What's a System

A system is an organized collection of parts (or subsystems) that are highly integrated to
accomplish an overall goal. The system has various inputs, which go through certain
processes to produce certain outputs, which together, accomplish the overall desired goal
for the system. So a system is usually made up of many smaller systems, or subsystems.
For example, an organization is made up of many administrative and management
functions, products, services, groups and individuals. If one part of the system is changed,
the nature of the overall system is often changed, as well -- by definition then, the system
is systemic, meaning relating to, or affecting, the entire system. (This is not to be
confused with systematic, which can mean merely that something is methodological.
Thus, methodological thinking -- systematic thinking -- does not necessarily mean
systems thinking.)

Systems range from simple to complex. There are numerous types of systems. For
example, there are biological systems (for example, the heart), mechanical systems (for
example, a thermostat), human/mechanical systems (for example, riding a bicycle),
ecological systems (for example, predator/prey) and social systems (for example, groups,
supply and demand and also friendship). Complex systems, such as social systems, are
comprised of numerous subsystems, as well. These subsystems are arranged in
hierarchies, and integrated to accomplish the overall goal of the overall system. Each
subsystem has its own boundaries of sorts, and includes various inputs, processes, outputs
and outcomes geared to accomplish an overall goal for the subsystem. Complex systems
usually interact with their environments and are, thus, open systems.

A high-functioning system continually exchanges feedback among its various parts to

ensure that they remain closely aligned and focused on achieving the goal of the system.
If any of the parts or activities in the system seems weakened or misaligned, the system
makes necessary adjustments to more effectively achieve its goals.

A pile of sand is not a system. If you remove a sand particle, you have still got a pile of
sand. However, a functioning car is a system. Remove the carburetor and you no longer
have a working car.

System Theory

social units: composition and relation with environment

History and Orientation
Hegel developed in the 19th century a theory to explain historical development as a
dynamic process. Marx and Darwin used this theory in their work. System theory (as
we know it) was used by L. von Bertalanffy, a biologist, as the basis for the field of
study known as ‘general system theory’, a multidisciplinary field (1968). Some
influences from the contingency approach can be found in system theory.
Core Assumptions and Statements
System theory is the transdisciplinary study of the abstract organization of
phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of
existence. It investigates both the principles common to all complex entities, and the
(usually mathematical) models which can be used to describe them. A system can be
said to consist of four things. The first is objects – the parts, elements, or variables
within the system. These may be physical or abstract or both, depending on the
nature of the system. Second, a system consists of attributes – the qualities or
properties of the system and its objects. Third, a system had internal relationships
among its objects. Fourth, systems exist in an environment. A system, then, is a set
of things that affect one another within an environment and form a larger pattern
that is different from any of the parts. The fundamental systems-interactive
paradigm of organizational analysis features the continual stages of input,
throughput (processing), and output, which demonstrate the concept of
openness/closedness. A closed system does not interact with its environment. It
does not take in information and therefore is likely to atrophy, that is to vanish. An
open system receives information, which it uses to interact dynamically with its
environment. Openness increases its likelihood to survive and prosper. Several
system characteristics are: wholeness and interdependence (the whole is more than
the sum of all parts), correlations, perceiving causes, chain of influence, hierarchy,
suprasystems and subsystems, self-regulation and control, goal-oriented,
interchange with the environment, inputs/outputs, the need for
balance/homeostasis, change and adaptability (morphogenesis) and equifinality:
there are various ways to achieve goals. Different types of networks are: line,
commune, hierarchy and dictator networks. Communication in this perspective can
be seen as an integrated process – not as an isolated event.
Conceptual Model

Simple System Model.

Source: Littlejohn (1999)
Elaborated system perspective model.
Source: Infante (1997)
Favourite Methods
Network analysis, ECCO analysis. ECCO, Episodic Communication Channels in
Organization, analysis is a form of a data collection log-sheet. This method is
specially designed to analyze and map communication networks and measure rates
of flow, distortion of messages, and redundancy. The ECCO is used to monitor the
progress of a specific piece of information through the organization.
Scope and Application
Related fields of system theory are information theory and cybernetics. This group of
theories can help us understand a wide variety of physical, biological, social and
behavioral processes, including communication (Infante, 1997).
Example
Take for example family relations.
References
Key publications
Bertalanffy, von, L. (1968). General systems theory. New York: Braziller.
Laarmans, R. (1999). Communicatie zonder Mensen. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Boom.
Luhmann, N. (1984). Soziale Systeme. Grund einer allgemeinen Theorie. Frankfurt
am Main: Suhrkamp.
Midgley, G. (Ed.) (2003). Systems thinking. London: Sage.
Littlejohn, S.W. (2001). Theories of Human Communication. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning.
Infante, D.A., Rancer, A.S. & Womack, D.F. (1997). Building communication theory.
Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press.
See also Communication Processes, Organizational Communication
What is Systems Theory

Systems Theory: the transdisciplinary study of the abstract organization of

phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of
existence. It investigates both the principles common to all complex entities,
and the (usually mathematical) models which can be used to describe them.

Systems theory was proposed in the 1940's by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy ( :
General Systems Theory, 1968), and furthered by Ross Ashby (Introduction to
Cybernetics, 1956). von Bertalanffy was both reacting agaInst reductionism and
attempting to revive the unity of science. He emphasized that real systems are open to,
and interact with, their environments, and that they can acquire qualitatively new
properties through emergence, resulting in continual evolution. Rather than reducing an
entity (e.g. the human body) to the properties of its parts or elements (e.g. organs or
cells), systems theory focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts
which connect them into a whole (cf. holism). This particular organization determines a
system, which is independent of the concrete substance of the elements (e.g. particles,
cells, transistors, people, etc). Thus, the same concepts and principles of organization
underlie the different disciplines (physics, biology, technology, sociology, etc.),
providing a basis for their unification. Systems concepts include: system-environment
boundary, input, output, process, state, hierarchy, goal-directedness, and information.

The developments of systems theory are diverse (Klir, Facets of Systems Science,
1991), including conceptual foundations and philosophy (e.g. the philosophies of Bunge,
Bahm and Laszlo); mathematical modeling and information theory (e.g. the work of
Mesarovic and Klir); and practical applications. Mathematical systems theory arose from
the development of isomorphies between the models of electrical circuits and other
systems. Applications include engineering, computing, ecology, management, and family
psychotherapy. Systems analysis, developed independently of systems theory, applies
systems principles to aid a decisIon-maker with problems of identifying, reconstructing,
optimizing, and controlling a system (usually a socio-technical organization), while
taking into account multiple objectives, constraints and resources. It aims to specify
possible courses of action, together with their risks, costs and benefits. Systems theory is
closely connected to cybernetics, and also to system dynamics, which models changes in
a network of coupled variables (e.g. the "world dynamics" models of Jay Forrester and
the Club of Rome). Related ideas are used in the emerging "sciences of complexity",
studying self-organization and heterogeneous networks of interacting actors, and
associated domains such as far-from-equilibrium thermodynamics, chaotic dynamics,
artificial life, artificial intelligence, neural networks, and computer modeling and
simulation.