Sociolinguistic effects on code-switched ads targeting bilingual

consumers.

Some studies in marketing have begun to explore the influence of

language on information processing and, in particular, on memory
processes (e.g., Schmitt, Pan, and Tavassoli 1994; Schmitt and Zhang
1998; Tavassoli 1999). That research highlights the link between
language and consumers' cognitive structures, illustrating the
importance of linguistic theory for consumer research. Recent research
by Tavassoli and Han (2001) with Chinese-English bilinguals has
identified language-based processing differences that impact memory.
Studies by Luna and Peracchio (2001) have found that processing a
message in a first versus a second language can impact bilinguals'
memory. However, with some exceptions (Koslow, Shamdasani, and
Touchstone 1994), there is a dearth of research on persuasion
processes for bilinguals.
The media have acknowledged the importance of bilinguals and
provide different language options for different linguistic groups
(Holland and Gentry 1999; Lee and Tse 1994). Similarly, advertisers'
efforts to target and persuade bilinguals have become increasingly
intense and creative. Manipulations of the language in which the ad is
written are an important part of advertisers' efforts to appeal to
bilinguals. Thus, some ads include two versions of the ad copy--one in
the majority language and another in the minority language. Other ads
are written completely in the minority language, and yet others are
mostly in one language, but switch some words or expressions to the
other language. This paper explores the impact of language switches,
or code-switching, on persuasion.
In advertising, code-switching generally consists of inserting a foreign
word or expression into an ad slogan, resulting in a mixed-language
message. Code-switching is a linguistic practice employed by bilinguals
around the world (Grosjean 1982). In the United States, code-switching
Spanish and English is part of the ubiquitous phenomenon commonly
called "Spanglish," which is widely used in television programming
(Adelson 1998; Alvarez 1998), advertising (Alvarez 1997), best-selling
novels (Chavez 2002), and on the Internet (Dillon 2000). For example,
English-language ads targeting bilingual U.S. Latinos may contain a
strategically chosen Spanish-language component. Thus, a recent
advertisement for Latina magazine read: "Looking great doesn't have
to cost a fortuna." The advertiser appears to believe that the word
"fortuna" will be more compelling than "fortune" among a Latino
audience.
Our work builds on previous advertising research (e.g., Koslow,
Shamdasani, and Touchstone 1994) and identifies factors that
influence bilinguals' responses to code-switching. We begin our inquiry
with a brief review of a sociolinguistic model, the Markedness Model,
and other research that suggests that, for bilinguals, different
languages possess different sets of associations, or language schemas.
These schemas can be activated and deactivated by switching to and
from particular languages. We then develop a theoretical framework
that highlights sociolinguistic and media context factors that interact
with the effects of code-switching and language schema activation
with respect to persuasion. Two empirical studies investigate this
framework. The studies provide evidence that different types of code-
switching activate different language schemas, and consequently lead
to different levels of persuasion. The studies also identify attitudinal
and contextual factors that influence the persuasiveness of code-
switched ads.

