TGN-D-02

Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Steel

Rev: 0
Structures and Post-Weld Improvement
Date: 1 March 2006
ABN 69 003 696 526 Techniques
Pages: 8

1. OBJECTIVE
The objective of this note is to introduce the fatigue phenomenon as it applies to welded structures. It
is intended for welding and engineering personnel engaged in the fabrication and repair of structures
subject to fatigue loading and potential fatigue failure. It briefly describes the fatigue-cracking
phenomenon and summarises the concept of “detail category” for welded structural components. In
addition information is provided on a number of post weld fatigue improvement techniques.

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF FATIGUE
Fatigue is defined as cumulative, localised and permanent damage caused by repeated fluctuations
of stress sometimes below the static design stress of the structure. This cyclic loading can lead to
gradual cracking or even catastrophic failure of a structural element. Fatigue accounts for more
service failures than any other failure mechanism in engineered metal structures.

The severity of the repeated fluctuations of stress can be characterised by maximum stress, minimum
stress, stress range and the number of cycles, as shown in Figure 1. To determine a materials
resistance to fatigue failure, samples are prepared and subjected to a fluctuating stress until failure
occurs. Repeated testing at different stress ranges results in a relationship between applied stress
and cycles to failure as represented in Figure 2. Note that Figure 2 introduces the concept of a
fatigue limit or endurance limit implying that below a given stress failure by fatigue will not occur.
However, all materials subjected to cyclic stresses will eventually fail by fatigue, so the line never
actually becomes parallel to the x-axis.

Figure 1. Idealised Fluctuating Load Cycle

The fatigue tolerance of metals can be described by the number of cycles it can tolerate before failure
occurs at a given stress range. As can be expected the smaller the stress range, as shown in Figure
1, the more cycles the material can tolerate. The number of cycles the material can tolerate increases
in a logarithmic fashion as the stress is reduced. Thus a log-log stress-cycle diagram produces a
straight line as indicated in Figure 3. This method of depicting fatigue performance is known as an S-
N curve where S = Stress (range) and N = Number of cycles to failure. To produce the S-N curve
shown in Figure 3 it is necessary to carry out many tests. There will invariably be scatter in the
results, thus it is necessary to establish a relationship that represents a conservative tolerance level.

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 Figure 2. Fatigue Endurance Curve

Figure 3. S-N Curve for a Structural Steel presented on a log-log scale.

Note the scatter of results to create the curve and the inclusion of a low probability line.

The predictable fatigue tolerance curve depicted in Figure 3 is only applicable to identical smooth and
uniform fatigue specimens subjected to idealised fluctuating loads. In the real world, the fluctuating
loads to which structures are subjected vary both in intensity and duration. Also fabricated structures
contain stress concentrations with the result that welded components have a poorer tolerance to
fluctuating loads than their non-welded counterparts. Nevertheless there are ways to mathematically
deal with fluctuating stresses of differing magnitudes and the S-N curve provides a well-established,
and now universal method of displaying fatigue tolerance for welded joints provided a suitable lower
bound failure probability is applied.

3. FATIGUE INITIATION AND PROPAGATION

Fatigue has two parts, initiation and propagation. On a sub-microscopic scale the imperfections in the
metal’s internal structure, known as dislocations, play a major role in the fatigue crack initiation phase.
After a large number of loading cycles dislocations pile up and form structures called persistent slip

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bands. These leave tiny steps in the surface that serve as stress risers where fatigue cracks can
initiate.

Once a fatigue crack has initiated, it then propagates under the action of the applied fluctuating load.
Fatigue crack propagation continues until the component has insufficient cross section to carry the
load.

The controlling event that determines the life of the component can either be the initiation event or the
propagation event. In a welded structure there is essentially no initiation event since there are
generally enough pre-existing flaws in a welded structure that the component is immediately in the
propagation phase.

Stress raisers and the operating environment also greatly influence the fatigue performance of steel
structures. The fatigue curves presented in Figure 4 show the deterioration of fatigue performance
from a mirror polished specimen tested in air to that exhibiting surface roughening due to underwater
salts.

Figure 4. Effect of surface finish and wet environments on fatigue performance. “Normal” fatigue
strength refers to the mirror polished reference sample. No samples here contain welds.

