History of Vietnam

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History of Vietnam

Hồng Bàng Dynasty prior to 257 BC

Thục Dynasty 257–207 BC
First Chinese domination 207 BC–39 AD
• Triệu Dynasty 207–111 BC
Trưng Sisters 40–43
Second Chinese domination 43–544
• Lady Triệu's Rebellion 248
Early Lý Dynasty 544–602
• Triệu Việt Vương
Third Chinese domination 602–905
• Mai Hắc Đế 722
• Phùng Hưng 791–798
Autonomy 905–938
• Khúc Family 906–930
• Dương Đình Nghệ 931–937
• Kiều Công Tiễn 937–938
Ngô Dynasty 939–967
• The 12 Lords Rebellion 966–968
Đinh Dynasty 968–980
Early Lê Dynasty 980–1009
Lý Dynasty 1009–1225
Trần Dynasty 1225–1400
Hồ Dynasty 1400–1407
Fourth Chinese domination 1407–1427
• Later Trần Dynasty 1407–1413
 • Lam Sơn Rebellion 1418–1427
Later Lê Dynasty 1428–1788
• Early Lê 1428–1527
• Restored Lê 1533–1788
• Mạc Dynasty 1527–1592
• Southern and
1533–1592
Northern Dynasties
• Trịnh-Nguyễn War 1627–1673
Tây Sơn Dynasty 1778–1802
Nguyễn Dynasty 1802–1945
• Western imperialism 1887–1945
• Empire of Vietnam 1945
Indochina Wars 1945–1975
Partition of Vietnam 1954
• Democratic Republic
1945–1976
of Vietnam
• State of Vietnam 1949–1955
• Republic of Vietnam 1955–1975
• Provisional Revolutionary
1975–1976
Government
Socialist Republic of Vietnam from 1976
Related topics
Champa Dynasties 192–1832
List of Vietnamese monarchs
Economic history of Vietnam
Prehistoric cultures of Vietnam
v•d•e

The history of Vietnam begins around 2,700 years ago. Successive dynasties based in
China ruled Vietnam directly for most of the period from 207 BC until 938 when
Vietnam regained its independence.[1] Vietnam remained a tributary state to its larger
neighbor China for much of its history but repelled invasions by the Chinese as well as
three invasions by the Mongols between 1255 and 1285.[2] Emperor Trần Nhân Tông later
diplomatically submitted Vietnam to a tributary of the Yuan to avoid further conflicts.
The independent period temporarily ended in the middle to late 19th century, when the
country was colonized by France (see French Indochina). During World War II, Imperial
Japan expelled the French to occupy Vietnam, though they retained French administrators
during their occupation. After the war, France attempted to re-establish its colonial rule
but ultimately failed in the First Indochina War. The Geneva Accords partitioned the
country in two with a promise of democratic election to reunite the country.

However, rather than peaceful reunification, partition led to the Vietnam War. During
this time, the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union supported the North while
the United States supported the South. After millions of Vietnamese deaths, the war
ended with the fall of Saigon to the North in April 1975. The reunified Vietnam suffered
further internal repression and was isolated internationally due to the continuing Cold
War and the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. In 1986, the Communist Party of
Vietnam changed its economic policy and began reforms of the private sector similar to
those in China. Since the mid-1980s, Vietnam has enjoyed substantial economic growth
and some reduction in political repression, though reports of corruption have also risen.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Early kingdoms
• 2 Period of Chinese domination (111 BC – 938 AD)
• 3 Early independence (938 AD – 1009 AD)
• 4 Independent period of Đại Việt (1010 AD – 1527 AD)
o 4.1 Mongol invasions
o 4.2 Champa
o 4.3 Ming occupation and the rise of the Lê Dynasty
• 5 Divided period (1528–1802)
• 6 19th century and French colonization
o 6.1 French invasion
o 6.2 20th century
• 7 First Indochina War (1945-1954)
• 8 Vietnam War (1954-1975)
• 9 Socialism after 1975
• 10 Changing names
• 11 See also
• 12 References
• 13 Further reading

• 14 External links

[edit] Early kingdoms

Evidence of the earliest established society other than the prehistoric Iron Age Đông Sơn
culture in Northern Vietnam was found in Cổ Loa, an ancient city situated near present-
day Hà Nội.

According to myth, the first Vietnamese people were descended from the Dragon Lord
Lạc Long Quân and the Immortal Fairy Âu Cơ. Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ had 100 sons
before deciding to part ways. 50 of the children went with their mother to the mountains,
and the other 50 went with their father to the sea. The eldest son became the first in a line
of early Vietnamese kings, collectively known as the Hùng kings (Hùng Vương or the
Hồng Bàng Dynasty). The Hùng kings called their country, located on the Red River
delta in present-day northern Vietnam, Văn Lang. The people of Văn Lang were known
as the Lạc Việt.

Map of Văn Lang, 500 BC.

Map of 'red soil' circular earthworks in Cambodia and Vietnam.

Văn Lang is thought to have been a matriarchal society, similar to many other matriarchal
societies common in Southeast Asia and in the Pacific islands at the time. Various
archaeological sites in northern Vietnam, such as Đông Sơn have yielded metal weapons
and tools from this age. Most famous of these artifacts are large bronze drums, probably
made for ceremonial purposes, with sophisticated engravings on the surface, depicting
life scenes with warriors, boats, houses, birds and animals in concentric circles around a
radiating sun at the center.

Many legends from this period offer a glimpse into the life of the people. The Legend of
the Rice Cakes is about a prince who won a culinary contest; he then wins the throne
because his creations, the rice cakes, reflect his deep understanding of the land's vital
economy: rice farming. The Legend of Giong about a youth going to war to save the
country, wearing iron armor, riding an armored horse, and wielding an iron staff, showed
that metalworking was sophisticated. The Legend of the Magic Crossbow, about a
crossbow that can deliver thousands of arrows, showed extensive use of archery in
warfare.
Recent research has unlocked the discovery of artificial circular earthworks in the areas
of present day southern Vietnam and overlapping to the borders of Cambodia. These
archaeological remains are estimated to be economic, social and cultural entities from the
1st millennium BC[3]

By the 3rd century BC, another Viet group, the Âu Việt, emigrated from present-day
southern China to the Red River delta and mixed with the indigenous Văn Lang
population. In 258 BC, a new kingdom, Âu Lạc, emerged as the union of the Âu Việt and
the Lạc Việt, with Thục Phán proclaiming himself "King An Dương Vương". At his
capital Cổ Loa, he built many concentric walls around the city for defensive purposes.
These walls, together with skilled Âu Lạc archers, kept the capital safe from invaders for
a while. However, it also gave rise to the first recorded case of espionage in Vietnamese
history, resulting in the downfall of King An Dương Vương.

In 207 BC, an ambitious Chinese warlord named Triệu Đà (Chinese: Zhao Tuo) defeated
King An Dương Vương by having his son Trọng Thủy (Chinese: Zhong Shi) act as a spy
after marrying An Dương Vương's daughter. Triệu Đà annexed Âu Lạc into his domain
located in present-day Guangdong, southern China, then proclaimed himself king of a
new independent kingdom, Nam Việt (Chinese: 南越, Nan Yue). Trọng Thủy, the
supposed crown prince, drowned himself in Cổ Loa out of remorse for the death of his
wife in the war.

Some Vietnamese consider Triệu's rule a period of Chinese domination, since Triệu Đà
was a former Qin general. Others consider it an era of Việt independence as the Triệu
family in Nam Việt were assimilated to local culture. They ruled independently of what
then constituted China's (Han Dynasty). At one point, Triệu Đà even declared himself
Emperor, equal to the Chinese Han Emperor in the north.

[edit] Period of Chinese domination (111 BC – 938 AD)

In 111 BC, Chinese troops invaded Nam Việt and established new territories, dividing
Vietnam into Giao Chỉ (Chinese: 交趾 pinyin: Jiaozhi, now the Red River delta); Cửu
Chân from modern-day Thanh Hoá to Hà Tĩnh; and Nhật Nam, from modern-day Quảng
Bình to Huế. While the Chinese were governors and top officials, the original
Vietnamese nobles (Lạc Hầu, Lạc Tướng) still managed some highlands.

In 40 AD, a successful revolt against harsh rule by Han Governor Tô Định (蘇定 pinyin:
Sū Dìng), led by the noblewoman Trưng Trắc and her sister Trưng Nhị, recaptured 65
states (include modern Guangxi), and Trưng Trắc became the Queen (Trưng Nữ Vương).
In 42 AD, Emperor Guangwu of Han sent his famous general Mã Viện (Chinese: Ma
Yuan) to quell the revolt. After a torturous campaign, Ma Yuan defeated the Trưng
Queen, who committed suicide. To this day, the Trưng Sisters are revered in Vietnam as
the national symbol of Vietnamese women. Learning a lesson from the Trưng revolt, the
Han and other successful Chinese dynasties took measures to eliminate the power of the
Vietnamese nobles. The Vietnamese elites would be coerced to assimilate into Chinese
culture and politics. However, in 225 AD, another woman, Triệu Thị Trinh, popularly
known as Lady Triệu (Bà Triệu), led another revolt which lasted until 248 AD.

During the Tang dynasty, Vietnam was called Annam (Giao Châu), until the early 10th
century AD. Giao Chỉ (with its capital around modern Bắc Ninh province) became a
flourishing trading outpost receiving goods from the southern seas. The "History of Later
Han" (Hậu Hán Thư, Hou Hanshu) recorded that in 166 AD the first envoy from the
Roman Empire to China arrived by this route, and merchants were soon to follow. The
3rd-century "Tales of Wei" (Ngụy Lục, Weilue) mentioned a "water route" (the Red
River) from Jiaozhi into what is now southern Yunnan. From there, goods were taken
overland to the rest of China via the regions of modern Kunming and Chengdu.

At the same time, in present-day central Vietnam, there was a successful revolt of Cham
nations. Chinese dynasties called it Lin-Yi (Lin village). It later became a powerful
kingdom, Champa, stretching from Quảng Bình to Phan Thiết (Bình Thuận).

In the period between the beginning of the Chinese Age of Fragmentation to the end of
the Tang Dynasty, several revolts against Chinese rule took place, such as those of Lý
Bôn and his general and heir Triệu Quang Phục; and those of Mai Thúc Loan and Phùng
Hưng. All of them ultimately failed, yet most notable were Lý Bôn and Triệu Quang
Phục, whose Anterior Lý Dynasty ruled for almost half a century (544 AD to 602 AD)
before the Chinese Sui Dynasty reconquered their kingdom Vạn Xuân.

[edit] Early independence (938 AD – 1009 AD)

Early in the 10th century, as China became politically fragmented, successive lords from
the Khúc family, followed by Dương Đình Nghệ, ruled Giao Châu autonomously under
the Tang title of Tiết Độ Sứ, Virtuous Lord, but stopping short of proclaiming themselves
kings.

In 938, Southern Han sent troops to conquer autonomous Giao Châu. Ngô Quyền, Dương
Đình Nghệ's son-in-law, defeated the Southern Han fleet at the Battle of Bạch Đằng
River (938). He then proclaimed himself King Ngô and effectively began the age of
independence for Vietnam.

Ngô Quyền's untimely death after a short reign resulted in a power struggle for the
throne, the country's first major civil war, The upheavals of Twelve warlords (Loạn Thập
Nhị Sứ Quân). The war lasted from 945 AD to 967 AD when the clan led by Đinh Bộ
Lĩnh defeated the other warlords, unifying the country. Dinh founded the Đinh Dynasty
and proclaimed himself First Emperor (Tiên Hoàng) of Đại Cồ Việt (Hán tự: 大瞿越;
literally "Great Viet Land"), with its capital in Hoa Lư (modern day Ninh Bình).
However, the Chinese Song Dynasty only officially recognized him as Prince of Jiaozhi
(Giao Chỉ Quận Vương). Emperor Đinh introduced strict penal codes to prevent chaos
from happening again. He tried to form alliances by granting the title of Queen to five
women from the five most influential families.
In 979 AD, Emperor Đinh Bộ Lĩnh and his crown prince Đinh Liễn were assassinated,
leaving his lone surviving son, the 6-year-old Đinh Toàn, to assume the throne. Taking
advantage of the situation, the Chinese Song Dynasty invaded Đại Cồ Việt. Facing such a
grave threat to national independence, the court's Commander of the Ten Armies (Thập
Đạo Tướng Quân) Lê Hoàn took the throne, founding the Former Lê Dynasty. A capable
military tactician, Lê Hoan realized the risks of engaging the mighty Chinese troops head
on; thus he tricked the invading army into Chi Lăng Pass, then ambushed and killed their
commander, quickly ending the threat to his young nation in 981 AD. The Song Dynasty
withdrew their troops yet would not recognize Lê Hoàn as Prince of Jiaozhi until 12 years
later; nevertheless, he is referred to in his realm as Đại Hành Emperor (Đại Hành Hoàng
Đế). Emperor Lê Hoàn was also the first Vietnamese monarch who began the southward
expansion process against the kingdom of Champa.

Emperor Lê Hoàn's death in 1005 AD resulted in infighting for the throne amongst his
sons. The eventual winner, Lê Long Đĩnh, became the most notorious tyrant in
Vietnamese history. He devised sadistic punishments of prisoners for his own
entertainment and indulged in deviant sexual activities. Toward the end of his short life –
he died at 24 – Lê Long Đĩnh became so ill that he had to lie down when meeting with
his officials in court.

[edit] Independent period of Đại Việt (1010 AD – 1527

AD)
Further information: History of the Song Dynasty#Relations with Lý of Vietnam and
border conflict

Southeast Asia circa 1010 AD. Đại Việt lands in yellow, Champa in green and Khmer
Empire in purple.
When the king Lê Long Đĩnh died in 1009 AD, a Palace Guard Commander named Lý
Công Uẩn was nominated by the court to take over the throne, and founded the Lý
dynasty. This event is regarded as the beginning of a golden era in Vietnamese history,
with great following dynasties. The way Lý Công Uẩn ascended to the throne was rather
uncommon in Vietnamese history. As a high-ranking military commander residing in the
capital, he had all opportunities to seize power during the tumultuous years after Emperor
Lê Hoàn's death, yet preferring not to do so out of his sense of duty. He was in a way
being "elected" by the court after some debate before a consensus was reached.

Lý Công Uẩn, posthumously referred as Lý Thái Tổ, changed the country's name to Đại
Việt (Hán tự: 大越; literally "Great Viet"). The Lý Dynasty is credited for laying down a
concrete foundation, with strategic vision, for the nation of Vietnam. Leaving Hoa Lư, a
natural fortification surrounded by mountains and rivers, Lý Công Uẩn moved his court
to the new capital in present-day Hanoi and called it Thăng Long (Ascending Dragon).
Lý Công Uẩn thus departed from the militarily defensive mentality of his predecessors
and envisioned a strong economy as the key to national survival. Successive Lý kings
continued to accomplish far-reaching feats: building a dike system to protect the rice
producing area; founding Quốc Tử Giám, the first noble university; holding regular
examinations to select capable commoners for government positions once every three
years; organizing a new system of taxation; establishing humane treatment of prisoners.
Women were holding important roles in Lý society as the court ladies were in charge of
tax collection. The Lý Dynasty also promoted Buddhism, yet maintained a pluralistic
attitude toward the three main philosophical systems of the time: Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Taoism. During the Lý Dynasty, the Chinese Song Dynasty officially
recognized the Đại Việt monarch as King of Giao Chỉ (Giao Chỉ Quận Vương).

The Lý Dynasty had two major wars with Song China, and a few conquests against
neighboring Champa in the south. The most notable battle took place on Chinese territory
in 1075 AD. Upon learning that a Song invasion was imminent, the Lý army and navy
totalling about 100,000 men under the command of Lý Thường Kiệt, Tông Đản used
amphibious operations to preemptively destroy three Song military installations at Yong
Zhou, Qin Zhou, and Lian Zhou in present-day Guangdong and Guangxi, and killed
100,000 Chinese. The Song Dynasty took revenge and invaded Đại Việt in 1076, but the
Song troops were held back at the Battle of Như Nguyệt River commonly known as the
Cầu river, now in Bắc Ninh province about 40 km from the current capital, Hanoi.
Neither side was able to force a victory, so the Lý Dynasty proposed a truce, which the
Song Dynasty accepted.
Trần royal battle standard.

