certain data for the synchronous generators were not given in the specification sheet
from any manufacturer available, hence data for the synchronous generators were
The PSCAD/EMTDC software is used for the simulation of the wind/diesel system.
Before the overall system is simulated, the individual system components are to be
constructed first.
54
4.2 Wind Turbine Model
To represent the wind turbine, the power curve for a current model, 225kW rated
wind turbine manufactured by Vestas– Danish Wind Technology A/S was used. The
manufacturers turbine specification sheet included the wind speed vs. power output
curve. From the power curve, a 23-point tabulation was formulated as shown in table
4.1. This data was truncated at the 18m/sec inflection point in the curve and a
polynomial fit was developed. Polynomial of second, third, fourth and fifth order fits
were than calculated with the results shown in table 4.2. The fifth order was chosen
since the residual variance will give a more accurate polynomial fit for the power
curve. The power curve when fit with the fifth order polynomial along with the
Polynomial power
Wind Speed (m/sec) Wind Speed (mile/hrs) Power output (kW)
output (kW)
3 6.7 0 3.3
4 8.9 6.8 2.3
5 11.2 19.5 14.3
6 13.4 31.2 35.1
7 15.7 57.1 61.2
8 17.9 87.6 89.7
9 20.1 118.7 118.3
10 22.4 149.6 145.3
11 24.6 171.4 169.3
12 26.8 189.3 189.6
13 29.1 206 205.7
14 31.3 216 217.4
15 33.6 224 224.8
16 35.8 227 228.5
17 38 229 228.9
18 40.3 230 226.8
19 42.5 225 223.0
20 44.7 215 218.5
21 47 212 214.0
22 49.2 210 210.4
23 51.5 210 208.5
24 53.7 210 208.8
25 55.9 210 211.7
Table 1: Data of power vs. wind speed curve
55
Coefficient of
Order of fit Residual Variance
determination (R2)
2 232.28 0.9743
3 49.28 0.9949
4 9.56 0.9991
5 8.68 0.9993
Table 2: Result of fitting manufacturer curve data to polynomial curve of several orders
Power Curve
250
200
Power (kW)
150
100
50
0
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Wind Speed (m/sec)
Figure 4. 2: Power curve of manufacturer vs. polynomial fit curve for 225kW turbine
The equation for the polynomial fit curve obtained from Matlab is:
56
Using PSCAD/EMTDC software, equation 4.1 is being modeled as a wind turbine as
shown in Figure 4.3.from the constructed circuit, the output power with respect to
wind speed is as shown in Figure 4.4 with a cut-in wind speed of 3m/sec and cut-out
57
Cut-in (3m/sec) Cut-out (25m/sec)
58
4.3 Induction Generator Model
In Figure 4.5, the SQ100 machine model was used to model as an induction
speed of 1.01 that is higher than the rated speed. Hence with this configuration the
configuration is used for initialization purposes only. At 0.5 second, the operation is
being switched to constant torque and run in steady state. The capacitor banks are
used to supply most of the reactive power needed by the induction generator.
59
From Figure 4.6, the generator active power from the induction generator is 0.35 p.u,
per unit, and absorbs 5.5 p.u of reactive power. The capacitor bank supplies most of
the reactive power and a small portion is being supplied by the source. The generated
phase-to-ground voltage is 7.9 kVRMS and the line-to-line voltage is 13.8 kVRMS as
60
Figure 4. 7: Line and phase voltages generated
61
4.4 Diesel Generator Model
The modeling of diesel generator in the PSCAD environment (Fig 4.8) is totally
The synchronous machine has option to model two damper windings in the Q axis
and hence it can be used as a round rotor machine or a salient pole machine. The
speed of the machine may be controlled directly by inputting a positive value into the
the machine.
For general use, unknown parameters are left with the default values without
62
In Figure 4.9 the power waveforms shows that the generator is initialized first for 0.5
sec with the load flow conditions. In steady state the generator should supply 0.137
MW of active power and 0.182 Mvar of reactive power according to the load flow. In
the initialization, the field voltage reference is 1.01 to provide 1.0 p.u terminal
voltage. After initialization, at 0.5 sec the generator and governor is released and
63
4.5 Power-Conditioning Unit
Power-conditioning unit include devices that changes electrical power from one form
another. These power devices have many applications in wind energy systems and
are being used more often as the technology advances and as costs drop.