4. DETERMINING FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF WELDED STRUCTURES

Welded components are less tolerant to fluctuating loads than their non-welded counter-parts for
three reasons:
a) Welds contain internal flaws which act as the initiation site for crack propagation;
b) Welds create external stress raisers which act as the initiation site for crack propagation;
c) The process of welding introduces residual stresses in the region of the weld exacerbating the
applied fluctuating stress.

The fatigue tolerance of welded structures can be classified into “detail categories” according to the
type of weld and its orientation with respect to the applied fluctuating loads. The detail categories for
steel structures are found in AS 4100 and AS 5100 and are used by structural steel designers when
fluctuating loads occur during service. The detail category for any given weld configuration is a
number between 36 and 180 that represents the stress range in MPa that can be tolerated for two
million (2x106) fluctuating load cycles.

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5. CLASSIFYING THE FATIGUE TOLERANCE OF WELDED STRUCTURES USING THE
DETAIL CATEGORY
The following detail categories are extracted from the Australian Design Standards for Steel, AS4100
and AS 5100. The significant aspects of the detail categories are:
a) Welds lying parallel or transverse to the applied cyclic loads;
b) Welds with or without external reinforcement
c) Welds with or without external discontinuities such as stop-starts and undercut;
d) Fillet welds, partial penetration welds or full penetration butt welds;
e) Structural members with or without welded attachments.

5.1 Detail Category 180

Plain steel component with all surfaces machined and polished. All changes in cross section are
smooth and gradual. A category 180 structural element is analogous to the uniform polished
specimens used to create the S-N curves depicted in Figure 3. Such an element can tolerate a stress
range of 180MPa for 2x106 and serves as a standard reference by which all weld details can be
classified.

5.2 Detail Category 140

As-rolled steel component or hollow section with no flame cut edges joined with a full penetration butt
weld lying parallel to the direction of the fluctuating stress with all reinforcement machined off. The
quality of the weld would meet the requirements of AS 1554.5.

5.3 Detail Category 125

Steel component made with butt or fillet welds lying parallel to the fluctuating stresses made by
automatic welding processes without stop/starts.

5.4 Detail Category 112

A) Steel component made with butt or fillet welds lying parallel to the fluctuating stresses made by
manual or semi-automatic welding processes containing stop/starts.

B) As-rolled steel component with no flame cut edges joined with a full penetration butt weld lying
transverse to the direction of the fluctuating stress with the weld reinforcement ground flush with
the parent metal. The quality of the weld meets the requirements of AS 1554.5.

5.5 Detail Category 80

As-rolled steel component joined with a full penetration butt weld lying transverse to the direction of
the fluctuating stress with the weld reinforcement in the as-welded condition. The quality of the weld
meets the requirements of AS 1554.5 and it may have been made by manual or semi-automatic
welding processes in any welding position.

5.6 Detail Category 71

A) As-rolled steel component joined with a full penetration butt weld lying transverse to the direction
of the fluctuating stress made using a backing strip.
B) A steel component carrying fillet welded non-loaded attachment(s)
C) A full penetration (fillet reinforced butt weld) cruciform joint with the welds transverse to the
applied stress

5.7 Detail Category 45

Steel components under the action of fluctuating loads with attachments welded at the edge or close
to the edge of the component.

5.8 Detail Category 36

Components made with fillet welds or partial penetration butt welds lying transverse to the fluctuating
loads

5.9 Designing Welded Structures Using Detail Categories

Figure 5 shows a compendium of S-N curves from AS 5100.6-2004 for all the detail categories
including the base-line Category 180 for a non-welded component. With knowledge of the Detail

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Category the designer of a welded structure can either design for a fixed life expressed by a number
of cycles or an indefinite life based on the structure being able to tolerate up to one hundred million
(108) cycles. If the design called for a fixed life of 2 million cycles the Detail Category “fr n” could be
used. For a fixed life of 5 million cycles the fatigue limit “f3” is appropriate. If an indefinite life of up to
100 million cycles is required then the cut off fatigue limit “f5” is the stress range to be applied. Table
1 summarises how the tolerable stress range in MPa changes depending on the required life of the
component. The percentages given in brackets refer to the relative fatigue performance of the welded
connection compared to the base line Detail Category 180 for a fixed 2 million-cycle life.