LANGUAGE SCHEMAS

The Markedness Model

Code-switching has been studied at great length in the sociolinguistic
literature because of its frequent use by bilinguals (Benson 2001).
Myers-Scotton's (1991, 1993a, 1999) Markedness Model can be used
as a theoretical backdrop to examine the social meanings of code-
switching and how languages can become associated with certain
meanings. The Markedness Model attempts to explain the social
motivations of code-switching by considering language choice as a way
of communicating desired or perceived group memberships and
interpersonal relationships. One of the premises of the Markedness
Model is that "humans are innately predisposed to exploit code choices
as negotiations of 'position.' That is, speakers use their linguistic
choices as tools to index for others their perceptions of self, and of
rights and obligations holding between self and others" (Myers-Scotton
1993b, p. 478). Hence, an individual's choice of language signals a
specific social identity and/or belonging to a specific community.
Speakers negotiate a rights and obligations balance with their
addressees for a specific speech event, based on norms established by
the community and the sociopsychological features most salient in that
event. Certain codes or languages are associated with certain features,
and speakers choose the language they will use by matching the
language to the salient features of a particular event (Myers-Scotton
1991). For example, English may be associated with the features
education, wealth, and commerce, so in events in which those features
are salient, the expected language choice would be English (Barker et
al. 2001).
With respect to code-switching, the Markedness Model suggests that
individuals will switch languages or insert other-language elements
into their speech when they want to communicate certain meanings or
group memberships. An other-language element becomes marked
because of its contrast with the listener's expectations. A marked
element is recognized by the parties involved in the exchange as
communicating a specific intended meaning. Indeed, code-switching is
generally socially motivated and is rarely a sign of a lack of fluency in
either language (Grosjean 1982). For example, Myers-Scotton (1993b)
reports a case recorded in a rural bar in western Kenya in which
everyone speaks the local dialect, Lwidakho (the minority language).
When a local farmer asks for a gift of money from a local man who is a
salaried worker in the city, the salary-man switches languages and
produces his refusal in three languages--English, Swahili, and
Lwidakho. English and Swahili are used as a distancing device in this
case, as both are interethnic, or majority, languages.
In other cases, switching to the local dialect can be an instrument to
create a sense of proximity, as in the case of a Luyia (western Kenya)
shopkeeper's sister, who switches to Luyia, the minority language, to
request some salt from her brother at his business (Scotton and Ury
1977). The woman uses Luyia instead of Swahili, which is the majority
language of business, because she hopes to diminish the social
distance with her brother so he will offer her a good deal.
To sum up, the Markedness Model can be used as a framework to
study the sociolinguistic motivations for code-switching. Languages
can be associated with specific meanings, and individuals can
communicate those meanings through their language choice. In
addition, the Markedness Model suggests that a variety of factors can
influence the acceptability of code-switching in particular instances
(Myers-Scotton and Jake 2001), including the feasibility of monolingual
and bilingual discourse (e.g., will my interlocutors understand me if I
code switch?), attitude toward code-switching itself (e.g., will they
consider me illiterate if I code switch?), and acceptability of different
types of code-switching (e.g., should I speak mostly in English and
pepper my speech with some expressions in Spanish, or vice versa?).
Advertising and the Markedness Model
Throughout this paper, we adopt Grosjean's (1982) terminology when
referring to the languages that coexist within a given culture. Thus, we
use the term majority language to denote the language spoken by the
group that holds the political, cultural, and economic power within a
country. Minority language is used for the language spoken by the
group that possesses less power and prestige.
Koslow, Shamdasani, and Touchstone (1994) employed a
sociolinguistic perspective to explore the impact of language on
persuasion for U.S. Hispanics. Their study found that language had an
impact on ad evaluations, but it found no differences between single-
language ads in English (the majority language) and multilanguage ads
in which all components were communicated in both English and
Spanish. Single-language Spanish ads, however, resulted in lower ad
evaluations than single-language English ads and multilanguage ads.
The authors concluded that use of the minority language--Spanish--
resulted in negative affect because it activated a language-related
inferiority complex. That conclusion is consistent with the Markedness
Model because it assumes an association of the minority language with
certain contexts and social relations (e.g., discrimination, a sense of
inferiority). When a specific language is used in a message, particularly
if the language is a marked choice, the receiver can see it as a signal
of having been assigned to a particular group that may or may not be
perceived in a favorable light by the receiver.
Markedness and Salience
The linguistic term "markedness" is analogous to perceptual salience.
An object or part of a message is salient when it stands out from its
immediate context, from the perceiver's prior experience or
expectations, or from other foci of attention (Fiske and Taylor 1984).
Thus, if an individual is processing information in one language and the
message switches one word to a different language, that other-
language word will be made salient, or marked in linguistic terms,
because it stands out from its context. Generally, research
investigating salience has focused on images. Similar mechanisms
seem to be at work when processing language, however. Just as
salience leads to greater focused attention on an image (Cave 1999;
Fiske and Taylor 1984; Nothdurft 1993), research has found that
salience of a word or expression also leads to greater attention on that
salient expression (Johnston et al. 1990; Strayer and Johnston 2000).

Activating Language Schemas Through Markedness

A sociolinguistic model such as the Markedness Model helps explain
the notion of language schemas, which are the …