Toward the end of the Lý Dynasty, a powerful court minister named Trần Thủ Độ forced
king Lý Huệ Tông to become a Buddhist monk and Lý Chiêu Hoàng, Huệ Tông's young
daughter, to become queen. Trần Thủ Độ then arranged the marriage of Chiêu Hoàng to
his nephew Trần Cảnh and eventually had the throne transferred to Trần Cảnh, thus
begun the Trần Dynasty. Trần Thủ Độ viciously purged members of the Lý nobility;
some Lý princes escaped to Korea, including Lý Long Tường.

After the purge most Trần kings ruled the country in similar manner to the Lý kings.
Noted Trần Dynasty accomplishments include the creation of a system of population
records based at the village level, the compilation of a formal 30-volume history of Đại
Việt (Đại Việt Sử Ký) by Lê Văn Hưu, and the rising in status of the Nôm script, a
system of writing for Vietnamese language. The Trần Dynasty also adopted a unique way
to train new kings: as a king aged, he would relinquish the throne to his crown prince, yet
holding a title of August Higher Emperor (Thái Thượng Hoàng), acting as a mentor to the
new Emperor.

[edit] Mongol invasions

During the Trần Dynasty, the armies of the Mongol Empire under Mongke Khan and
Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty invaded Vietnam in 1257 AD, 1284 AD,
and 1288 AD. Đại Việt repelled all attacks of the Yuan during the reign of Kublai Khan.
The key to Đại Việt's successes was to avoid the Mongols' strength in open field battles
and city sieges - the Trần court abandoned the capital and the cities. The Mongols were
then countered decisively at their weak points, which were battles in swampy areas such
as Chương Dương, Hàm Tử, Vạn Kiếp and on rivers such as Vân Đồn and Bạch Đằng.
The Mongols also suffered from tropical diseases and loss of supplies to Trần army's
raids. The Yuan-Trần war reached its climax when the retreating Yuan fleet was
decimated at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). The military architect behind Đại Việt's
victories was Commander Trần Quốc Tuấn, more popularly known as Trần Hưng Đạo. In
order to avoid disastrous campaigns, the Tran and Champa acknowledged Mongol
supremacy.

[edit] Champa
It was also during this period that the Trần kings waged many wars against the southern
kingdom of Champa, continuing the Viets' long history of southern expansion (known as
Nam Tiến) that had begun shortly after gaining independence from China. Often, they
encountered strong resistance from the Chams. Champa troops led by king Chế Bồng
Nga (Cham: Po Binasuor or Che Bonguar) killed king Trần Duệ Tông in battle and even
laid siege to Đại Việt's capital Thăng Long in 1377 AD and again in 1383 AD. However,
the Trần Dynasty was successful in gaining two Champa provinces, located around
present-day Huế, through the peaceful means of the political marriage of Princess Huyền
Trân to a Cham king.

[edit] Ming occupation and the rise of the Lê Dynasty

The Trần dynasty was in turn overthrown by one of its own court officials, Hồ Quý Ly.
Hồ Quý Ly forced the last Trần king to resign and assumed the throne in 1400. He
changed the country name to Đại Ngu (Hán tự: 太虞) and moved the capital to Tây Đô,
Western Capital, now Thanh Hóa. Thăng Long was renamed Đông Đô, Eastern Capital.
Although widely blamed for causing national disunity and losing the country later to the
Chinese Ming Dynasty, Hồ Quý Ly's reign actually introduced a lot of progressive,
ambitious reforms, including the addition of mathematics to the national examinations,
the open critique of Confucian philosophy, the use of paper currency in place of coins,
investment in building large warships and cannon, and land reform. He ceded the throne
to his son, Hồ Hán Thương, in 1401 and assumed the title Thái Thượng Hoàng, in similar
manner to the Trần kings.

In 1407, under the pretext of helping to restore the Trần Dynasty, Chinese Ming troops
invaded Đại Ngu and captured Hồ Quý Ly and Hồ Hán Thương. The Hồ Dynasty came
to an end after only 7 years in power. The Ming occupying force annexed Đại Ngu into
the Ming Empire after claiming that there was no heir to Trần throne. Almost
immediately, Trần loyalists started a resistance war. The resistance, under the leadership
of Trần Quĩ at first gained some advances, yet as Trần Quĩ executed two top commanders
out of suspicion, a rift widened within his ranks and resulted in his defeat in 1413.

In 1418, a wealthy farmer, Lê Lợi, led the Lam son revolution against the Ming from his
base of Lam Sơn (Thanh Hóa province). Overcoming many early setbacks and with
strategic advices from Nguyễn Trãi, Lê Lợi's movement finally gathered momentum,
marched northward, and launched a siege at Đông Quan (now Hanoi), the capital of the
Ming occupation. The Ming Emperor sent a reinforcement force, but Lê Lợi staged an
ambush and killed the Ming commander, Liễu Thăng (Chinese: Liu Sheng), in Chi Lăng.
Ming troops at Đông Quan surrendered. The Lam son revolution killed 300,000 Ming
soldiers. In 1428, Lê Lợi ascended to the throne and began the Hậu Lê dynasty (Posterior
or Later Lê). Lê Lợi renamed the country back to Đại Việt and moved the capital back to
Thăng Long.
Map of Vietnam showing the conquest of the south (the Nam tiến, 1069-1757). Orange:
Before the 11th century. Yellow: 11th century. Light Green: 15th century. Dark Green:
16th century. Purple: 18th century. Lai Chau and Dien Bien (the Northwest): 19th
century.

The Lê Dynasty carried out land reforms to revitalize the economy after the war. Unlike
the Lý and Trần kings, who were more influenced by Buddhism, the Lê kings leaned
toward Confucianism. A comprehensive set of laws, the Hồng Đức code was introduced
with some strong Confucian elements, yet also included some progressive rules, such as
the rights of women. Art and architecture during the Lê Dynasty also became more
influenced by Chinese styles than during the Lý and Trần Dynasty. The Lê Dynasty
commissioned the drawing of national maps and had Ngô Sĩ Liên continue the task of
writing Đại Việt's history up to the time of Lê Lợi. King Lê Thánh Tông opened hospitals
and had officials distribute medicines to areas affected with epidemics.

In 1471, Le troops led by king Lê Thánh Tông invaded Champa and captured its capital
Vijaya. This event effectively ended Champa as a powerful kingdom, although some
smaller surviving Cham kingdoms still lasted for a few centuries more. It initiated the
dispersal of the Cham people across Southeast Asia. With the kingdom of Champa
mostly destroyed and the Cham people exiled or suppressed, Vietnamese colonization of
what is now central Vietnam proceeded without substantial resistance. However, despite
becoming greatly outnumbered by Kinh (Việt) settlers and the integration of formerly
Cham territory into the Vietnamese nation, the majority of Cham people nevertheless
remained in Vietnam and they are now considered one of the key minorities in modern
Vietnam. The city of Huế, founded in 1600 lies close to where the Champa capital of
Indrapura once stood. In 1479, King Lê Thánh Tông also campaigned against Laos and
captured its capital Luang Prabang. He made further incursions westwards into the
Irrawaddy River region in modern-day Burma before withdrawing.
[edit] Divided period (1528–1802)
The Lê dynasty was overthrown by its general named Mạc Đăng Dung in 1527. He killed
the Lê emperor and proclaimed himself emperor, starting the Mạc Dynasty. After
defeating many revolutions for two years, Mạc Đăng Dung adopted the Trần Dynasty's
practice and ceded the throne to his son, Mạc Đăng Doanh, who became Thái Thượng
Hoàng.

Meanwhile, Nguyễn Kim, a former official in the Lê court, revolted against the Mạc and
helped king Lê Trang Tông restore the Lê court in the Thanh Hóa area. Thus a civil war
began between the Northern Court (Mạc) and the Southern Court (Restored Lê). Nguyễn
Kim's side controlled the southern part of Đại Việt (from Thanhhoa to the south), leaving
the north (including Đông Kinh-Hanoi) under Mạc control. When Nguyễn Kim was
assassinated in 1545, military power fell into the hands of his son-in-law, Trịnh Kiểm. In
1558, Nguyễn Kim's son, Nguyễn Hoàng, suspecting that Trịnh Kiểm might kill him as
he had done to his brother to secure power, asked to be governor of the far south
provinces around present-day Quảng Bình to Bình Định. Hoang pretended to be insane,
so Kiem was fooled into thinking that sending Hoang south was a good move as Hoang
would be quickly killed in the lawless border regions. However, Hoang governed the
south effectively while Trịnh Kiểm, and then his son Trịnh Tùng, carried on the war
against the Mạc. Nguyễn Hoàng sent money and soldiers north to help the war but
gradually he became more and more independent, transforming their realm's economic
fortunes by turning it into an international trading post.

The civil war between the Lê/Trịnh and Mạc dynasties ended in 1592, when the army of
Trịnh Tùng conquered Hanoi and executed king Mạc Mậu Hợp. Survivors of the Mạc
royal family fled to the northern mountains in the province of Cao Bằng and continued to
rule there until 1667 when Trịnh Tạc conquered this last Mạc territory. The Lê kings,
ever since Nguyễn Kim's restoration, only acted as figureheads. After the fall of the Mạc
Dynasty, all real power in the north belonged to the Trịnh Lords.

In the year 1600, Nguyễn Hoàng also declared himself Lord (officially "Vương",
popularly "Chúa") and refused to send more money or soldiers to help the Trịnh. He also
moved his capital to Phú Xuân, modern-day Huế. Nguyễn Hoàng died in 1613 after
having ruled the south for 55 years. He was succeeded by his 6th son, Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, who likewise refused to acknowledge the power of the Trịnh, yet still pledged
allegiance to the Lê king.

Trịnh Tráng succeeded Trịnh Tùng, his father, upon his death in 1623. Tráng ordered
Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên to submit to his authority. The order was refused twice. In 1627,
Trịnh Tráng sent 150,000 troops southward in an unsuccessful military campaign. The
Trịnh were much stronger, with a larger population, economy and army, but they were
unable to vanquish the Nguyễn, who had built two defensive stone walls and invested in
Portuguese artillery.

See also: Artillery of the Nguyễn lords

Map of Vietnam showing (roughly) the areas controlled by the Trịnh, Nguyễn, Mac, and
Champa about the year 1640. Brown: Trịnh Territory. Yellow: Nguyễn Territory. Green:
Champa (under Nguyễn overlordship). Pink (Cao Bang): Mạc Territory.

One of the earliest Western maps of Vietnam, published in 1651 by Alexandre de Rhodes
(north is oriented to the right).

The Trịnh-Nguyễn War lasted from 1627 until 1672. The Trịnh army staged at least
seven offensives, all of which failed to capture Phú Xuân. For a time, starting in 1651, the
Nguyễn themselves went on the offensive and attacked parts of Trịnh territory. However,
the Trịnh, under a new leader, Trịnh Tạc, forced the Nguyễn back by 1655. After one last
offensive in 1672, Trịnh Tạc agreed to a truce with the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Phúc Tần.
The country was effectively divided in two.

The Trịnh and the Nguyễn maintained a relative peace for the next hundred years, during
which both sides made significant accomplishments. The Trịnh created centralized
government offices in charge of state budget and producing currency, unified the weight
units into a decimal system, established printing shops to reduce the need to import
printed materials from China, opened a military academy, and compiled history books.
Meanwhile, the Nguyễn Lords continued the southward expansion by the conquest of the
remaining Cham land. Việt settlers also arrived in the sparsely populated area known as
"Water Chenla", which was the lower Mekong Delta portion of Chenla (present-day
Cambodia). Between the mid-17th century to mid-18th century, as Chenla was weakened
by internal strife and Siamese invasions, the Nguyễn Lords used various means, political
marriage, diplomatic pressure, political and military favors,... to gain the area around
present day Saigon and the Mekong Delta. The Nguyễn army at times also clashed with
the Siamese army to establish influence over Chenla.

In 1771, the Tây Sơn revolution broke out in Quynhơn, which was under the control of
the Nguyễn. The leaders of this revolution were three brothers named Nguyễn Nhạc,
Nguyễn Lữ, and Nguyễn Huệ, not related to the Nguyễn lords. By 1776, the Tây Sơn had
occupied all of the Nguyễn Lord's land and killed almost the entire royal family. The
surviving prince Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (often called Nguyễn Ánh) fled to Siam, and obtained
military support from the Siamese king. Nguyễn Ánh came back with 50000 Siamese
troops to regain power, but was defeated at the Battle of Rạch Gầm–Xoài Mút and almost
killed. Nguyễn Ánh fled Vietnam, but he did not give up.

The Tây Sơn army commanded by Nguyễn Huệ marched north in 1786 to fight the Trịnh
Lord, Trịnh Khải. The Trịnh army failed and Trịnh Khải committed suicide. The Tây Sơn
army captured the capital in less than two months. The last Lê emperor, Lê Chiêu Thống,
fled to China and petitioned the Chinese Qing Emperor for help. The Qing emperor
Qianlong supplied Lê Chiêu Thống with a massive army of around 200,000 troops to
regain his throne from the usurper. Nguyễn Huệ proclaimed himself Emperor Quang
Trung and defeated the Qing troops with 100,000 men in a surprise 7 day campaign
during the lunar new year (Tết). During his reign, Quang Trung envisioned many reforms
but died by unknown reason on the way march south in 1792, at the age of 40.

During the reign of Emperor Quang Trung, Đại Việt was actually divided into 3 political
entities. The Tây Sơn leader, Nguyễn Nhạc, ruled the centre of the country from his
capital Qui Nhơn. Emperor Quang Trung ruled the north from the capital Phú Xuân Huế.
In the South, Nguyễn Ánh, assisted by many talented recruits from the South, captured
Gia Định (present day Saigon) in 1788 and established a strong base for his force.

After Quang Trung's death, the Tây Sơn Dynasty became unstable as the remaining
brothers fought against each other and against the people who were loyal to Nguyễn
Huệ's infant son. Nguyễn Ánh sailed north in 1799, capturing Tây Sơn's stronghold Qui
Nhơn. In 1801, his force took Phú Xuân, the Tây Sơn capital. Nguyễn Ánh finally won
the war in 1802, when he sieged Thăng Long (Hanoi) and executed Nguyễn Huệ's son,
Nguyễn Quang Toản, along with many Tây Sơn generals and officials. Nguyễn Ánh
ascended the throne and called himself Emperor Gia Long. Gia is for Gia Định, the old
name of Saigon; Long is for Thăng Long, the old name of Hanoi. Hence Gia Long
implied the unification of the country. The Nguyễn dynasty lasted until Bảo Đại's
abdication in 1945. As China for centuries had referred to Đại Việt as Annam, Gia Long
asked the Chinese Qing emperor to rename the country, from Annam to Nam Việt. To
prevent any confusion of Gia Long's kingdom with Triệu Đà's ancient kingdom, the
Chinese emperor reversed the order of the two words to Việt Nam. The name Vietnam is
thus known to be used since Emperor Gia Long's reign. Recently historians have found
that this name had existed in older books in which Vietnamese referred to their country as
Vietnam.

The Period of Division with its many tragedies and dramatic historical developments
inspired many poets and gave rise to some Vietnamese masterpieces in verse such as the
epic poem The Tale of Kieu (Truyện Kiều) by Nguyễn Du, Song of a Soldier's Wife
(Chinh Phụ Ngâm) by Đặng Trần Côn and Đoàn Thị Điểm, and a collection of satirical,
erotically charged poems by the female poet Hồ Xuân Hương.

[edit] 19th century and French colonization

Main article: Nguyễn Dynasty

Flag of Colonial Annam.