Figure 5. AS5100.6-2004 S-N curve for steel under normal stress

Table 1 can be used as a quick guide to determine the fatigue performance of a given weld
configuration. For example a fillet weld transverse to the fluctuating load is a detail category 36. This
means it can tolerate a fluctuating stress of 36 MPa (based on throat thickness) for a 2 million cycle
life. This is 20% of the fatigue strength provided by a non-welded category 180 component.

If an indefinite life of up to 100 million cycles is required for the same fillet weld then the allowable
fluctuating stress must be reduced to 15 MPa. This is only 8% of the fatigue strength of the non-
welded component with a life of 2 million cycles.

Page 5 of 8
 Table 1. Relationship Between Tolerable Stress Range and Design Life for Weld Detail Categories

Detail Category and Tolerable stress range Tolerable stress

stress range (MPa) for (MPa) for up to 5 x 106 range (MPa) for up to
up to 2x106 Cycles Cycles 108 Cycles
180 (100%) 133 (74%) 73 (41%)
160 (89%) 118 (65%) 65 (36%)
140 (78%) 103 (57%) 57 (32%)
125 (69%) 92 (51%) 51 (28%)
112 (62%) 83 (46%) 45 (25%)
100 (55%) 74 (41%) 40 (22%)
90 (50%) 66 (37%) 36 (20%)
80 (44%) 59 (33%) 32 (18%)
71 (39%) 52 (29%) 29 (16%)
63 (35%) 46 (26%) 25 (14%)
56 (31%) 41 (23%) 23 (13%)
50 (28%) 37 (21%) 20 (11%)
45 (25%) 33 (18%) 18 (10%)
40 (22%) 29 (16%) 16 (9%)
36 (20%) 27 (15%) 15 (8%)

6. ATTACHMENTS
Special attention must be drawn to attachments welded onto structural members subject to cyclic
loads. As soon as an attachment is welded onto a structural member the fatigue performance drops
significantly to a design category of 45. Catastrophic structural failures have occurred due to the
addition of seemingly innocuous attachments that have been welded to structural members.

The “Alexander Kielland” was a Norwegian oil platform located in the North Sea about 320 km east of
Dundee in Scotland. On March 27, 1980, while most of the crew were in the platform's cinema, a
support-bracing collapsed and the platform capsized. Of the 212 people aboard, 123 were killed,
making it, as of 2005, the worst disaster in Norwegian offshore history. The investigative report
concluded that the platform collapsed owing to a fatigue crack in one of its six bracings, which
connected the collapsed leg to the rest of the platform. The root cause of the fatigue failure was an
attachment welded to this bracing.

ATTACHMENTS SHALL NOT BE WELDED ONTO STRUCTURAL MEMBERS WITHOUT

EXPRESS INSTRUCTIONS FROM THE DESIGN ENGINEER. Attachments shall be welded in
such a manner that the start and stop of the weld does not provide crack initiation sites.

7. IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF WELDED JOINTS

7.1 Weld Configuration
Figure 5 and Table 1 demonstrate that the weld configuration has a significant impact on the resultant
fatigue performance. Table 2 provides some readily available methods to improve or optimise the
fatigue performance of a welded joint by changing the joint configuration. An improved weld
configuration should always be the first choice when striving to optimise fatigue performance.

Page 6 of 8
Table 2. Fatigue Improvement Methods for Welded Connections

Detail Detail
Original Weld Improved Weld
Category Category
Partial Penetration Butt Weld 36 Complete Penetration Butt Weld 71
on a backing strip
Fillet Weld transverse to loading 36 Fillet reinforced full penetration 71
direction Butt Weld transverse to loading
direction
Fillet reinforced full penetration Butt 71 All undercut, discontinuity’s and 80
Weld transverse to loading convexity removed by grinding
direction
Complete Penetration Butt Weld on 71 Single Vee Butt weld (transverse 80
a backing strip to loading direction)
Single Vee Butt weld (transverse to 80 Double Vee Butt weld 90
loading direction)
Single Vee or Double Vee Butt 80 or 90 Butt weld with all reinforcement 112
Weld ground off flush with member
Intermittent Fillet welds parallel 80 Continuous Fillet Welds parallel 90
loading direction made from one to loading direction without stop
side starts made from one side
Double sided fillet or butt welds 112 Double sided fillet or butt welds 125
parallel to loading direction made with automatic methods
with no stop-starts
Double sided fillet or butt welds 112 Stop-starts and stress raisers 125
parallel to loading direction removed by grinding

7.2 Post Weld Fatigue Improvement Techniques

For welded structures it is possible to apply post weld treatments to improve the fatigue performance.
Remedial work can be applied to welds in the as-welded condition to increase the cyclic stress range
that the weld detail can tolerate for the given design life. The remedial work consists of either
removing crack initiators or reducing residual tensile stresses.