voltages from the wind generator to dc voltages and than the dc voltage is converted
back to ac voltages using an inverter. This process of converting the energy from the
wind is necessary due to the fact that wind energy is not constant with time but
varying with respect to time. Hence the power-conditioning unit is used to convert
varying frequency and voltage to constant frequency and fixed voltage of 50Hz
64
4.5.1 Rectifier Model
this model, 6 diodes is used as switching devices and Figure 4.10 shows the circuit
The rectifier output voltage can be calculated using the following equation:
Vrect =
3 2
π
V L − L cos α =
3 2
π
( )
13.8 × 10 3 cos(0°) = 18.6365 kV 4.2
From equation 4.2, the calculated voltage is 18.64 kV and the resulting voltage
waveform from the rectifier is as shown in Figure 4.11 and the rectifier input phase
65
Figure 4. 11: Rectifier output voltage
66
4.5.2 Inverter Model
For the dc to ac conversion, a voltage source inverter with pulse width modulation
switching technique is being used in this simulation studies. The circuit model in
PSCAD/EMTDC is as shown in Figure 4.13. It can be seen from Figure 4.13 that the
circuit model consist of two six-pulse inverter connected through a Y-Y and Y- ∇
each phase of the inverter output voltage. The transformer provides a 30° phase shift
between the two inverter. On the secondary side of the transformer, filters are
required to reduce the current harmonics generated by the voltage source inverters
from entering the system. The input dc voltage from the rectifier is essentially
constant in magnitude, however the rectifier is uncontrolled and hence the inverter is
67
Practically it is to be recognized that the switches does not recognize firing angles in
degrees. Therefore, the switch is triggered periodically on and off by a train of gate
From Figure 4.14, it shows the pulse width modulation switching technique that
generates a train of pulses that is used to fire the IGBT switches. The reference
signal, sin01, is used to compare with a high frequency carrier signal, T1. When the
reference signal is greater than the carrier signal, the comparator will output a 1, and
when the reference signal is less than the carrier signal, the comparator will output a
0. Normally the reference signal frequency is 50Hz and the carrier signal is a few
kHz. By regulating the reference signal, the magnitude and the phase of the output
voltage can be controlled to desired values. In Figure 4.15, it shows the generated
output train pulses with respective reference signal and carrier signal.
68
On/off Gate Reference Triangular
signals signal waveform
69
4.6 Overall System Operation
Having developed the individual components required for the wind/diesel system,
each individual system components are combined to perform the required stand-
4.6.1 Synchronization
Since the induction generator is to be operated in parallel with the diesel generators,
an incoming generator is switched in parallel with an existing supply. The four basic
i. The voltage of the incoming machine must be the same as that of the existing
supply.
ii. The phase sequence of the incoming machine must be the same as that of the
existing supply.
iii. The frequencies of the incoming and existing machine must be the same.
iv. The corresponding voltages must be in phase before switching takes place.
70
The synchronization procedure used in the simulation was done by first letting the
diesel generators to generate power to the load. After 1.0sec, the wind generator is
brought into operation with the diesel generators. The resulting load phase voltages
are as shown in Figure 4.16. It can be seen that at the point of synchronization, there
are minimum voltage spikes and oscillation. And Figure 4.17 shows the load side
active and reactive power due to synchronization. As expected, the load power
increased with additional power being supply by the wind generator. The overall
71
Figure 4. 17: Load power due to synchronization
72
CHAPTER FIVE
After the overall system design is completed, the next phase of this project is to
examine the system operation under different disturbances and the resulting system
The energy storage unit being considered in this report is the battery storage unit. An
equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 5.1 may represent the battery bank, where the
battery bank is being modelled as a voltage source connected in series with a resistor
and capacitor. This model is a simplified version of a more detailed model of lead-
acid batteries.
The types of common disturbances that will occur in a wind/diesel system are:
disconnection of diesel generator, sudden wind gust, and fault in the system network.
73
5.1 Disconnection of Diesel Generator From System
The first type of disturbance is the disconnection of the diesel generator from the
system. This is often the case in wind/diesel system operation when the diesel
generator breakdown or when the diesel generator set is needed for maintenance. In
this simulation case, one of the diesel generator set is being disconnected from the
0.9767MW and voltage drop from 0.14kV to 0.035kV, as shown in figure 5.2. This
drop in the generated power is not preferred for the load demand, hence battery
energy storage stabilize the system. With the used of the battery energy storage unit,
the generated power is able to restore the load demand from 1.51MW to 13.1942MW
74
Figure 5. 3: Generated power with energy storage unit
75
5.2 Fault Occurrence at Wind Generator Bus-bar
The next type of disturbance to be considered is to inject a single line to ground fault
to the wind generator bus-bar. The single line to ground fault is the most common
type of fault that will happen in any power system, hence instead of analysing other
types of fault, e.g. three phase fault, unbalance fault, line to line fault, etc. the single
line to ground is analysed. A single phase to ground fault simply means that the
current leaves the faulted conductor and flows into the earthed conductors and or into
the ground.