French army attacking the Thanh in Lạng Sơn,1885

The West's exposure in Vietnam and Vietnam's exposure to Westerners dated back to 166
BC with the arrival of merchants from the Roman Empire, to 1292 with the visit of
Marco Polo, and the early 16th century with the arrival of Portuguese and other European
traders and missionaries.[citation needed] Alexandre de Rhodes, a French Jesuit priest,
improved on earlier work by Portuguese missionaries and developed the Vietnamese
romanized alphabet Quốc Ngữ in Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanam et Latinum in
1651.[4]

Between 1627 and 1775, two powerful families had partitioned the country: the Nguyễn
Lords ruled the South and the Trịnh Lords ruled the North. The Trịnh-Nguyễn War gave
European traders the opportunities to support each side with weapons and technology: the
Portuguese assisted the Nguyễn in the South while the Dutch helped the Trịnh in the
North.
Main articles: Gia Long and Minh Mạng
See also: Citadel of Saigon

In 1784, during the conflict between Nguyễn Ánh, the surviving heir of the Nguyễn
Lords, and the Tây Sơn Dynasty, a French Catholic Bishop, Pigneaux de Behaine, sailed
to France to seek military backing for Nguyễn Ánh. At Louis XVI's court, Pigneaux
brokered the Little Treaty of Versailles which promised French military aid in return for
Vietnamese concessions. The French Revolution broke out and Pigneaux's plan failed to
materialize. Undaunted, Pigneaux went to the French territory of Pondicherry, India. He
secured two ships, a regiment of Indian troops, and a handful of volunteers and returned
to Vietnam in 1788. One of Pigneaux's volunteers, Jean-Marie Dayot, reorganized
Nguyễn Ánh's navy along European lines and defeated the Tây Sơn at Qui Nhơn in 1792.
A few years later, Nguyễn Ánh's forces captured Saigon, where Pigneaux died in 1799.
Another volunteer, Victor Olivier de Puymanel would later build the Gia Định fort in
central Saigon.

After Nguyễn Ánh established the Nguyễn Dynasty in 1802, he tolerated Catholicism and
employed some Europeans in his court as advisors. However, he and his successors were
conservative Confucians who resisted Westernization. The next Nguyễn emperors, Ming
Mạng, Thiệu Trị, and Tự Đức brutally suppressed Catholicism and pursued a 'closed
door' policy, perceiving the Westerners as a threat, following events such as the Lê Văn
Khôi revolt when a French missionary Joseph Marchand encouraged local Catholics to
revolt in an attempt to install a Catholic emperor. Tens of thousands of Vietnamese and
foreign-born Christians were persecuted and trade with the West slowed during this
period. There were frequent uprisings against the Nguyễns, with hundreds of such events
being recorded in the annals. These acts were soon being used as excuses for France to
invade Vietnam. The early Nguyễn Dynasty had engaged in many of the constructive
activities of its predecessors, building roads, digging canals, issuing a legal code, holding
examinations, sponsoring care facilities for the sick, compiling maps and history books,
and exerting influence over Cambodia and Laos. However, those feats were not enough
of an improvement in the new age of science, technology, industrialization, and
international trade and politics, especially when faced with technologically superior
European forces exerting strong influence over the region. The Nguyễn Dynasty is
usually blamed for failing to modernize the country in time to prevent French
colonization in the late 19th century.

[edit] French invasion

Main articles: Cochinchina campaign, Truong Dinh, Phan Dinh Phung, Nguyen Trung
Truc, Phan Thanh Gian, Tonkin campaign, and Sino-French War

Under the orders of Napoleon III of France, French gunships under Rigault de Genouilly
attacked the port of Đà Nẵng in 1858, causing significant damage, yet failed to gain any
foothold, in the process being afflicted by the humidity and tropical diseases. De
Genouilly decided to sail south and captured the poorly defended city of Gia Định
(present-day Ho Chi Minh City). From 1859 to 1867, French troops expanded their
control over all six provinces on the Mekong delta and formed a colony known as Cochin
China. A few years later, French troops landed in northern Vietnam (which they called
Tonkin) and captured Hà Nội twice in 1873 and 1882. The French managed to keep their
grip on Tonkin although, twice, their top commanders Francis Garnier and Henri Rivière,
were ambushed and killed. France assumed control over the whole of Vietnam after the
Sino-French War (1884–1885). French Indochina was formed in October 1887 from
Annam (Trung Kỳ, central Vietnam), Tonkin (Bắc Kỳ, northern Vietnam), Cochin China
(Nam Kỳ, southern Vietnam, and Cambodia, with Laos added in 1893). Within French
Indochina, Cochin China had the status of a colony, Annam was nominally a protectorate
where the Nguyễn Dynasty still ruled, and Tonkin had a French governor with local
governments run by Vietnamese officials.

After Gia Định fell to French troops, many Vietnamese resistance movements broke out
in occupied areas, some led by former court officers, such as Trương Định, some by
peasants, such as Nguyễn Trung Trực, who sank the French gunship L'Esperance using
guerilla tactics. In the north, most movements were led by former court officers and
lasted decades, with Phan Đình Phùng fighting in central Vietnam until 1895. In the
northern mountains, the former bandit leader Hoàng Hoa Thám fought until 1911. Even
the teenage Nguyễn Emperor Hàm Nghi left the Imperial Palace of Huế in 1885 with
regent Tôn Thất Thuyết and started the Cần Vương, or "Save the King", movement,
trying to rally the people to resist the French. He was captured in 1888 and exiled to
French Algeria. Decades later, two more Nguyễn kings, Thành Thái and Duy Tân were
also exiled to Africa for having anti-French tendencies. The former was deposed on the
pretext of insanity and Duy Tân was caught in a conspiracy with the mandarin Tran Cao
Van trying to start an uprising.

[edit] 20th century

In the early 20th century, Vietnamese patriots realized that they could not defeat France
without modernization. Having been exposed to Western philosophy, they aimed to
establish a republic upon independence, departing from the royalist sentiments of the Cần
Vương movements. Japan's defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War served as a
perfect example of modernization helping an Asian country defeat a powerful European
empire.

There emerged two parallel movements of modernization. The first was the Đông Du
("Go East") Movement started in 1905 by Phan Bội Châu. Châu's plan was to send
Vietnamese students to Japan to learn modern skills, so that in the future they could lead
a successful armed revolt against the French. With Prince Cường Để, he started two
organizations in Japan: Duy Tân Hội and Việt Nam Công Hiến Hội. Due to French
diplomatic pressure, Japan later deported Châu to China.
Phan Chu Trinh

Phan Boi Chau

Phan Chu Trinh, who favored a peaceful, non-violent struggle to gain independence, led
the second movement Duy Tân ("Modernization"). He stressed the need to educate the
masses, modernize the country, foster understanding and tolerance between the French
and the Vietnamese, and a peaceful transition of power.

The early part of the 20th century also saw the growing in status of the Romanized Quốc
Ngữ alphabet for the Vietnamese language. Vietnamese patriots realized the potential of
Quốc Ngữ as a useful tool to quickly reduce illiteracy and to educate the masses. The
traditional Chinese scripts or the Nôm script were seen as too cumbersome and too
difficult to learn. The use of prose in literature also became popular with the appearance
of many novels; most famous were those from the literary circle Tự Lực Văn Đoàn.

Main articles: Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang and Yen Bai mutiny

As the French suppressed both movements, and after witnessing revolutionaries in action
in China and Russia, Vietnamese revolutionaries began to turn to more radical paths.
Phan Bội Châu created the Viet Nam Quang Phuc Hoi in Guangzhou, planning armed
resistance against the French. In 1925, French agents captured him in Shanghai and
spirited him to Vietnam. Due to his popularity, Châu was spared from execution and
placed under house arrest until his death in 1940. In 1927, the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng
(Vietnamese Nationalist Party), modeled after the Kuomintang in China, was founded. In
1930, the party launched the armed Yen Bai mutiny in Tonkin which resulted in its
chairman, Nguyen Thai Hoc and many other leaders captured and executed by the
guillotine.

Marxism was also introduced into Vietnam with the emergence of three separate
Communist parties; the Indochinese Communist Party, Annamese Communist Party and
the Indochinese Communist Union, joined later by a Trotskyist movement led by Tạ Thu
Thâu. In 1930 the Communist International (Comintern) sent Nguyễn Ái Quốc to Hong
Kong to coordinate the unification of the parties into the Vietnamese Communist Party
with Trần Phú as the first Secretary General. Later the party changed its name to the
Indochinese Communist Party as the Comintern, under Stalin, did not favor nationalistic
sentiments. Nguyễn Ái Quốc was a leftist revolutionary living in France since 1911. He
participated in founding the French Communist Party and in 1924 traveled to the Soviet
Union to join the Comintern. Through the late 1920s, he acted as a Comintern agent to
help build Communist movements in Southeast Asia. During the 1930s, the Vietnamese
Communist Party was nearly wiped out under French suppression with the execution of
top leaders such as Phú, Lê Hồng Phong, and Nguyễn Văn Cừ.

In 1940, during World War II, Japan invaded Indochina, keeping the Vichy French
colonial administration in place as a Japanese puppet. In 1941 Nguyễn Ái Quốc, now
known as Hồ Chí Minh, arrived in northern Vietnam to form the Việt Minh Front, short
for Việt Nam Độc Lập Đồng Minh Hội (League for the Independence of Vietnam). The
Việt Minh Front was supposed to be an umbrella group for all parties fighting for
Vietnam's independence, but was dominated by the Communist Party. The Việt Minh had
a modest armed force and during the war worked with the American Office of Strategic
Services to collect intelligence on the Japanese. From China, other non-Communist
Vietnamese parties also joined the Việt Minh and established armed forces with backing
from the Kuomintang.

[edit] First Indochina War (1945-1954)

Main article: First Indochina War

In 1944-1945, millions of Vietnamese people starved to death in the Japanese occupation

of Vietnam.[5]

In early 1945, due to a combination of Japanese exploitation and poor weather, a famine
broke out in Tonkin killing between 1 and 2 million people (out of a population of 10
million in the affected area). [6] In March 1945, Japanese occupying forces ousted the
French administration in Indochina as they had been holding secret talks with the Free
French. [7] Emperor Bảo Đại of the Nguyễn Dynasty nominally declared Vietnam
independent, but the Japanese remained in occupation. Exploiting the administrative gap
[8]
that the internment of the French had created, the Viet Minh in March 1945 urged the
population to ransack rice warehouses and refuse to pay their taxes. [9] Between 75 and
100 warehouses were consequently raided. [10] This rebellion against the effects of the
famine and the authorities that were partially responsible for it bolstered the Viet Minh's
popularity and they recruited many members during this period. [8]
When the Japanese surrendered to the Allies in August 1945 a power vacuum was created
in Vietnam. Capatilizing on this, the Việt Minh launched the "August Revolution" across
the country to seize government offices. Emperor Bảo Ðại abdicated on August 25, 1945,
ending the Nguyễn Dynasty. On September 2, 1945 Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam
independent under the new name of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and
held the position of Chairman (Chủ Tịch).

British forces landed in southern Vietnam in October, disarming the Japanese and
restoring order. The British commander in South East Asia, Lord Louis Mountbatten,
sent over 20,000 troops of the 20th Indian division under General Douglas Gracey to
occupy Saigon. The first soldiers arrived on 6 September and increased to full strength
over the following weeks. In addition they re-armed Japanese prisoners of war known as
Gremlin force. The British began to withdraw in December 1945, but this was not
completed until June of the following year. The last British soldiers were killed in
Vietnam in June 1946. Altogether 40 British and Indian troops were killed and over a
hundred were wounded. Vietnamese casualties were 600. They were followed by French
troops trying to re-establish their rule. In the north, Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang army
entered Vietnam from China, also to disarm the Japanese, followed by the forces of the
non-Communist Vietnamese parties, such as Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng and Việt Nam
Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội. In 1946, Vietnam had its first National Assembly election
(won by the Viet Minh in central and northern Vietnam [11] ), which drafted the first
constitution, but the situation was still precarious: the French tried to regain power by
force; some Cochin-Chinese politicians formed a seceding government of Cochin-China
(Nam Kỳ Quốc) while the non-Communist and Communist forces were engaging each
other in sporadic battle. Stalinists purged Trotskyists. Religious sects and resistance
groups formed their own militias. The Communists eventually suppressed all non-
Communist parties but failed to secure a peace deal with France.

In 1947 full scale war broke out between the Viet Minh and France. Realizing that
colonialism was coming to an end worldwide, France fashioned a semi-independent State
of Vietnam, within the French Union, with Bảo Đại as Head of State. Meanwhile, as the
Communists under Mao Zedong took over China, the Viet Minh began to receive military
aid from China. Beside supplying materials, Chinese cadres also pressured the
Vietnamese Communist Party, then under First Secretary Trường Chinh, to emulate their
brand of revolution, unleashing a purge of "bourgeois and feudal" elements from the Viet
Minh ranks, carrying out a ruthless and bloody land reform campaign (Cải Cách Ruộng
Đất), and denouncing "bourgeois and feudal" tendencies in arts and literature. Many true
patriots and devoted Communist revolutionaries in the Viet Minh suffered mistreatment
or were even executed during these movements. Many others became disenchanted and
left the Viet Minh. The United States became strongly opposed to Hồ Chí Minh. In the
1950s the government of Bảo Ðại gained recognition by the United States and the United
Kingdom.

The Việt Minh force grew significantly with China's assistance and in 1954, under the
command of General Võ Nguyên Giáp, launched a major siege against French bases in
Điện Biên Phủ. The Việt Minh force surprised Western military experts with their use of
primitive means to move artillery pieces and supplies up the mountains surrounding Điện
Biên Phủ, giving them a decisive advantage. On May 7, 1954, French troops at Điện Biên
Phủ, under Christian de Castries, surrendered to the Viet Minh and in July 1954, the
Geneva Accord was signed between France and the Viet-Minh, paving the way for the
French to leave Vietnam.

[edit] Vietnam War (1954-1975)

Main article: Vietnam War

The Geneva Conference of 1954 ended France's colonial presence in Vietnam and
partitioned the country into two states at the 17th parallel pending unification on the basis
of internationally supervised free elections. Ngô Ðình Diệm, a former mandarin with a
strong Catholic and Confucian background, was selected as Premier of the State of
Vietnam by Bảo Đại. While Diệm was trying to settle the differences between the various
armed militias in the South, Bảo Ðại was persuaded to reduce his power. Diệm used a
referendum in 1955 to depose Bảo Đại and declare himself President of the Republic of
Vietnam (South Vietnam). The Republic of Vietnam (RVN) was proclaimed in Saigon on
October 26, 1955. The United States began to provide military and economic aid to the
RVN, training RVN personnel, and sending U.S. advisors to assist in building the
infrastructure for the new government.

Main article: Operation Passage to Freedom

Also in 1954, Vietminh forces took over North Vietnam according to the Geneva Accord.
Two million North Vietnamese civilians emigrated to South Vietnam to avoid the
imminent Communist regime. At the same time, Viet Minh armed forces from South
Vietnam were also moving to North Vietnam, as dictated by the Geneva Accord.
However, some high ranking Viet Minh cadres secretly remained in the South to follow
the local situation closely. The most important figure among those was Lê Duẩn.

Main article: 1955 State of Vietnam referendum

The Geneva Accord had promised elections to determine the government for a unified
Vietnam. However, as only France and the Viet Minh had signed the document, the
United States and Ngô Đình Diệm's government refused to abide by the agreement,
fearing that Hồ Chí Minh would win the election due to his war popularity, establishing
Communism in the whole of Vietnam. Ngô Đình Diệm took some strong measures to
secure South Vietnam from perceived internal threats. He eliminated all private militias
from the Bình Xuyên Party and the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects. In October
1955, he deposed Bao Dai and proclaimed himself President of the newly established the
Republic of Vietnam, after rigging a referendum.[12][13] He repressed any political
opposition, arresting the famous writer Nguyễn Tường Tam, who committed suicide
while awaiting trial in jail.[14] Diệm also acted aggressively to remove Communist agents
still remaining in the South. He formed the Cần Lao Nhân Vị Party, mixing Personalist
philosophy with labor rhetorics, modeling its organization after the Communist Party,
although it was anti-Communist and pro-Catholic. Another controversial policy was the
Strategic Hamlet Program, which aimed to build fortified villages to lock out
Communists. However, it was ineffective as many communists were already part of the
population and visually indistinguishable. It became unpopular as it limited the villagers'
freedom and altered their traditional way of life.