There are a number of post weld improvement methods available. These are classified in Figure 6.

Post weld improvement methods

Weld geometry improvement methods Residual stress methods

Machining Remelting Special welding Mechanical Thermal

Methods methods techniques methods methods

Milling Burr Disc TIG Plasma Weld Special Shot Hammer Ultrasonic Initial Local Thermal Spot Gunnerts
and Grinding Grinding dressing dressing Profile Electro- peening peening Impact over- compress- stress heating method
Lathe control des treatment loading ion relief
Turning

Figure 6. Post Weld Fatigue Performance Improvement Methods

8. FATIGUE IMPROVEMENT METHODS AVAILABLE FOR FABRICATION SHOPS

8.1 Post Weld Improvement Techniques
Of the fifteen post weld improvement methods mentioned in Figure 6 there are some that can be
readily applied with the minimum of cost using an angle grinder, burr grinder and rotary flap wheel.
Ultrasonic impact testing (UIT) is also emerging as a useful mechanical post weld improvement
method. Both these methods are covered in separate guidance notes.

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 8.2 Welding
The welding consumables and welding process shall be selected to produce welds that result in weld
beads that blend into the parent metal without excessive reinforcement and without a tendency to
produce undercut. Automatic welding methods are preferable to manual or semi-automatic methods.
Unduly course weld ripples and stop-starts are detrimental to fatigue performance and should be
removed by grinding.

Where possible, run on and run off tabs shall be used for butt welds. The weld shall extend into the
run on run off tabs by a distance at least equal to that of the thickness of the parent material and joint
shall be completely filled. The run on and run off tabs shall be removed and the ends of the weld
ground flush with the grinding marks parallel to the direction of loading.

8.3 Grinding
Welds, or any sections of weld, which are considered to have excessive reinforcement or
unacceptable profile shall be ground in order to improve fatigue performance. Weld toes may also be
ground, with the burr grinder preferred for these situations.

Rough grinding may be carried out using a grinding stone or angle grinder but care shall be taken to
ensure that deep score marks are avoided. Final grinding shall be carried out using barrel grinders or
flap wheels and should be selected to ensure that the diameters are appropriate for the size of weld
in question. Local burr grinding of the weld toes may be carried out but thinning of the parent material
in any instance must not exceed 5% of the wall thickness.

Any grinding marks visible after completion of the work shall be parallel to the loading direction.

8.4 Burr Grinding

Rotary burr grinding generally provides the minimum amount of dressing necessary to obtain an
acceptable weld. Burr grinders are generally tungsten carbide tools which come in a variety of
shapes and sizes. The type of burr selected should be appropriate for the particular application. Burr
grinding marks shall be parallel with the main direction of loading i.e. transverse to the weld.

8.5 Non-Destructive Examination

AS 1554.5 provides requirements for non-destructive examination which should be carried out after
all grinding and de-burring workmanship has been completed. Equally important is performing 100%
visual inspection to ensure that no undercutting or gouge marks are evident after the grinding
operations.

8.6 Training
Examples of various types of welds are required to show acceptable surface finish. Personnel should
be trained and samples used as benchmarks of acceptable workmanship. The samples should
represent the types of welds being produced.