In this report, the fault occurs in phase A of the wind generator transmission line at
2sec and the duration of the fault were 0.5sec. The fault causes an over-current to the
wind generator line current. This fault current will cause a decrease in the generated
76
Hence an over-current relay is being used to isolate the fault during the occurrence of
the fault. The circuit diagram for the implemented over-current relay is as shown in
Figure 5.5 and the resulting relay logic in Figure 5.6. The function of the over-
i. The phase A current from the relay at bus-bar is sent to a RMS block.
ii. The output of the RMS block is compared to a preset value, which is twice
block.
iii. If the phase A current value of the comparator block is greater than the preset
value, the output of the comparator block is 1. This will indicate that there is
iv. If not, the output will be 0. This will indicate that there is no fault on the line.
v. The output of the comparator will be sent to an integrator 1/sT block, which
vi. The output of the integrator 1/sT block will be compared to a value of 1 using
activated or otherwise.
vii. If the input value of the comparator block is greater than the preset value, the
output of the comparator block is 1. This means that a fault has been detected
viii. If not, the output will be 0. This means that no fault has been detected and the
77
Figure 5. 5: Over-current circuit representation
78
Using the over-current relay to isolate the fault will help to prevent any damage to
wind generator, however the generated power to the load side is needed to be restore
to its demand value. Hence, after the isolation of the fault, the battery energy storage
bank is being brought on-line to supply the required load demand until the wind
generator is able to supply to the system. This operation is as shown in Figure 5.7,
where after a drop of generated power, the battery energy storage bank restore the
79
5.3 Wind speed variation
The last type of disturbance that will be discussed in this report is the change in wind
speed input to the system. It is a known fact that wind speed is not constant and
sudden wind increase and or decrease is part of the nature of wind energy. Due to
this wind variation, the generated wind power will increase when the wind speed is
high and decrease when the wind speed is low. An increase in the wind generated
power will in turn cause the diesel generated power to decrease. This is to prevent
any sudden over generated power at the load side. In this simulation study, practical
wind speed could not be obtained. Hence, theoretical change in wind speed is used to
The wind speed being consider here is that a constant wind speed of 6m/sec was
initially driving the wind generator, at 2.5sec the wind speed is increased from
6m/sec to 10m/sec as shown in Figure 5.8. Following the increase in wind speed the
generated wind power increased accordingly (Figure 5.9) from 35kW to 140kW.
80
Figure 5. 9: Generated wind power increase
As mention above the increase in wind speed causes the diesel generated power to
81
This problem can be overcome by transfering the excess power from the wind
generator to be used to charging of the battery energy storage unit. Thus the diesel
generated power will not be decrease and this can be seen in Figure 5.11.
Figure 5. 11: Diesel generator power with battery bank during increase in wind speed
82
CHAPTER SIX
Having met the objectives of the project, some issues arise for future work to be done
that the system being modelled can be justified better. However, other
transient studies.
ii. The monitoring of the battery’s usage and state-of-health will gain better
maintaining of the system and its operation. In this project the use of battery
the battery bank need to be developed so that a more practical model can be
iii. A better control technique such as the artificial neuro-network (ANN) can be
iv. Different module connection of the battery energy system, e.g. parallel,
83
v. Explore into other energy storage system such as flywheel storage unit,
vi. The economics advantages of utilizing the battery energy storage system by
84
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 Conclusion
PSCAD/EMTDC software and is being presented in this final year project report.
An introduction on wind energy system was discussed briefly and different types of
In order to model the wind/diesel system effectively, an in-depth study on the system
individual component using mathematical equations was done. The second stage of
storage unit and load. Theses system components were first modelled individually to
obtain justified results before combining them together to form the overall system.
In the designing of the overall system, the system parameters were formulated based
on the load demand in Albany obtained from Western Power Corporation. However,
the wind speed data could not be gathered due to confidential reasons hence
85
Finally, the overall system operation was presented and using this overall system,
different types of disturbances were implemented into the system for stability
analysis. The use of energy storage unit to improve the system stability had shown
positive results that were presented at the end of the report. With the functioning of
the wind/diesel system, it can be used for other types of modelling areas and system
expansion studies.
86
Stability Improvement of a Wind/Diesel System Using and Energy Storage
Unit
D. C. Chung W.W.L Keerthipala
Abstract
The dynamic system analysis of wind/diesel system is carried out on an isolated electric power
system consisting of wind turbine generator and diesel generators. PSCAD/EMTDC software is
used in the modeling of the wind/diesel system. An energy storage unit was introduced into the
system for improvement of stability and dynamic response.