In 1960, at the Third Party Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party, ostensibly
renamed the Labor Party since 1951, Lê Duẩn arrived from the South and strongly
advocated the use of revolutionary warfare to topple Diệm's regime, unifying the country,
and build Marxist-Leninist socialism. Despite some elements in the Party opposing the
use of force, Lê Duẩn won the seat of First Secretary of the Party. As Hồ Chí Minh was
aging, Lê Duẩn virtually took the helm of war from him. The first step of his war plan
was coordinating a rural uprising in the South (Đồng Khởi) and forming the National
Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) toward the end of 1960. The figurehead
leader of the NLF was Nguyễn Hữu Thọ, a South Vietnamese lawyer, but the true
leadership was the Communist Party hierarchy in South Vietnam. Arms, supplies, and
troops came from North Vietnam into South Vietnam via a system of trails, named the
Ho Chi Minh Trail, that branched into Laos and Cambodia before entering South
Vietnam. At first, most foreign aid for North Vietnam came from China, as Lê Duẩn
distanced Vietnam from the "revisionist" policy of the Soviet Union under Nikita
Khrushchev. However, under Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet Union picked up the pace of
aid and provided North Vietnam with heavy weapons, such as T-54 tanks, artillery, MIG
fighter planes, surface-to-air missiles, etc.

Main articles: Ngo Dinh Diem, Buddhist crisis, Hue Vesak shootings, Xa Loi Pagoda
raids, Cable 243, and Arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm
See also: Ngô Đình Cẩn, Ngo Dinh Nhu, and Le Quang Tung

Meanwhile, in South Vietnam, although Ngô Đình Diệm personally was respected for his
nationalism, he ran a nepotistic and authoritarian regime. Elections were routinely rigged
and Diem discriminated in favour of minority Roman Catholics on many issues. His
religious policies sparked protests from the Buddhist community after demonstrators
were killed on Vesak, Buddha's birthday, in 1963 when they were protesting a ban on the
Buddhist flag. This incident sparked mass protests calling for religious equality. The most
famous case was of Venerable Thích Quảng Đức, who burned himself to death to protest.
The images of this event made worldwide headlines and brought extreme embarrassment
for Diem. The tension was not resolved, and on August 21, the ARVN Special Forces
loyal to his brother and chief adviser Ngô Đình Nhu and commanded by Le Quang Tung
raided Buddhist pagodas across the country, leaving a death toll estimated to range into
the hundreds. In the United States, the Kennedy administration became worried that the
problems of Diệm's regime were undermining the US's anti-Communist effort in
Southeast Asia. On November 1, 1963, confident the US would not intervene or cut off
aid as a result, South Vietnamese generals led by Dương Văn Minh engineered a coup
d'état and overthrew Ngô Đình Diệm, killing both him and his brother Nhu.
Between 1963 and 1965, South Vietnam was extremely unstable as no government could
keep power for long. There were more coups, often more than one every year. The
Communist-run NLF expanded their operation and scored some significant military
victories. In 1965, US President Lyndon Johnson sent troops to South Vietnam to secure
the country and started to bomb North Vietnam, assuming that if South Vietnam fell to
the Communists, other countries in the Southeast Asia would follow, in accordance with
the Domino Theory. Other US allies, such as Australia, New Zealand, South Korea,
Thailand, the Philippines, and Taiwan also sent troops to South Vietnam. Although the
American-led troops succeeded in containing the advance of Communist forces, the
presence of foreign troops, the widespread bombing over all of Vietnam, and the social
vices that mushroomed around US bases upset the sense of national pride among many
Vietnamese, North and South, causing many to become sympathetic to North Vietnam
and the NLF.

In 1965, Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took power in a
coup, and presided over a stable junta, and promised to hold elections under US pressure.
In 1967, South Vietnam managed to conduct a National Assembly and Presidential
election with Lt. General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu being elected to the Presidency, bringing the
government to some level of stability. However, in 1968, the NLF launched a massive
and surprise Tết Offensive (known in South Vietnam as "Biến Cố Tết Mậu Thân" or in
the North as "Cuộc Tổng Tấn Công và Nổi Dậy Tết Mậu Thân"), attacking almost all
major cities in South Vietnam over the Vietnamese New Year (Tết). NLF and North
Vietnamese captured the city of Huế, after which many mass graves were found. Many of
the executed victims had relations with the South Vietnamese government or the US
(Thảm Sát Tết Mậu Thân). Over the course of the year the NLF forces were pushed out
of all cities in South Vietnam and nearly decimated. In subsequent major offensives in
later years, North Vietnamese regulars with artillery and tanks took over the fighting. In
the months following the Tet Offensive, an American unit massacred civilian villagers,
suspected to be sheltering Viet Cong guerillas, in the hamlet of My Lai in Central
Vietnam, causing an uproar in protest around the world.

In 1969, Hồ Chí Minh died, leaving wishes that his body be cremated. However, the
Communist Party embalmed his body for public display and built the Ho Chi Minh
Mausoleum on Ba Đình Square in Hà Nội, in the style of Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow.

Although the Tết Offensive was a catastrophic military defeat for the Việt Cộng, it was a
stunning political victory as it led many Americans to view the war as unwinnable. U.S.
President Richard Nixon entered office with a pledge to end the war "with honor." He
normalized US relations with China in 1972 and entered into détente with the USSR.
Nixon thus forged a new strategy to deal with the Communist Bloc, taking advantage of
the rift between China and the Soviet Union. A costly war in Vietnam begun to appear
less effective for the cause of Communist containment. Nixon proposed "Vietnamization"
of the war, with South Vietnamese troops taking charge of the fighting, yet still receiving
American aid and, if necessary, air and naval support. The new strategy started to show
some effects: in 1970, troops from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)
successfully conducted raids against North Vietnamese bases in Cambodia (Cambodian
Campaign); in 1971, the ARVN made an incursion into Southern Laos to cut off the Ho
Chi Minh Trail in Operation Lam Son 719, but the operation failed as most high positions
captured by ARVN forces were recaptured by North Vietnamese artillery; in 1972, the
ARVN successfully held the town of An Lộc against massive attacks from North
Vietnamese regulars and recaptured the town of Quảng Trị near the demilitarised zone
(DMZ) in the centre of the country during the Easter Offensive.

At the same time, Nixon was pressing both Hanoi and Saigon to sign the Paris Peace
Agreement of 1973, for American military forces to withdraw from Vietnam. The
pressure on Hanoi materialized with the Christmas Bombings in 1972. In South Vietnam,
Nguyễn Văn Thiệu vocally opposed any accord with the Communists, but was threatened
with withdrawal of American aid.

Despite the peace treaty, the North continued the war as had been envisioned by Lê Duẩn
and the South still tried to recapture lost territories. In the U.S., Nixon resigned after the
Watergate scandal. South Vietnam was seen as losing a strong backer. Under U.S.
President Gerald Ford, the Democratic-controlled Congress became less willing to
provide military support to South Vietnam.

In 1974, South Vietnam also fought and lost the Battle of Hoàng Sa against China over
the control of the Paracel Islands in the South China Sea. Neither North Vietnam nor the
U.S. interfered.

In early 1975, North Vietnamese military led by General Văn Tiến Dũng launched a
massive attack against the Central Highland province of Buôn Mê Thuột. South
Vietnamese troops had anticipated attack against the neighboring province of Pleiku, and
were caught off guard. President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordered the moving of all troops
from the Central Highland to the coastal areas, as with shrinking American aid, South
Vietnamese forces could not afford to spread too thin. However, due to lack of
experience and logistics for such a large troop movement in such a short time, the whole
South Vietnamese 2nd Corps got bogged down on narrow mountain roads, flooded with
thousands of civilian refugees, and was decimated by ambushes along the way. The
South Vietnamese First Corp near the DMZ was cut off, received conflicting orders from
Saigon on whether to fight or to retreat, and eventually collapsed. Many civilians tried to
flee to Saigon via land, air, and sea routes, suffering massive casualties along the way. In
early April 1975, South Vietnam set up a last ditch defense line at Xuân Lộc, under
commander Lê Minh Đảo. North Vietnamese troops failed to penetrate the line and had
to make a detour, which the South Vietnamese failed to stop due to lack of troops.
President Nguyễn văn Thiệu resigned. Power fell to Dương Văn Minh.

Dương Văn Minh had led the coup against Diệm in 1963. By the mid 1970s, he had
leaned toward the "Third Party" (Thành Phần Thứ Ba), South Vietnamese elites who
favored dialogues and cooperation with the North. Communist infiltrators in the South
tried to work out political deals to let Dương Văn Minh ascend to the Presidency, with
the hope that he would prevent a last stand, destructive battle for Saigon. Although many
South Vietnamese units were ready to defend Saigon, and the ARVN 4th Corp was still
intact in the Mekong Delta, Duong Van Minh ordered a surrender on April 30, 1975,
sparing Saigon from destruction. Nevertheless, the reputation of the North Vietnamese
army towards perceived traitors preceded them, and hundreds of thousands of South
Vietnamese fled the country by all means: airplanes, helicopters, ships, fishing boats, and
barges. Most were picked up by the U.S. Seventh Fleet in the South China Sea or landed
in Thailand. The seaborne refugees came to be known as "boat people". In a famous case,
a South Vietnamese pilot, with his wife and children aboard a small Cessna plane,
miraculously landed safely without a tailhook on the aircraft carrier USS Midway.

During this period, North Vietnam was a Socialist state with a centralized command
economy, an extensive security apparatus to carry out Dictatorship of the Proletariat, a
powerful propaganda machine that effectively rallied the people for the Party's causes, a
superb intelligence system that infiltrated South Vietnam (spies such as Pham Ngoc Thao
climbed to high military government positions), and a severe suppression of political
opposition. Even some decorated veterans and famed Communist cadres, such as Trần
Đức Thảo, Nguyễn Hữu Đang, Trần Dần, Hoàng Minh Chính, were persecuted during the
late 1950s Nhân Văn Giai Phẩm events and the 1960s Trial Against the Anti-Party
Revisionists (Vụ Án Xét Lại Chống Đảng) for speaking their opinions. Nevertheless, this
iron grip, together with consistent support from the Soviet Union and China, gave North
Vietnam a militaristic advantage over South Vietnam. North Vietnamese leadership also
had a steely determination to fight, even when facing massive casualties and destruction
at their end. The young North Vietnamese were idealistically and innocently patriotic,
ready to give the ultimate sacrifice for the "liberation of the South" and the "unification
of the motherland".

[edit] Socialism after 1975

Main article: Socialist Republic of Vietnam

After April 30, 1975, unlike the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, the Vietnamese communists
did not commit a "bloodbath", but most government officials and military personnel were
sent to reeducation camps. They were joined by influential people in the literary and
religious circles, in these hard labor prison camps. The inhumane conditions and
treatment in the camps caused many inmates to remain bitter towards the communists
decades later.

Nevertheless, many North Vietnamese soldiers and cadres began to realize that they had
been indoctrinated into thinking that the South Vietnamese people were utterly poor and
exploited by the imperialists and foreign capitalists who treated them like slaves,
shackling, whipping and terrorizing them with dogs. Contradictory to what they were
taught, they saw an abundance of food and consumer goods, fashionable clothes, plenty
of books and music; things that were hard to get in the North.

In 1976, Vietnam was officially unified and renamed Socialist Republic of Vietnam
(SRVN), with its capital in Hà Nội. The Vietnamese Communist Party dropped its front
name "Labor Party" and changed the title of First Secretary, a term used by China, to
Secretary General, used by the Soviet Union, with Lê Duẩn as Secretary General. The
National Liberation Front was dissolved. The Party emphasised development of heavy
industry and collectivisation of agriculture. Over the next few years, private enterprises
were seized by the government and their owners were often sent to the New Economic
Zones—a communist euphemism for a thick jungle—to clear land. The farmers were
coerced into state-controlled cooperatives. Transportation of food and goods between
provinces was deemed illegal except by the government. Within a short period of time,
Vietnam was hit with severe shortage of food and basic necessities. The Mekong Delta,
once a world-class rice-producing area, was threatened with famine. During the mid
1980s, inflation reached triple figures.

In foreign relations, the SRVN became increasingly aligned with the Soviet Union by
joining the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), and signing a
Friendship Pact, which was in fact a military alliance, with the Soviet Union. Tension
between the Vietnam and China mounted along with China's rivalry with the Soviet
Union and conflict erupted with Cambodia, China's ally. Vietnam was also subject to
trade embargoes by the U.S. and its allies.

The SRVN government implemented a Stalinist dictatorship of the proletariat in the

South as they did in the North. The network of security apparatus (Công An: literally
"Public Security", a communist term for the security apparatus) controlled every aspect of
people's life. Censorship was strict and ultra-conservative, with most pre-1975 works in
the fields of music, art, and literature being banned. All religions had to be re-organized
into state-controlled churches. Any negative comments toward the Party, the government,
Uncle Ho, or anything related to Communism might earn the person the tag of Phản
Động (Reactionary), with consequences ranging from being harassed by police, expelled
from school or workplace, to being sent to prison. Nevertheless, the Communist authority
failed to suppress the Black Market, where food, consumer goods, and banned literature
could be bought at high prices. The security apparatus also failed to stop a nationwide
clandestine network of people trying to escape the country. In many cases, the security
officers of some whole districts were bribed and even got involved in organizing the
escape schemes.

These living conditions resulted in an exodus of over a million Vietnamese secretly

escaping the country either by sea or overland through Cambodia. For the people fleeing
by sea, their wooden boats were often not seaworthy, were packed with people like
sardines, and lacked sufficient food and water. Many were caught or shot at by the
Vietnamese coast guards, many perished at sea due to boats sinking, capsizing in storms,
starvation and thirst. Another major threat were the pirates in the Gulf of Siam, who
viciously robbed, raped, and murdered the boat people. In many cases, they massacred
the whole boat. Sometimes the women were raped for days before being sold into
prostitution. The people who crossed Cambodia faced equal dangers with mine fields,
and the Khmer Rouge and Khmer Serei guerillas, who also robbed, raped, and killed the
refugees. Some were successful in fleeing the region and landed in numbers in Malaysia,
Indonesia, the Philippines, and Hong Kong, only to wind up in United Nations refugee
camps. Some famous camps were Bidong in Malaysia, Galang in Indonesia, Bataan in the
Philippines and Songkla in Thailand. Some managed to travel as far as northern Australia
in crowded, open boats.

While most refugees were resettled to other countries within five years, others languished
in these camps for over a decade. In the 1990s, refugees who could not find asylum were
deported back to Vietnam. Communities of Vietnamese refugees arrived in the US,
Canada, Australia, France, West Germany, and the UK. The refugees often sent relief
packages packed with necessities, such as medicines and sanitary goods to their relatives
in Vietnam to help them survive. Very few would send money as it would be exchanged
far below market rates by the Vietnamese government.

In late 1978, following repeated raids by the Pol Pot regime's Khmer Rouge into
Vietnamese territory, Vietnam sent troops to overthrow Pol Pot. The pro-Vietnamese
People's Republic of Kampuchea was created with Heng Samrin as Chairman. Pol Pot's
Khmer Rouge allied with non-Communist guerilla forces led by Norodom Sihanouk and
Son Sann to fight against the Vietnamese forces and the new Phnom Penh regime. Some
high ranking officials of the Heng Samrin regime in the early 1980s resisted Vietnamese
control, resulting in a purge that removed Pen Sovan, Prime Minister and Secretary
General of the Cambodian People's Revolutionary Party. The war lasted until 1989 when
Vietnam withdrew its troops and handed the administration of Cambodia to the United
Nations. The Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia had prevented the genocide of millions
of Cambodians by the Khmer Rouge.

In early 1979, China invaded Vietnam to supposedly "teach Vietnam a lesson" for the
invasion of Cambodia and the supposed persecution of the ethnic Chinese minority. The
Sino-Vietnamese War was brief, but casualties were high on both sides.[15]

Vietnam's third Constitution, based on that of the USSR, was written in 1980. The
Communist Party was stated by the Constitution to be the only party to represent the
people and to lead the country.