9. REFERENCES
TWI - Fatigue of Welded Structures Course
The fatigue strength of welded joints improved by ultrasonic impact treatment
AS 4100 Design of Steel Structures
AS 5100.6-2004 Bridge Design Part 6: Steel and Composite Construction
AS 1554.5 “Structural Steel Welding Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of
fatigue loading”
WTIA Guidance Note - Post Weld Fatigue Improvement Techniques – Grinding
WTIA Guidance Note - Post Weld Fatigue Improvement Techniques – Ultrasonic Impact Treatment

DISCLAIMER: While every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the accuracy of the material contained herein, the authors, editors and publishers of this publication shall not
be held to be liable or responsible in any way whatsoever and expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility for any injury or loss of life, any loss or damage costs or expenses, howsoever incurred by
any person whether the reader of this work or otherwise including but without in any way limiting any loss or damage costs or expenses incurred as a result of or in connection with the reliance whether
whole or partial by any person as aforesaid upon any part of the contents of this publication. Should expert assistance be required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.

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Ph: +61 (0) 2 9748 4443 Fx: +61 (0) 2 9748 2858
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Page 8 of 8
 NDNP Document No: 1
TECHNOLOGY 9.4.6 - QR - 001
DIFFUSION Revision No: Rev 0
ABN 69 003 696 526
ACTIVITY # 27 Page 1 of 2
NATIONAL DIFFUSION NETWORKS PROJECT
TECHNOLOGY QUESTIONNAIRE Date: 6 Jan 2006
Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Steel Structures and
Post-Weld Improvement Techniques

As part of the WTIA National Diffusion Networks Project the multiple Industry Sectors have identified the need to improve
the fatigue performance of welded components. The WTIA has prepared a technical guidance note “Introduction to
Fatigue Improvement in Welded Steel Structures” that explains the fatigue phenomenon and provides the information
necessary to design and improve the performance of welded steel components. As a valued technology expert in this
area we would like you to be part of the Technology Expert Group to review this document. Please complete this
questionnaire so that we can gauge the success of meeting this need.

Objective 1: Identify the need for fatigue improvement in welded steel components
Component failure as a result of fatigue is common in industry particularly for components that have been weld repaired.
This document introduces the fatigue phenomenon and identifies weld designs and post-weld improvement methods that
can be applied to optimize fatigue performance. How well does the document achieve these aims?
poor average good very good

Comments:

Objective 2: Identify appropriate technology receptors

This document was written for Designers, Draughtsmen, Welders, Welding Coordinators and Maintenance Managers
involved in fabrication and repairs. Are these people the appropriate individuals we should be targeting?
yes no

What other types of companies and/or personnel do you suggest we target?

Objective 3: Identify current best practice for designing and improving fatigue performance
The document was written to reflect current best practice for the fabrication, repair and maintenance of welded steel
components. Do you envisage opportunities for the use of this practice in industry?
yes no

If yes, what and where, if no why not?

Objective 4: Is the information provided clear, concise and accurate?

yes no

If not, why?
Objective 5: Broad dissemination of technology to the Defence Industry
Please indicate how best to disseminate this technical guidance note to the appropriate Industry Recipients

Free Website Download Poster Pocket Guide Pamphlet

If poster, what size? A1 A2 A3 Laminated What selling price? $

Any other format for the information?

G:\USERS\guidance-notes\Questionnaires\Fatigue Improvement Questionnaire.doc

 NDNP Document No: 2
TECHNOLOGY 9.4.6 - QR - 001
DIFFUSION Revision No: Rev 0
ABN 69 003 696 526
ACTIVITY # 27 Page 2 of 2
NATIONAL DIFFUSION NETWORKS PROJECT
TECHNOLOGY QUESTIONNAIRE Date: 6 Jan 2006
Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Steel Structures and
Post-Weld Improvement Techniques

Objective 6: Continuous Improvement

Please Identify areas where the document can be improved or return the document with your recommended
additions/amendments. Alternatively, please use the area below to provide any additional comments.

Respondents Name: Company: Phone:

Fax: Email: Date:

Please Fax (02 9748 2858) or E-mail (j.baker@wtia.com.au) your response.

Your prompt response is appreciated.

The WTIA has joined forces with industry and government to create a 3.5 million dollar Technology Support Centres Network. This network will assist industry to identify and exploit world’s best
technology and manufacturing methods to establish a vibrant Australian industry beyond 2006. Together we will be implementing a step by step process which will lead to ongoing viability and greater
profitability for all concerned:
(1) Determine your technological and manufacturing needs;
(2) Identify world’s best practice;
(3) Draw upon the network to implement world’s best practice at your site

G:\USERS\guidance-notes\Questionnaires\Fatigue Improvement Questionnaire.doc