Keywords: Wind Turbine, Induction Generator, Diesel Generator, Energy Storage Unit, Stability,
Disturbances, PSCAD/EMTDC
2.1 PSCAD/EMTDC
For a wind farm consisting of more than one Batteries are one of the most cost-effective energy
induction machines, the number of differential storage technologies available, with energy stored
equations becomes very large. Therefore, to reduce electrochemically. A battery system is made up of a
the number of equations, it is appropriate to assume set of low-voltage/power battery modules
that the number of induction machines operate connected in parallel and series to achieve a desired
under the same wind conditions. Or the wind farm electrical characteristic. Batteries are charged up
can be partitioned into groups of n-machines which when they undergo an internal chemical reaction
operate identically and each group can than be under a potential applied to the terminals. They
replaced by equivalent machine. delivered the absorbed energy when they reverse
the chemical reaction. Some of the advantages of
2.4 Synchronous Machine using battery energy storage system are: high
energy density, high energy capability, round trip
A two-dimensional reference frame efficiency and cycling capability [5].
commonly defined the electrical
characteristic equation describing Battery stored dc charge, so power conversion is
a three-phase synchronous machine. required to interface a battery with an ac system.
This involves in the use of Park’s
transformations [4] to convert The used of power electronics converters which
currents and flux linkages into can provide bi-directional current flow and bi-
two fictitious windings located directional voltage polarity with rapid response
90° apart. A typical synchronous improves the battery technology.
machine consists of three stator
windings mounted on the stator and 2.7 Power Conditioning Unit
one field winding mounted on the
rotor. These axes are fixed with The power-conditioning unit consists of a rectifier
respect to the rotor (d-axis) and
the other lies along the magnetic to convert varying ac voltages from the wind
neutral axis (q-axis), which model generator to dc voltages and than the dc voltage is
the short-circuited paths of the converted back to ac voltages using an inverter.
damper windings. Electrical This process of converting the energy from the
quantities can then be expressed wind is necessary due to the fact that wind energy
in terms of d and q-axis is not constant with time but varying with respect
parameters. The complete to time. Hence the power-conditioning unit is used
synchronous generator nonlinear
differential equations can be to convert varying frequency and voltage to
found in [4]. constant frequency and fixed voltage of 50Hz
terminal output to match load requirements.
2.5 Compensation Capacitor Bank Model
For the ac to dc conversion, an uncontrolled 6-
Induction generator absorbs reactive power for its pulse rectifier model is adopted. In this model, 6
excitation and therefore causing an increased in the diodes is used as switching devices.
reactive load in the power system. The capacitor
banks are connected to the wind/diesel system to The rectifier output voltage can be calculated using
maintain the reactive power to acceptable level and the following equation:
3 2
Vrect = V L − L cos α (4) 4.2
π
From equation 4, the calculated voltage is 18.64 kV
and the resulting voltage waveform from the
rectifier is as shown in Figure 4.
On/off Gate Reference Triangular
signals signal waveform
4.0 CONCLUSION
As mention above the increase in wind speed [1]. A. G Hunter, “Farm Applications For
causes the diesel generated power to decreased and Wind Energy- A System Model”,
this can be seen in Figure 12. Proceedings of the 17th BWEA
Conference 1995, pp 137-142, July 1995,
ISBN 085298961 X.
[2]. G. Notton, C. Cristofari, P. Poggi and M.
Museli, “ Wind Hybrid Electrical Supply
System: Behaviour Simulation and Sizing
Optimisation,” Wind Energy, John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd, pp 43-59, 2001.
[3]. Francois Giraud, Zyiad M. Salameh, “
Steady-State Performance of A Grid-
Connected Rooftop Hybrid Wind-
Photovoltaic Power System With Battery
Storage”, IEEE Transactions On Energy
Conversion 2001, Vol.16, No.1, pp 1-7,
Figure 12: Diesel generator power during increase March 2001.
of wind speed [4]. J. Arrillaga, C. P. Arnold and B. J. Harker,
Computer Modelling Of Electrical Power
This problem can be overcome by transferring the Systems, John Wiley & Sons, 1983, ISBN
excess power from the wind generator to be used to 0-471-10406-X.
charging of the battery energy storage unit. Thus [5]. Mukund R. Patel, Wind and Solar Power
the diesel generated power will not be decrease and System, CRC Pr, 1999, ISBN 0-8493-
this can be seen in Figure 13. 1605-7.
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 References
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86
[11]. A. G Hunter, “Farm Applications For Wind Energy- A System Model”,
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87
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88
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89
[26]. G. Notton, C. Cristofari, P. Poggi and M. Museli, “ Wind Hybrid Electrical
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93
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[50]. Paul F. Ribeiro, Brian K. Johnson, Mariesa L. Crow, Aysen Arsoy and Yilu
[51]. Peng Wang, Roy Billinton, “Reliability Benefit Analysis Of Adding WTG To
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100
Appendix A: Overall System Operation
System
101