During the early 1980s, a number of overseas Vietnamese organizations were created
with the aim of overthrowing the Vietnamese Communist government through armed
struggle. Most groups attempted to infiltrate Vietnam but eventually were eliminated by
Vietnamese security and armed forces.

Throughout the 1980s, Vietnam received nearly $3 billion a year in economic and
military aid from the Soviet Union and conducted most of its trade with the USSR and
other COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) countries. Some cadres,
realizing the economic suffering of the people, began to break rules and experimented
with market-oriented enterprises. Some were punished for their efforts, but years later
would be hailed as visionary pioneers.[citation needed]

[edit] Changing names

See also: List of Vietnamese dynasties
For the most part of its history, the geographical boundary of present day Vietnam
covered 3 ethnically distinct nations: a Vietnamese nation, a Cham nation, and a part of
the Khmer Empire.

The Viet nation originated in the Red River Delta in present day northern Vietnam and
expanded over its history to the current boundary. It went through a lot of name changes,
with Đại Việt being used the longest. Below is a summary of names:

Period Country Name Time Frame Boundary

No accurate record on its
boundary. Some legends
claim that its northern
boundary might reach the
Hồng Bàng Yangtze River. However,
Văn Lang Before 258 BC
Dynasty most modern history
textbooks in Vietnam only
claim the Red River Delta as
the home of the Lạc Việt
culture.
Red River delta and its
Thục Dynasty Âu Lạc 258 BC - 207 BC adjoining north and west
mountain regions.
Âu Lạc, Guangdong, and
Triệu Dynasty Nam Việt 207 BC - 111 BC
Guangxi.
Present-day north and north-
central of Vietnam
Chinese Han
Giao Chỉ (Jiao Zhi) 111 BC - 544 AD
Domination (southern border expanded
down to the Ma River and
Ca River delta).
Commonly called
Giao Châu.

Vạn Xuân during half-

Subsequent
century independence
Chinese 544 AD - 967 AD Same as above.
of Anterior Lý
Dynasties
Dynasty. Officially
named An Nam by
Chinese Tang Dynasty
since 679 CE.
Đinh and
Anterior Lê Đại Cồ Việt 967 AD - 1009 AD Same as above.
Dynasty
Southern border expanded
Lý and Trần
Đại Việt 1010 AD - 1400 AD down to present-day Huế
Dynasty
area.
Hồ Dynasty Đại Ngu 1400 AD - 1407 AD Same as above.
Lê, Mạc, Trịnh–
Gradually expanded to the
Nguyễn Lords,
Đại Việt 1428 AD - 1802 AD boundary of present day
Tây Sơn
Vietnam.
Dynasty
Present-day Vietnam plus
Nguyễn Dynasty Việt Nam 1802 AD - 1887 AD some occupied territories in
Laos and Cambodia.
French Indochina,
consisting of
Cochinchina (southern
Vietnam), Annam Present-day Vietnam, Laos,
French Colony 1887 AD - 1945 AD
(central Vietnam), and Cambodia.
Tonkin (northern
Vietnam), Cambodia,
and Laos
Democratic
Republic of
Vietnam (1945–
1976),
Việt Nam (with
variances such as
State of Vietnam
Democratic Republic
(1949–1956),
Independence of Vietnam, State of Present-day Vietnam.
Republic of
Vietnam, Republic of
Vietnam (1956–
Vietnam, Socialist
1975 in South
Republic of Vietnam)
Vietnam), Socialist
Republic of
Vietnam (1976–
present)

Almost all Vietnamese dynasties are named after the king's family name, unlike the
Chinese dynasties, whose names are dictated by the dynasty founders and often used as
the country's name.

It is still a matter of debate whether the Hồng Bàng Dynasty was real or just a symbolic
dynasty to represent the Lạc Việt nation before recorded history. The Thục, Triệu,
Anterior Lý, Ngô, Đinh, Anterior Lê, Lý, Trần, Hồ, Lê, Mạc, Tây Sơn, and Nguyễn are
usually regarded by historians as formal dynasties. Nguyễn Huệ's "Tây Sơn Dynasty" is
rather a name created by historians to avoid confusion with Nguyễn Anh's Nguyễn
Dynasty.

[edit] See also

• Economic history of Vietnam
 • Prime Minister of Vietnam
• North Vietnamese invasion of Laos
• History of China-detailed map animation of Vietnamese territories occupied by
China throughout the past.

[edit] References
1. ^ Kenny, Henry J. (2002). Shadow of the Dragon: Vietnam's Continuing Struggle
with China and the Implications for U.S. Foreign Policy. pp. 21.
2. ^ Neher, Clark D.; Ross Marlay (1995). Democracy and Development in
Southeast Asia: The Winds of Change. pp. 162.
3. ^ Gerd Albrecht: Circular Earthwork Krek 52/62: Recent Research of the
Prehistory of Cambodia PDF link
4. ^ Davidson, Jeremy H. C. S.; H. L. Shorto (1991). Austroasiatic Languages:
Essays in Honour of H.L. Shorto. pp. 95.
5. ^ "Japan's Role in the Vietnamese Starvation of 1944-45 by Bui Minh Dung
Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul., 1995), pp. 573-618 This article
consists of 46 page(s)". Cambridge University Press. http://links.jstor.org/sici?
sici=0026-749X(199507)29%3A3%3C573%3AJRITVS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2.
6. ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, page 18-19, ISBN 1898876673
7. ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, page 18, ISBN 1898876673
8. ^ a b Kolko, Gabriel Anatomy of War, page 36, ISBN 1898876673
9. ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, page 19, ISBN 1898876673
10. ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, page 20, ISBN 1898876673
11. ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, page 23-24 ISBN 1898876673
12. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War. ABC-
CLIO. pp. 366. ISBN 1-57607-040-0.
13. ^ Karnow, Stanley (1997). Vietnam: A history. Penguin Books. pp. 239.
ISBN 0-670-84218-4.
14. ^ Hammer, Ellen J. (1987). A Death in November. E. P. Dutton. pp. 154–
155. ISBN 0-525-24210-4.
15. ^ Clodfelter, Michael. Vietnam in Military Statistics: A History of the
Indochina Wars, 1772–1991 (McFarland & Co., Jefferson, North Carolina, 1995)
ISBN 0786400277.

[edit] Further reading

• Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions
according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Draft Edition. [1]
• Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚
豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD. Draft
annotated English translation. [2]
• Mesny, William. 1884. Tungking. Noronha & Co., Hong Kong.
• Nguyễn Khắc Viện 1999 . Vietnam - A Long History. Hanoi, Thế Giới Publishers.
 • Stevens, Keith. 1996. "A Jersey Adventurer in China: Gun Runner, Customs
Officer, and Business Entrepreneur and General in the Chinese Imperial Army.
1842-1919." Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol.
32 (1992). Published in 1996.
• Francis Fitzgerald. 1972. Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and the Americans in
Vietnam. Little, Brown and Company.
• Hung, Hoang Duy. 2005. A Common Quest for Vietnam's Future. Viet Long
Publishing.
• The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 2000. The
State of The World's Refugees 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action -
Chapter 4: Flight from Indochina (PDF). [3]
• Lê Văn Hưu & Ngô Sĩ Liên. Đại Việt Sử Ký Toàn Thư.
• Trần Trọng Kim. Việt Nam Sử Lược. Trung Tâm Học Liệu 1971.
• Phạm Văn Sơn. Việt Sử Toàn Thư.
• Taylor, Keith W. The Birth Of Vietnam.
• Trần Dân Tiên. Những Mẫu Chuyện Về Đời Hoạt Động Của Hồ Chủ Tịch.
• Văn Tiến Dũng. Đại Thắng Mùa Xuân.
• Bui Diem. In The Jaws Of History.
• Nguyen Tien Hung, Jerrold L. Schecter. The Palace File.
• Phạm Huấn. Cuộc Triệt Thoái Cao Nguyên 1975.
• Hành Trình Biển Đông Vol 1 and 2. Anthology of memoirs by Vietnamese boat
people.
• Nguyễn Khắc Ngữ. Nguồn Gốc Dân Tộc Việt Nam. Nhóm Nghiên Cứu Sử Địa.
• Văn Phố Hoàng Đống. Niên Biểu Lịch Sử Việt Nam Thời Kỳ 1945-1975. Đại Nam
2003.
• Lê Duẩn. Đề Cương Cách Mạng Miền Nam.
• Nhat Tien, Duong Phuc, Vu Thanh Thuy. Pirates in the Gulf of Siam.
• Nguyễn Văn Huy, Tìm hiểu cộng đồng người Chăm tại Việt Nam.

Visitors to Vietnam will notice that, invariably, the major streets of every city and town
bear the same two dozen or so names. These are names of Vietnam's greatest national
heroes who, over the last 2000 years, have led the country in its repeated expulsion of
foreign invaders and whose exploits have inspired subsequent generations of patriots.

History of Vietnam, according to Vietnamese legends, dates back more than 4,000 years.
The only reliable sources, however, indicate the Vietnamese or their country's history
roughly dates to 2700 years ago. For most of the period from 111 BC to early 10th
century, it was under the direct rule of successive dynasties from China. Vietnam
regained autonomy in 939 AD, and complete independence a century later. While for
much of its history, Vietnam remained a tributary state to the much larger neighbor --
China, it repelled repeated attempts by China to make it once again part of the Middle
Kingdom empire, including the three invasions by the Mongols during the Yuan Dynasty,
when China was under Mongolian rule. But ruler at the time, Tran Nhan Tong (Trần
Nhân Tông), would eventually diplomatically submit as a tributary of the Yuan to avoid
further conflicts. The independent period temporarily ended in mid-19th century, when
the country was colonized by France. During World War II, Japan expelled the French to
occupy Vietnam, though they retained French administrators during their occupation.
After the war, France attempted to re-establish its colonial rule but ultimately failed. The
Geneva Accords partitioned the country in two with a promise of democratic election to
reunite the country.

That election never took place, but gave way, depending on one's perspective, to a civil
war, or another battle field of then ongoing global ideological conflict,The Cold War --
the Vietnam War. During this time,the North was supported by the People's Republic of
China and the Soviet Union, while the South was supported by the United States. After
millions of Vietnamese deaths, and the American withdrawal from Vietnam in March
1973, the war ended with the capture of Saigon by the North in April 1975. Due to then
heightened ongoing ideological and economic conflicts of The Cold War, and its invasion
of Cambodia, Vietnam remained internationally isolated and politically oppressed. In
1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam changed its economic policy and started to move
towards reform of the private sector similar to that seen in China. Since the mid-eighties
Vietnam has enjoyed some economic growth and reduction in political repression though
reports of corruption in the country have also risen.

Top

Origins
According to Vietnamese myths, the first Vietnamese descended from the dragon lord
Lac Long Quan (L ạc Long Quân) and the heavenly spirit Au Co (Âu Cơ). Lac Long
Quan and Au Co had 100 sons before they split (50 went with their father to the
mountains and 50 with their mother down to the sea) and the eldest one became the first
in the lines of early Vietnamese kings, collectively known as Hung kings (Hung Vuong:
Hùng Vương). Under the Hung kings, the civilization that would later become Viet Nam
was called Van Lang (Văn Lang). The people of Van Lang were known as the Lac Viet
(Lạc Việt) people. By the 3rd century BC, another Viet group, the Au Viet (Âu Việt),
emigrated from present southern China to the Red River delta and mixed with the
indigenous Van Lang population. In 258 BC, a new kingdom from the union of the Âu
Việt and the Lạc Việt called Au Lac (Âu Lạc) was formed by Thuc Phan (Thục Phán) in
North Vietnam after he had defeated the last Hung ruler. Thuc Phan proclaimed himself
king (An Duong Vuong:An Dương Vương).

In 208 BC, during the chaos caused by the misrule of the Second Qin Emperor (Tần Nhị
Thế/Qin Er Shi), Au Lac was subdued by local warlord in deep south China -- Trieu Da
(Triệu Đà: Zhao Tuo). Trieu Da went on to proclaim himself king, then styled himself
emperor of NanYue (Nam Việt/Nan Yue) to rival the emperor of Han who ruled over
central China after Han's founder Liu Bang had defeated Xiang Yu.

Some Vietnamese considered this period under Trieu's rule a Chinese domination,
because Trieu Da was a former Qin general who defeated An Duong Vuong to
established his rule over the territory that is now Northern Vietnam. Yet others consider it
an era of independence, because the Trieu family ruled Nam Viet were assimilated with
the locals, and they ruled independently of what then constituted as China (Han dynasty)
until 111 BC, when the Han troops invaded Nam Viet, and incorporated its territory into
the Han empire, including what is now part of Northern Vietnam turned into Giao Chi
(Giao Chỉ/Jiaozhi) commandary.

Although without independence, Northern Vietnam remained relatively autonomous

during Trieu's and at the beginning of Han's rule, as native nobles, known as Lac Hau,
Lac Tuong (Lạc Hầu, Lạc Tướng) remained in charge of local administration. However,
at the end of Western Han, as waves of exiles from warring central plain flooded to the
Red River Delta, the Chinese started to exert stronger grip on local administration and
accelerated sinification. This resulted in heightened tension as natives and native nobles'
resentment to losing their properties, influence, as well as cultural identity to those new-
comers began to build.

In 40 AD, under a particularly harsh rule of Grand Administrator To Dinh (Tô Định:Su
Ding:蘇定), the Trung Sisters successfully led an uprising to drive off the Chinese,
briefly regained independence. In 41 AD, Emperor Quang Vu (Quang Vũ: Emperor
Guangwu of Han) sent his famed general Ma Vien (Mã Viện: Ma Yuan) to crush the
revolt. After 2 years of bitter fighting, Ma Vien prevailed. Native nobles were thoroughly
purged.

Nearly 200 years later, another woman -- Trieu Thi Trinh (Triệu Thị Trinh), and her
brother, Trieu Quoc Dat (Triệu Quốc Đạt), led another uprise against the Chinese. This
revolt was quickly suppressed. The Trungs' and Trieus' stories indicated that early
Vietnamese civilizations was perhaps largely matriarchal, where it was easy for women
to assume the leading position and mobilize people. In 2007, there was a case in a local
school in Georgia. There was a student named Nam, but that was his last name so he
changed his first name to Viet.

Much of northern Vietnam (from the Red River delta down to about the region of modern
Thanh Hóa province) was incorporated into the Chinese prefecture/commandery of
Jiaozhi, or Giao Chỉ, through much of the Han dynasty and the period of the Three
Kingdoms. Jiaozhi (with its capital settled around in modern Bắc Ninh province) became
a flourishing port receiving goods from the southern seas. "History of Later Han" (Hou
Hanshu:Hậu Hán Thư) recorded that in 166 CE the first envoy from the Roman Empire
to China arrived by this route, and merchants were soon to follow. The 3rd century "Tales
of Wei" (Weilue:Ngụy Lục) mentioned a "water route" (that is, the Red River) from
Jiaozhi into what is now southern Yunnan. From there goods were taken overland to the
rest of China via the regions of modern Kunming and Chengdu.

In the period between the beginning of the Age of Fragmentation to the end of Tang,
several revolts took place, such as those of Li Bon (Lý Bôn), his lieutenant Trieu Quang
Phuc (Triệu Quang Phục), Mai Thuc Loan (Mai Thúc Loan), Phung Hung (Phùng Hưng).
All of them succeeded to various degree but ultimately failed.

Top
Early Independence
In 939 AD, the Vietnamese finally threw off Chinese domination. By winning the Battle
of Bach Dang River (938), Ngo Quyen (Ngô Quyền) effectively ended Chinese influence
in Vietnam.

Upon Ngo Quyen's untimely death resulted in a power struggle for the throne, resulting in
the country's first major civil war, The upheavals of Twelve warlords. The war ended 2
decades later when the fraction led by Dinh Bo Linh (Đinh Bộ Lĩnh) was able to defeat
the others. Dinh founded the Dinh Dynasty and proclaimed himself Emperor of Dai Co
Viet (Đại Cồ Việt), with his capital located in Hoa Lu (Hoa Lư, modern day Ninh Bình).

After Dinh Bo Linh and his eldest son, Dinh Lien, were assassinated by an eunuch, his
lone surviving son -- the 6-year-old Dinh Toan assumed the throne. Taking advantage of
the situation, Chinese Song troops prepared to invade. Under the shadow of this threat,
the court's Supreme Commander of all Armed Forces, acting Regent, who was also lover
of Empress Duong, Dinh Toan's mother, Le Hoan staged a coup d'etat and took the
throne, founding Former Le Dynasty. Le Hoan proceeded to fight Song invaders,
culminatiing in a decisive victory at Bach Dang River in 968, ending the threat. Song-
Viet relation normalized soon afterwards.

Top

Dynastic Period
For the third successive time, succession proved a problem that prematurely ended
another dynasty. Le Hoan's death resulted in infighting for the throne amongst his sons.
The eventual winner, Le Long Dinh (Lê Long Đĩnh), then died soon thereafter. The
General of the Imperial Guards, Ly Cong Uan (Lý Công Uẩn) took advantage of the
situation to seize the throne, and founded the Lý Dynasty. This marks the beginning of a
golden era in Vietnamese history.

When the Lê emperor Lê Long Đĩnh died in his twenties, a court general named Lý Công
Uẩn took the chance to take over the throne and founded the Lý dynasty. This event is
regarded as the beginning of a golden era in Vietnamese history, with great dynasties
following one another. Lý Công Uẩn (commonly called Lý Thái Tổ - Lý the Founding
Emperor) changed the country's name to Đại Việt, established the capital in present-day
Hanoi and called it Thăng Long (Ascending Dragon) under the pretext of seeing a dragon
when he was touring the area. As with other dynasties in Vietnamese history, the Lý had
many wars with the Chinese, most notably when Lý troops under command of the
eunuch-turned-general Lý Thường Kiệt fought against the invasion of the Sung empire,he
eventually attacked some southern Chinese citadels to destroy the supplement of the Sung
troops,then later defeated this army at the battle by Như Nguyệt river (commonly Cầu
river), now in Bắc Ninh province (about 40km from the current capital, Hanoi).

During the late Lý era, a court official named Trần Thủ Độ became powerful. He forced
the emperor Lý Huệ Tông to become a Buddhist monk and set Lý Chiêu Hoàng, Huệ
Tông's young daughter, to become the empress. Trần Thủ Độ then arranged the marriage
of Chiêu Hoàng to his nephew Trần Cảnh and the transfer of the throne between the two.
Thus ended the Lý dynasty and started the Trần dynasty.

During the Trần dynasty, Đại Việt was under attacks three times by the Mongols, who
had occupied China and were ruling as the Yuan dynasty (see Mongol invasions of
Vietnam). With guerilla warfare tactics, Trần troops stopped all three Yuan invasions.
The Yuan-Trần war reached its climax when Yuan navy was decimated at the battle of
Bạch Đằng river. Trần troops, with the noble lord Trần Hưng Đạo as commander-in-
chief, used the exact same tactics as Ngô Quyền had used centuries before, at the exact
same site, to defeat northern invaders.

It was also during this period that the Trần kings waged many wars against the southern
kingdom of Chiêm Thành (Champa), continuing the Viets' long history of southern
expansion (known as Nam Tiến) that had begun shortly after gaining independence from
China. However, they encountered strong resistance from the Chams, and Champa troops
led by their king Chế Bồng Nga (Binasuor) even sacked Đại Việt's capital Thăng Long in
1372 and again in 1377.

The Trần dynasty was in turn overthrown by one of its own court officials, Hồ Quý Ly.
Hồ Quý Ly also forced the last Trần emperor to resign to a pagoda and assumed the
throne in 1400. He changed the country name to Đại Ngu and moved the capital to Tây
Đô (Western Capital, now Thanh Hóa). Thăng Long was renamed Đông Đô (Eastern
Capital). Although widely blamed as the person who disrupted the Trần dynasty and let
the country fall under the rule of the Chinese Ming dynasty, Hồ Quý Ly's reign actually
saw a lot of progressive, ambitious reforms, including free education, the adoption of
Nôm characters for writing official documents, and land reform. He ceded the throne to
his son, Hồ Hán Thương, in 1401 and assumed the title Thái Thượng Hoàng (The Highest
Father Emperor).

Lê Lợi waged a guerilla war against the Ming for over a decade from the forest of Lam
Sơn (Thanh Hóa province). After many defeats, he finally gathered momentum and was
able to launch a siege at Đông Quan (now Hanoi), the site of the Ming administration.
The Ming emperor sent a reinforcement force to rescue, but Lê Lợi staged an ambush and
killed the general, Liu Shan. Ming's troops at Đông Quan surrendered. In 1428, Lê Lợi
ascended to the throne and the Hậu Lê dynasty (Posterior Lê) began.

In 1471, Lê troops led by the great emperor Lê Thánh Tông invaded Champa, captured
its capital Vijaya and killed or enslaved the city's residents. This event effectively ended
the long conflict between the Vietnamese and Cham kingdoms. It initiated the dispersal
of the Cham people across southeast Asia.

With the kingdom of Champa mostly destroyed and the Cham people exiled or
suppressed, Vietnamese colonization of what is now central Vietnam proceeded without
substantial resistance. However, despite becoming greatly outnumbered by Kinh settlers
and the integration of formerly Cham territory into the Vietnamese nation, populations of
Cham nevertheless remained in Vietnam and now comprise one of the minority peoples
of modern Vietnam. (The modern city of Huế, founded in 1600 lies close to where the
Champa capital of Indrapura once stood).

The Lê dynasty was overthrown by a general named Mac Dang Dung (Viet: Mạc Đăng
Dung) in 1527. He killed the Lê emperor and set himself as king, starting the Mạc
dynasty. After ruling for two years, Mạc Đăng Dung adopted Hồ Quý Ly's practice and
ceded the throne to his son, Mạc Đăng Doanh, and himself become Thái Thượng Hoàng.
Nguyen Kim (Viet: Nguyễn Kim), a former official in the Lê court, set up a Lê prince as
the emperor Lê Trang Tông and rebelled against the Mạc. A civil war ensued.

Nguyễn Kim's side was winning the war, and he controlled the southern part Vietnam,
leaving only the area around the capital Đông Kinh (Hanoi) and to the north under Mạc
control. When Nguyễn Kim was assassinated in 1545, military power fell into the hand of
his son-in-law, Trinh Khiem (Viet: Trịnh Kiểm). The civil war between Lê and Mạc
dynasties largely ended in 1592, when the army of Trịnh Tùng conquered Hanoi and
executed the Mạc emperor Mạc Mậu Hợp. Survivors of the Mạc royal family fled to the
mountains in the province of Cao Bằng and continued to rule there until 1667 when Trịnh
Tạc conquered this last bit of Mạc territory.

After Trinh Khiem assumed power from Nguyễn Kim, the oldest son, Nguyễn Uông was
poisoned and died. Some 15 years later, Trinh Khiem gave the younger son, Nguyễn
Hoàng rulership of the southern provinces (then called Quãng Nam). He governed the
south effectively while Trinh Khiem and then Trịnh Tùng carried on the war against the
Mạc. Nguyễn Hoàng sent money and soldiers north to help the war but gradually he
became more and more independent. In the year 1600, Nguyễn Hoàng declared himself
Lord (Vương) and refused to send more money or soldiers to the court in Hanoi. He also
moved his capital to a new place, Phu Xuan (Viet: Phú Xuân, modern-day Huế). Trịnh
Tùng effectively ignored the actions of his uncle. Nguyễn Hoàng died in 1613 having
ruled the south for 55 years. He was succeeded by his 6th son Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên who
likewise refused to acknowledge the rulership of the Court in Hanoi.

When Trịnh Tùng died in 1623 he was succeeded by his son Trịnh Tráng who ordered
Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên to submit to his authority. The order was refused, twice. In 1627,
Trịnh Tráng sent his army south to conquer what had become an independent territory.

The Trịnh-Nguyễn War lasted from 1627 till 1672. The Trịnh army staged at least seven
different offensives all of which failed to capture Phú Xuân. For a time, starting in 1651,
the Nguyễn themselves went on the offensive and conquered parts of Trịnh territory.
However, the Trịnh, under a new leader, Trịnh Tạc, forced the Nguyễn back by 1655.
After one last offensive in 1672, Trịnh Tạc agreed to a truce with the Nguyễn Lord
Nguyễn Phúc Tân. The country was effectively divided in two and the Trịnh and the
Nguyễn did not fight for the next 100 years.

Meanwhile, the Nguyễn Lords continued the southward expansion by conquest of the
various Khmer territories in the Mekong delta, and by the end of their rule had brought
Vietnam's territory to almost present-day shape. Similar to the defeat of Champa,
Vietnamese military victories in these territories initiated the large-scale colonization of
what is now southern Vietnam by Kinh settlers in an area previously populated mainly by
Khmers. Those who remained in the territories settled by the Vietnamese settlers became
the Khmer Krom minority of modern Vietnam and have maintained a distinct ethnic
identity, despite substantial intermarriage with Vietnamese and widespread adoption of
the Vietnamese language and cultural influence.

In 1771, the Tay Son (Viet: Tây Sơn) rebellion broke out in Bình Định province, which
was under the control of the Nguyễn. Leaders of this rebellion were three brothers named
Nguyễn but they were not related to the Nguyễn lords. The three brothers were
remarkably successful. By 1776, the Tây Sơn had occupied all of the Nguyễn Lord's land
and killed (almost) the entire royal family. The surviving prince Nguyen Anh (Viet:
Nguyễn Phúc Ánh) fled to Siam, and managed to obtain the support of the Siamese king.
Nguyễn Ánh came back with Siamese troops in an attempt to regain power, but he was
defeated at Rạch Gầm and Xoài Mút by the Tây Sơn army. Nguyễn Ánh fled Vietnam,
but he did not give up.

The Tây Sơn army (西山) under Nguyen Hue (Viet: Nguyễn Huệ) marched north in 1786
to fight the Trịnh Lord, Trịnh Khải. The Trịnh army refused to even fight Nguyễn Huệ
(he had great popularity), Trịnh Khải committed suicide. The Tây Sơn army captured the
capital in less than two months. The last Lê emperor, Lê Chiêu Thống, fled to China and
petitioned the Chinese Emperor for help. The Qing emperor Qianlong supplied Lê Chiêu
Thống with a massive army to regain his throne from the usurper. Nguyễn Huệ
proclaimed himself Emperor with the name Quang Trung and his army defeated Qing
troops in a sudden attack during the New Year (Tết) just outside Hanoi. During his reign,
Quang Trung enacted many good reforms but he died in 1792, at the age of 40.

After Quang Trung's death, the Tây Sơn court became unstable as the remaining brothers
fought against each other and against the people who were loyal to Nguyễn Huệ's infant
son. Nguyễn Ánh, the last Nguyễn Lord, managed to obtain some help from France and
in 1800, his small army captured the Tây Sơn citadel Quy Nhơn. One year later, he
occupied Phú Xuân, the Tây Sơn capital. Nguyễn Ánh finally won the war in 1802, when
he besieged Thăng Long (Hanoi) and executed Nguyễn Huệ's son, Nguyễn Quang Toản,
along with many Tây Sơn generals and officials. Nguyễn Ánh ascended the throne and
chose the name Gia Long. Gia is for Gia Định, the old name of Saigon; Long is for Thăng
Long, the old name of Hanoi. Hence Gia Long implies the unification of the country. The
Nguyễn dynasty lasted until Bảo Đại's abdication in 1945.

The modern name of Vietnam is known officially came under the Emperor Gia Long's
reign, but recently historians have found that this name has been existed in older books in
which Vietnamese called their country name Vietnam. In 1802, he asked the Manchu
Chinese emperor for permission to rename the country, from An Nam to Nam Việt. To
prevent any confusion of Gia Long's kingdom with Triệu Đà's ancient kingdom, the
Chinese emperor reversed the order of the two words to Việt Nam.
There were over ten recognizable dynasties in Vietnam's history. Some are not
considered official, such as the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Tây Sơn
dynasty.

Almost all Vietnamese dynasties are named after the ruler's family name, unlike the
Chinese dynasties, whose names are an attribute chosen by the first emperors.

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The Changing Names

During the period of Chinese domination, Vietnam was called An Nam (安南) by
Chinese rulers (means Pacified South in expectation of China). When Vietnam broke
free, it was called Đại Cồ Việt (大瞿越), Đại Ngu or Đại Việt (大越). In 1802, Emperor
Gia Long requested the Qing Empire to allow his country to be known as Nam Việt (南
越). To prevent confusion with Triệu Đà's ancient kingdom, the Qing Manchu Chinese
Emperor reversed the two words to Việt Nam. In 1838, during the Nguyễn Dynasty, the
nation's name was changed temporarily to Đại Nam (大南). During the French
colonization, Vietnam was divided into: Tonkin (Bắc Kỳ or North Vietnam), Annam
(Trung Kỳ or Central Vietnam), and Cochin China (Nam Kỳ or South Vietnam).

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Colonization
France's involvement can be traced to Alexandre de Rhodes, a Jesuit priest who
converted many Vietnamese to Catholicism in the early 1600s. Rhodes improved on
earlier works by Portuguese missionaries and developed the Vietnamese romanized
alphabet Quốc Ngữ. It was another priest, Pierre-Joseph Pigneaux de Béhaine, who
intertwined Vietnam's and France's destinies. By the late 1700s, Vietnam was in turmoil.
For the last 150 years, two noble families had partitioned and ruled the country. The
Nguyễn Lords ruled the South and the Trịnh Lords ruled the North. The two fought a
long war against each other starting in 1627. The war ended with no change to the
borders in 1673. For the next 100 years, the Trịnh tried to administer a peaceful but rather
stagnant state in the north, while the Nguyễn embarked on a major expansion of their
lands south into Champa and then Cambodia. By 1770, the Nguyễn Lords had doubled
the size of the territory they controlled but at the cost of three major wars with Cambodia
and Siam over the last 50 years.

Starting in 1771, the Tay Son (Viet: Tây Sơn) brothers, Nguyễn Văn Nhạc, Nguyễn Văn
Lữ, and Nguyen Van Hue (Viet: Nguyễn Văn Huệ) fought a savage war against the
Nguyễn Lords in southern Vietnam. Many peasants had become tired of the corruption
and tyranny of both the Trịnh and Nguyễn officials and eagerly joined the uprising of the
Tây Sơn, who enacted social reforms in the lands they captured. In 1776, the Tây Sơn
army captured Saigon and killed nearly the entire Nguyễn family, all except for Nguyen
Phuc Anh (Viet: Nguyễn Phúc Ánh). As a result of the victory, Nguyễn Văn Nhạc
declared himself king of the south.
But Nguyễn Phúc Ánh was not beaten. He made a deal with the former enemies of the
Nguyễn, the King of Siam, and a largely Siamese army and navy attacked the south in
1782. The war lasted for some years before the Tây Sơn defeated Nguyễn Ánh and his
Siamese allies.

In 1786, with Nguyễn Ánh defeated, Nguyễn Văn Huệ marched north with an army. The
Royal army refused to even fight Huệ and the Trịnh Lord ended up killing himself. The
last Emperor of the Lê dynasty, Lê Chiêu Thống, then went to the Qing Manchu Chinese
emperor and asked for troops to put down this pesant rebellion. The Chinese agreed and
sent an army south. In 1787, the Manchu army captured Hanoi and reinstalled the Lê
King and a Trịnh Lord. A few months later Nguyễn Văn Huệ fought the Chinese near
present day Hanoi and won a major victory in a surprise attack during the Tết holiday
(The same tactic would be used centuries later by Võ Nguyên Giáp in 1968). After
declaring himself King (Quang Trung), Nguyễn Huệ died mysteriously at the age of 40,
leaving a young son as his successor. The surviving Tây Sơn brothers began to fight with
each other and Huệ's son, as each claimed rule over all of Vietnam.

Taking sides with Nguyễn Ánh, Pigneaux sailed to France with Nguyễn Ánh's youngest
son. At Louis XVI's court, Pigneaux brokered the Little Treaty of Versailles, which
promised French military aid in return for Vietnamese concessions. The French
Revolution intervened and Pigneaux's ambition seemed for naught. Undaunted, Pigneaux
went to the French territory of Pondicherry, India. He secured two ships, a regiment of
Indian troops, and a handful of volunteers and returned to Vietnam in 1788. One of
Pigneaux's volunteers, Jean-Marie Dayot, reorganized Nguyễn Ánh's navy along
European lines and defeated the Tây Sơn navy at Quy Nhơn in 1792. A few years later,
Nguyễn Ánh's forces captured Saigon. Pigneaux died in Saigon in 1799. Another
volunteer, Victor Olivier de Puymanel would later build the Gia Định fort in central
Saigon.

As a result of the Tây Sơn internal conflicts, and due to his own skills as a leader,
Nguyễn Ánh was able to defeate the Tây Sơn brothers in turn. In his final campaign he
captured and killed Nguyễn Văn Huệ's son and conquered Hanoi in 1802. With all of
Vietnam under his control, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long.

Gia Long also tolerated Catholicism. However he and his successors were staunch
Confucians and admirers of China, not of France. His successors, Ming Mạng and Tự
Đức, brutally suppressed Catholicism and attempted to undo French influence. Tens of
thousands of Vietnamese and foreign-born Christians were massacred during this period,
an act which provoked the Catholic nations of Europe to retaliate. An adherence to
Confucianism during this time also meant that the Emperors refused to allow any
modernization or technological advancement. When conflict came, as a result of this
isolationist policy, the Vietnamese were completely out-matched.

Under the orders of Napoleon III of France, the landing of French forces in the port of Đà
Nẵng in August 1858, heralded the beginning of the colonial occupation which was to
last almost a century. France assumed sovereignty over Annam and Tonkin after the
Franco-Chinese War (1884-1885). French Indochina was formed in October 1887 from
Annam, Tonkin, Cochin China, and the Khmer Republic; Laos was added in 1893.

With the death of Tự Đức in 1883, a succession of Emperors were quickly elevated and
just as quickly deposed. The teenage Emperor Hàm Nghi left the Imperial Palace of Huế
in 1885 and started the Cần Vương, or "Aid the King", movement. Hàm Nghi asked the
people to rally with him to resist the French. He was captured in 1888 and exiled to
French Algeria. A former mandarin Phan Đình Phùng continued the Cần Vương
movement until his death in 1895.

In 1905 Vietnamese resistance centered on the intellectual, Phan Bội Châu. Phan Bội
Châu looked to Japan, which had modernized itself and was practically alone among
Asian nations to resist colonization. With Prince Cường Để, Phan Bội Châu started two
organizations in Japan: Duy Tân Hội and Việt Nam Công Hiến Hội. Due to French
pressure, Japan deported Phan Bội Châu to China. Witnessing Sun Yat-Sen's 1911
nationalist revolution, Phan Bội Châu was inspired to create the Vietnam Quang Phục
Hội movement in Guangzhou. From 1914 to 1917, he was imprisoned by Yuan Shikai's
counter-revolutionary government. In 1925, he was captured by French agents in
Shanghai and spirited to Vietnam. Due to his popularity, Phan Bội Châu was spared from
execution and placed under house arrest, until his death in 1940.

In 1940, Japan, coinciding with their ally Germany's invasion of France -- invaded
Indochina. Keeping the German-controlled Vichy French colonial administration in
place, the Japanese ruled from behind the scenes in parallel. As far as the Vietnamese
were concerned, this was a double-puppet government. The symbolic Emperor Bảo Đại
collaborated with the Japanese, just as he had with the French, causing no trouble and
ensuring his lifestyle could continue.

Meanwhile, in 1941 Hồ Chí Minh, a trained Communist revolutionary, returned to

Vietnam and joined the Việt Minh, which means "Vietnamese Allied." Hồ was a
founding member of the French Communist Party in the 1920s in Paris. He spent many
years in Moscow and participated in the International Comintern. At the direction of
Moscow, he first convinced everybody of his patriotic intention and absorbed the various
Vietnamese revolutionist groups into the Việt Minh. In order to win trust he de-
emphasised his Communist ties by dissolving the Indochinese Communist Party, which
he had created in Hong Kong in 1930.

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Post World War II Period

In 1946, due to a combination of Japanese exploitation and poor weather, a famine broke
out in Tonkin killing approximately 2 million. The Việt Minh arranged a massive relief
effort and won over many people. In northern Vietnam, the Japanese surrendered to the
Chinese Nationalists. The Việt Minh organized the "August Revolution" uprisings across
the country. At the beginning of a new future, Emperor Bảo Ðại was happy to abdicate on
August 25, 1945 and surrender his power to the Việt Minh, of which Hồ Chí Minh was
the leader. In order to gain popularity, Hồ made Bảo Ðại "supreme advisor" to the Việt
Minh-led government in Hanoi, which asserted independence on September 2. In 1946
Vietnam gained its first constitution and a new name, the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (DRV).

In southern Vietnam, the Japanese surrendered to British forces. The British supported
the Free French forces in fighting the Việt Minh, the armed religious Cao Ðài and Hòa
Hảo sects, and the Bình Xuyên organized crime group for power. In 1948, France tried to
regain control over Vietnam. The French re-installed Bảo Ðại as head of state of "the
State of Vietnam," which comprised central and southern Vietnam. The First Indochina
War lasted until 1954, with the French being defeated at the Battle of Ðiện Biên Phủ.

After World War II, the United States and the USSR entered into the Cold War, with both
sides determined to expand their influence over the globe. The Korean War broke out
between the North Koreans, supported by China and the USSR, and the Republic of
Korea, supported by the US and allied nations. Initially the conflict was limited to North
Korea, the Republic of Korea, and US military forces. However, when General Douglas
MacArthur penetrated deep into North Korea, the Chinese flooded the country with an
enormous army. The Korean War would have deep implications for the American
involvement in Vietnam.

The United States became strongly opposed to Hồ Chí Minh, who had now re-asserted
the dominance of the Vietnamese Communist Party within the Việt Minh in 1950. In the
South of the same year, the government of Bảo Ðại gained recognition by the United
States and the United Kingdom.

The Geneva Conference of 1954 ended France's colonial presence in Vietnam and
temporarily partitioned the country into 2 states at the 17th parallel (pending unification
on the basis of internationally supervised free elections). The US installed Ngô Ðình
Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam with Bảo Ðại as the king of a constitutional
monarchy. While Diệm was trying to settle the differences between the armed groups in
the South, Bảo Ðại was persuaded to reduce his power. Diệm used a referendum in 1955
to depose the former Emperor and declare himself as President of the Republic of
Vietnam (South Vietnam). The Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed in Saigon on
October 22, 1955.

Also in 1954, former Vietminh forces above the 17th parallel created the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam which was a Communist State under Hồ Chí Minh. The government
was much more stable than its Southern counterpart due to political experience and a
dependable army which had weathered the First Indochina War.

South Vietnamese who opposed Diệm's rule and desired the reunification of Vietnam
under the Hanoi government of Hồ Chí Minh organized the National Liberation Front,
better known as the Việt Cộng. Supported and later directed by the Vietnam People's
Army (PAVN) in the North, they would launch guerrilla attacks in the South against
Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) military targets and, later, American troops.
The Geneva Accords had promised elections to determine a national government for a
unified Vietnam. However, only France and the North Vietnamese government
(Democratic Republic of Vietnam) had signed the document. The United States and the
Saigon government refused to abide by the agreement, fearing that Hồ Chí Minh would
readily win the election due to his popularity. The result was the "Second Indochina
War," known as the "Vietnam War" in the West and the "American War" in Vietnam.
The war reached its height in 1966, when President Lyndon Johnson ordered 500,000
American troops into South Vietnam. Fearing the Chinese would directly enter the war
with a massive army, as had occurred when U.S.-led United Nations forces approached
the Chinese border during the Korean War, American ground troops were forbidden to
enter North Vietnam.

The massive 1968 Tết Offensive by Communist forces was a catastrophic military defeat
for the Việt Cộng but a stunning political victory, as it led many American people to view
the war as unwinnable. President Richard Nixon entered office with a pledge to end the
war "with honor." He normalized US relations with mainland China in 1972 (Sino-
American relations) and entered into Détente with the USSR. With the Paris Peace
Agreement of 1973, American military forces withdrew from Vietnam. Despite the peace
treaty, the North continued the war, and defeated the South in April 1975 after American
aid was refused the South. In 1976, Vietnam was officially reunited under the current
Vietnamese government as The Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

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Aftermath of the Vietnam War and Reunification

After April 30th, 1975, many of those who held high positions in the old South
Vietnamese government were persecuted, and sent to reeducation camps. This, and an
overall decline in living conditions resulted in an exodus of over a million Vietnamese
that fled the country either by sea or overland through Cambodia. They settled in refugee
camps in Thailand, Malaysia, Hong Kong, the Philippines and Indonesia. Large
Vietnamese refugee communities still exist in these countries. Some Vietnamese were
picked up by US Navy ships, sent to Guam, and eventually settled in the United States,
Canada, France, Australia or in various European nations. Others were robbed, raped, or
killed by pirates in the South China Seas. Others still faced attacks by cruel weather,
shark attacks, or died of starvation. Many lived in makeshift refugee encampments for
years. While most were resettled to other countries within five years, others languished in
these camps for over a decade. Some refugees were deported back to Vietnam, facing
severe punishment for attempting to flee. The last of the official refugee camps were
closed in 2005.

Debate about the significance of the Vietnam War continues to this day: one debate
centers on whether the war was an internal civil war or a proxy war; another concerns
whether the Vietnam War reinforced or disproved the Domino Theory or that the war
mitigated the consequences of the fallen domino, Vietnam; whether the rise of the Khmer
Rouge in Cambodia and the resulting genocide, is a direct or indirect result of the
Vietnam War; whether if Nixon had avoided the Watergate scandal, he would have
prevented the fall of Saigon or he had intended to abandon Vietnam all along.

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Reforms
In 1986 Vietnam, under a new leader Nguyễn Văn Linh, abandoned its attempt to
maintain a purely Communist political philosophy. Although the Communist government
still held firm political control, the reform called Doi Moi, resulted in liberizations on
private enterprise and the education system. In 1995 Vietnam joined the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). A stock exchange opened in 2000. The Soviet
collapse also deprived Vietnam of economic assistance from its former ally, and its
government soon began mending relations with the US, its former enemy. In 1994, the
US effectively ended the embargo and the two countries finally established normal
diplomatic & trade relations in 1995. The embargo of Vietnam began in 1964 for North
Vietnam and extended to all of Vietnam in 1975. Thirty years later, its ending marked the
beginning of Vietnam joining the economic and political sphere of South East Asian
nations.

Vietnam is a nation in transition from its Communist past. It is still a one-party state
(with minimal separation of powers). Journalism and political dissent are still strictly
controlled, with all media owned by the government. Some dissidents were arrested for
sending emails abroad, criticizing the government . The Unified Buddhist Church of
Vietnam and a groups ethnic minority Protestant people in the northern and central
highlands (Tây Nguyên) who want to secede are also suppressed, the Vietnamese
government claims this is a result of their political involvement rather than their religious
beliefs. In September 2004, the US State Department designated Vietnam a “Country of
Particular Concern” because of Vietnam’s “particularly severe violations of religious
freedom”, but the preciseness in detail of this designation is questionable. In 2006,
however, improvement on religious freedom in Vietnam was acknowledged by the
United State government with the removal of the country from the list of Country of
Particular Concern [1]. In June 2004, Japan announced that it would link its aid to
Vietnam with Vietnam's respect for human rights. Japan's aid to Vietnam has risen
steadily over the last decade.

Vietnam is growing fast economically (GDP doubled every ten years in the last two
decades) and adopting a transparent, decentralized governing style to further reduce
poverty. The poverty ratio in Vietnam has fallen rapidly (58% in 1993 to 29% in 2002,
according to UNDP's data [2]). It is still however relatively poor country. In a list of 177
countries, Vietnam's Human Development Index climbed from being 120 in 1995 to 108
in 2005 [3]. Export grows strongly (20% per year), emphasizing on producing cheap
goods for Western markets. Vietnam becomes a member of the WTO (World Trade
Organization) in 2006.

(Source: Wikipedia: www.wikipedia.com)

Com (steamed rice) Banh Chung (sticky rice square cake) Gio Lua (lean pork pie)
Pho (noodles) Cha Ca (grilled minced fish) Com Rang (fried rice)
Banh Cuon (steamed rice pancakes) Bun (rice vermicelli) Mien (vermicelli made of cassava)
Banh Tom (crispy shrimp pastry) Nom (salad) Nem Ran or Cha Gio (fried spring rolls)
Faifo Dainty (Danang) Tom Chua (Hue Sour Shrimp) Com Hen (Hue Mussel Rice)
Hue Beef Noodle Soup Hu Tieu (My Tho Noodle Soup) Lau Mam (mixed hotpot)
Canh Chua (fish sour soup) Chao Tom (grilled shrimp paste) Banh Cuon Trang Bang (rice pancakes)

Vietnam is a country of variety of food. Vietnamese cusine is particular although most of

the dishes have root from China but are added and improved by Vietnamese generations
to be typical and light. Taste a Vietnamese food, notably, the most famous and popular
'Spring Roll', you will soon realise its pure distinction which nowhere to be found.

You will never have to look very far for food in Vietnam - restaurants (nha hang) of one
sort or another seem to be in every nook and cranny. Unless you eat in exclusive hotels or
restaurants, Vietnamese food is cheap. The best bargains can be found at street stalls,
most of which are limited to the amount of ingredients they can carry, so tend to
specialise in a couple of particular dishes. Wander around until something takes your
fancy.

square cake (banh chung)

spring rolls (nem) steamed rice pancakes (banh

cuon)

Com (steamed rice)

In Vietnam, com is eaten at the main meals of the day (lunch and dinner). Rice is eaten
together with a variety of different dishes and is made from different kinds of rice.
Typically fragrant rice is used, such as Tam Thom and Nang Huong. An ordinary meal
may consist of steamed rice and the following:

Mon an kho (meal without soup) consists of dishes of pork, fish, shrimp, and vegetable
cooked in oil, as well as vegetables, pickles, etc.

Mon canh (meal with soup) consists of a soup made with pork or spare-ribs, crab meat,
and fish.

In the past several years, people in urban centers have begun to go out for lunch at the
food stalls on the street. Consequently, there has been a proliferation of temporary food
stalls along many sidewalks and public spaces in the cities. Some stalls are open until
early in the morning to cater to regular customers. Around noon, owners can be seen
arranging tables and benches along the pavement to form makeshift shop floors. After
two or three hours, when there are no more customers, they begin to remove all of their
wooden furniture, so that the place resumes its former appearance. A well served lunch
for one is very inexpensive.

Banh Chung (sticky rice square cake)

Sticky rice square cakes are a Vietnamese traditional dish that must be part of Tet meals.
As a matter of fact, every Vietnamese family must have sticky rice cakes among the
offerings placed on the altar to their ancestors.

Bang chung is made of glutinous rice, pork meat, and green beans paste wrapped in a
square of bamboo leaves, giving the rice a green colour after boiling.

According to the legend, under the reign of the Hung Kings, Prince Lang Lieu created
sticky rice cakes and presented them to his father. Bang chung won high acclaims from
the King who awarded the prince his throne.

Making sticky rice cakes is a very meticulous job. To obtain the best cakes, rice has to
soak in water for an entire day. The pork meat must include skin and fat, the green beans
must be of the same size, and the bamboo leaves must be fresh. Squaring off and tying
cakes with bamboo strings requires skilful hands.

Sticky rice cakes are available at any time of the year, although one is sure to enjoy them
with relatives and friends during Tet. During Tet, rice cakes are served with gio lua and
hanh muoi– lean meat pie and salted sour onions.

Gio Lua (lean pork pie)

Lean pork pie is available in Vietnam only and has different names in the north and
south. Foreigners as well as Vietnamese are fond of lean pork pie.

Gio lua consists of pork meat wrapped in fresh banana leaves. The little bundles are then
boiled. The most delicious part of lean pork pie is the top layer since it absorbs the
flavour of the banana leaves.

Pho (noodles)
Pho is the most popular food among the Vietnamese population. Pho is commonly eaten
for breakfast, although many people will have it for their lunch or dinner. Anyone feeling
hungry in the small hours of the morning can also enjoy a bowl of hot and spicy pho to
fill their empty stomachs.
Like hot green tea which has its particular fragrance, pho also has its special taste and
smell. Preparations may vary, but when the dish is served, its smell and taste is
indispensable. The grated rice noodle is made of the best variety of fragrant rice called
Gao Te. The broth for Pho Bo (Pho with beef) is made by stewing the bones of cows and
pigs in a large pot for a long time. Pieces of fillet mignon together with several slices of
ginger are reserved for Pho Bo Tai (rare fillet). Slices of well done meat are offered to
those less keen on eating rare fillets.

The soup for Pho Ga (pho with chicken meat) is made by stewing chicken and pig bones
together. The white chicken meat that is usually served with Pho Ga is boneless and cut
into thin slices. You could consider Pho Bo and Pho Ga Vietnam's special soups. Pho
also has the added advantage of being convenient to prepare and healthy to eat.

Cha Ca (grilled minced fish)

Grilled minced fish has been served in Vietnam for more than 100 years. The Doan
family of Cha Ca Street in Hanoi first invented this dish.

A wide variety of fish can be used in this dish including sturgeon and tuna. Tuna is low in
fat, has an exquisite flavour, and few bones. The bones are separated from the meat and
put into saffron water to be later used in a sauce. The fish is marinated in salt before
being grilled.
What is interesting about this dish is that people can add their favourite condiments:
coriander, mint, dill, shallots, and more.

Com Rang (fried rice)

Fried rice is mostly served in the fall. After collecting the rice from the fields, several
steps have to be performed to obtain excellent com. After removing the grains from their
hulks, the rice is wrapped in lotus leaves to keep it from drying and to allow it to absorb
the lotus flavor.

Fried rice can be found everywhere in Vietnam, but the best com is found in Vong
village, 5 km from Hanoi. People in this village still use traditional secret recipes. People
eat grilled rice with eggs, bananas, or sapodillas.

Banh Cuon (steamed rice pancakes)

Eating banh cuon for breakfast is a great favorite among many Vietnamese.

Banh cuon is made of rice flour. Thoroughly selected rice is soaked overnight, then
ground with a stone mortar. Food preservatives are put into the flour to make the rice
sheets softer and smoother. A screen of cloth used to mold the rice sheets is fitted over
the opening of a pot of boiling water. Flour is spread on the screen and covered with a lid.
After a few minutes, a bamboo stick is used to strip the thin layer of flour off the screen.
Then it is rolled up and sprinkled with fried onions.
A small village in a suburb of Hanoi is famous for its banh cuon. People there serve it
with a dressing comprised of lean meat, shrimps, mushrooms, dried onions, fish sauce,
and pepper.

All the ingredients are stir-fried and rolled into a banh cuon.

Banh cuon is delicious when it is very thin, white, and sticky. It is even tastier when
dipped in a sweet, sour, and spicy sauce.

Bun (rice vermicelli)

Vietnamese vermicelli is a luxurious as well as a popular dish. There are different
varieties of vermicelli depending on their shape: bun roi or stirred vermicelli, bun mam or
twisted vermicelli, bun la or vermicelli paper, and bun dem tram or shreded vermicelli.

Different ingredients can be served with vermicelli: grilled pork meat, fried rice cakes,
snails, fried eggs, lean meat pie, chicken, and crab soup, to name a few.

Each region and locality, even each restaurant, has its own vermicelli dishes with their
own recipes.

Mien (vermicelli made of cassava)

Mien threads are very long and tough, made from a kind of tuber plant called cassava.
When served, the long tiny flour threads are cut into smaller pieces. Like rice vermicelli,
this kind of cassava vermicelli is used to make several different dishes, the most popular
being Mien Ga (chicken cassava vermicelli), Mien Bo (beef cassava vermicelli), and
Mien Luon (eel cassava vermicelli).

Cassava vermicelli is also used for different dishes which are stirred in oil, such as Mien
Xao Thit (vermicelli and pork stirred in fat), Mien Xao Long Ga (vermicelli and chicken
tripe stirred in fat), and Mien Xao Cua Be (vermicelli and sea crab meat stirred in fat).

Banh Tom (crispy shrimp pastry)

Although Banh Tom is available almost everywhere in the country, it is best at the Nha
Hang Ho Tay (Ho Tay Restaurant) on the banks of Truc Bach Lake, close to Ho Tay
(West Lake) in Hanoi. While diners await the arrival of the hot fried shrimp pastry, they
can enjoy the picturesque lake and landscapes offered by the vast expanse of water from
West Lake and the tree-lined Thanh Nien Road.

The dish should be eaten as soon as it arrives at the table. The fried pastry is topped with
red shrimps and is eaten together with dishes of spicy vegetables mixed with sweet and
sour sauce.

To remind you of the local shrimping business, waiters will often tell you that the
shrimps that you have ordered for your meal have just been netted in nearby West Lake.
This will be a memorable meal that will ensure that you remember your stay in Hanoi.
Nom (salad)
This dish is a combination of a variety of fresh vegetables, usually used in salads in
Western countries. The make-up of Nom, however, is slightly different.

The main ingredients of Nom include grated pieces of turnip, cabbage, or papaya, and
slices of cucumber with grated, boiled, lean pork. Other auxiliary ingredients include
grated carrot, slices of hot chilly, and roasted ground nuts. These are used to make the
dish more colourful. All are mixed thoroughly before being soaked in vinegar, sugar,
garlic, hot chilly, and seasoned with salt.

The presentation of the dish is also very meticulous. The mixture of ingredients is put
into a dish before being covered with vegetables.

To try a mouthful of Nom is to enjoy a combination of all the tastes life has to offer,
including sour, hot, sweet, salty, and fragrant tastes. The dish helps with digestion at
meals and parties.

It can become an addictive aid to assist the real connoisseur enjoy more food.

Nem Ran or Cha Gio (fried spring rolls)

This dish is called Nem Ran by northerners and Cha Gio by southerners. In Hanoi, the
introduction of Nem Ran dates back to a time when Cha Ca had not existed. Although it
ranks among Vietnam's specialty dishes, Nem Ran is very easy to prepare. Consequently,
it has long been a preferred food on special occasions such as Tet and other family
festivities.

Ingredients used for Nem Ran comprise of lean minced pork, sea crabs or unshelled
shrimps, two kinds of edible mushroom (Nam Huong and Moc Nhi), dried onion, duck
eggs, pepper, salt and different kinds of seasoning. All are mixed thoroughly before being
wrapped with transparent rice paper into small rolls. These rolls are then fried in boiling
oil.

Faifo Dainty (Danang)

Faifo dainty is a fairly unknown Vietnamese dish named after an old street in Hoi An.

Dainty fiber is carefully made by putting rice in water containing ashes from wood found
in Cu Lao Cham. Then, the rice is ground and quickly boiled to make a fibrous mixture.
Dainty can be preserved only one day, which is why it is boiled and dried. Dainty fibers
have a dark-yellow colour.

The filling for dainty consists of lean pork and other condiments that are stir-fried. Then,
the dainty is cut into finger-long pieces that are dried and grilled. Finally, the filling is put
into the dainty. For a saltier taste, one can add fish sauce. Chicken meat cut in squares
combined with small shrimps can also be added to the recipe.
Although dainty is not a popular meal in Vietnam, it is still served in certain restaurants
in Ho Chi Minh City.

Tom Chua (Hue Sour Shrimp)

When Hue natives living outside the city return to their homeland, they usually have sour
shrimp. Tourists also make sure to buy some jars of sour shrimp before leaving Hue.

Because of the national reputation of this dish, some cooks and merchants specialize in
making sour shrimp. In the past, people made this dish at home, but now it is easier to
buy it at the market.

This dish can be prepared with any kind of shrimp. The recipe includes a number of steps
that must be performed in a specific order. First, the fresh, clean, and dry shrimp of
approximately the same size are put in wine along with dry bamboo shoots, garlic, and
chili. The ingredients are kept in a closed container at room temperature for three days.
Then the container is put in a cool, dry place. After five or seven days, the sour shrimp
are ready.

Com Hen (Hue Mussel Rice)

Hot white rice is part of every meal in Vietnam, but only Hue mussel rice is served cool.
Hue people, after deciding that no food should be wasted, have designed this dish using
leftover rice.

This dish includes Chinese vermicelli, bamboo shoots, lean pork meat, and an assortment
of green vegetables (banana leaves, mint, star fruit, etc.).

The broth obtained after boiling the mussels is used to flavour the rice. Ginger, sesame,
and chili are also added to the broth. This dish is very spicy and it is not rare to see
people with watery eyes and sweaty faces while eating it; nevertheless, everyone
congratulates the cook for such a delicious meal.

Hue Beef Noodle Soup

One must have years of experience to cook excellent Hue beef noodle soup. This recipe
mainly consists of shredded meat and rice noodles. Most restaurants and merchants in
Hue do not make the rice noodles themselves; they buy them in Van Cu and Bao Vinh,
two villages located near Hue.

Learning how to make a clear broth from bone and meat is also a difficult task, but cooks
have the satisfaction of seeing customers enjoying a good meal. The secret of this recipe
resides in the meat–this is why it must be bought directly from the slaughterhouse early
in the morning.

The meat is then shredded, boiled, and taken out of the water to obtain a delicious clear
broth.
The amount of salt put in the recipe varies depending on the season; during summer, Hue
beef noodle soup is served with soy bean, mint, and different kinds of lettuce; in the
winter, the recipe is saltier and lemongrass and fish sauce are added.

Cau Mong Beef

Cau Mong beef is a specialty of Cau Mong, located 15 km from Danang, Dien Ban
district, where nearly ten restaurants serve the dish. Cau Mong beef has been served for a
long time and is found in many places outside Danang, such as Hoi An, Tam Ky, Vinh
Dien, and Ho Chi Minh City.

The meat along with its skin is cut in thin slices, half cooked, and eaten with nem, which
consists of fish sauce mixed with soy sauce, sugar, chili, garlic, lemon, star fruit, vervain,
and green banana.

Hu Tieu (My Tho Noodle Soup)

My Tho seafood noodle soup is different from Chinese noodle soup, nam vang soup, and
Hue beef noodle soup, because it contains soy bean, lemon, chili, and soy sauce instead
of herbs and lettuce.

Back in the 1960s, a shop in My Tho, 70 km from Ho Chi Minh City, started serving this
dish using a secret recipe for the rice noodles. Ever since then, its reputation has grown to
become a very well known meal in Vietnam.

It is said that the most delicious noodle soup is made with Co Cat rice, from the most
famous rice growing area of My Phong village, a suburb of My Tho.

The sweet aroma of the broth comes from the meat, dried squid, and special condiments.
My Tho noodle soup is a traditional dish specific to the south.

Lau Mam (mixed hotpot)

Lau mam was a popular dish among farming communities hundreds of years ago,
especially in the southwestern provinces. Nowadays, lau mam is considered a delicacy
and is often served to special guests. Lau designates the broth, and mam the salted fish.

The main ingredient used in the broth is marinated fish to which meat and vegetables are
added. Various ingredients, such as seafood, fish, and meat, are prepared on separate
plates.

Guests choose and boil their meat in the broth. The meal is accompanied by several fresh
vegetables and aromatic herbs.

This dish is particularly enjoyed since so many alternatives are possible, offering a wide
array of delicious flavours.

Canh Chua (fish sour soup)

Canh chua originated from the Mekong Region, more specifically from Dong Thap Muoi.
Canh chua is a fish sour soup made with fish from the Mekong River and so dua flower.
This dish is mostly served when the so dua flower first blossoms at the end of the rainy
season. A feast is organized and the fish sour soup is among the delicious meals prepared
for this event. Fish sour soup must be eaten very hot. It must also be eaten all at one time
since the taste is altered when the soup is reheated.

Chao Tom (grilled shrimp paste)

Foreigners often say that grilled shrimp paste is a very unusual dish made from very
simple ingredients. The recipe consists of clean shrimps placed in coconut water. The
shrimps are later grilled and ground to obtain shrimp flour. The flour is mixed with fat
and sugar to finally obtain shrimp paste. This dish is served with fish sauce.

Banh Cuon Trang Bang (rice pancakes)

Trang Bang, located 40 km from Ho Chi Minh City, is where one can find the best rice
paper and rice cakes.

Both can be found everywhere, but nowhere are they better than in Trang Bang where
they are made from local rice. The rice flour is roasted for four or five hours and made
into thick cakes.

Once the cakes are dried, they are placed into nylon bags.

These cakes can be eaten with shrimp, meat, salad, and coriander. During Tet, the cakes
are served with roasted meat, eggs, and sour mustard.

English Español Français

Vietnam is a country with long and rich cultures. Festivals are important facts of the year
which vary from different ethnic groups. Among thousands of them, Lunar New Year (or
Tet) stands the first in the list - it is a sacred festival of every Vietnamese. Extracts below
are major events which we have gathered and edited notably. Special thanks to
www.vietnamtourism.com which is primary stuff for our work. We would appreciate
your contributive comments.
 • 1 Lunar New Year
• 2 Mid Autumn
• 3 Chol Chnam Thmay
• 4 Khau Vai
• 5 Hung Temple
• 6 Lim
• 7 Do Son buffalo fighting
• 8 Chu Dong Tu
• 9 Huong Pagoda
• 10 Tay Phuong Pagoda
• 11 Thay Pagoda
• 12 Vieng Market
• 13 Keo Pagoda
• 14 Co Loa Temple
• 15 Dong Da
• 16 Giong Temple
• 17 Ngu Xa village
• 18 Elephant Race
• 19 Leaving the tomb
• 20 Ooc-Om-Bok
• 21 Lantern Festival in Hoian

Lunar New Year (Tet Nguyen Dan)

Tet falls on a time when the old year is over and the New Year comes by lunar calendar.
This is also the time when the cycle of the universe finishes: winter ends and spring, the
season of birth of all living things, comes.

Tet is an occasion for pilgrims and family reunions. It is a time when one pays respect to
his/her ancestors and grandparents who have brought up him/her. It is an occasion when
everyone sends each other best wishes for a new year, stops thinking about unhappy
things and says good things about each other.

On the 23rd day of the twelfth month by lunar calendar, there is a rite to see Tao Quan
(Kitchen God) off. The rite to say goodbye to the old year is held on the 30th or 29th day
(if that month has only 29 days) of the twelfth month by lunar calendar. The rite to
welcome the New Year is held at midnight that day. The rite to see off ancestral souls to
return to the other world is often held on the 3rd day of the first month by lunar calendar
when the Tet holidays finish and everybody goes back to work.

There are various customs practiced during Tet such as ancestral worshipping, visiting a
person’s house on the first day of the new year, wishing Tet wishes, giving lucky money
to young children and old people, wishing longevity to the oldest people, opening rice
paddies or opening a shop.
 Mid-Autumn Festival
Tet Trung Thu is formerly autumn festival, and then becomes tet trong trang (moon
looking festival) of children. On this day, the moon is the brightest and roundest in the
year, cool weather. The festival involves the custom of trong trang, procession of lights
(parading with lanterns shaped as moon and stars), lion dance and eating pasties and
fruits.

Chol Chnam Thmay Festival

Khmer people’s new year festival lasts three days and four days in leap years. Each of
these days has its own name. Apart from worshipping the Buddha, Khmer people believe
that every year the heaven sends a god called Tevoda to the earth to look after human
beings and their life. At the end of the year, the god returns to heaven and another one
will replace him. Therefore, in the new year’s eve, every family prepares a party, burns
incense and lights up lamps in a ceremony to see off the old Tedova and greet the new
one. They also pray to this god for good luck.

Khmer people always prepare for the new year ceremony very carefully. They clean and
redecorate their house and buy necessary food for the holidays. They stop all farm work,
relax and set free their cattle. The three official festival days are held in a joyful and
exciting way.

Khau Vai love market festival

Each year, there is a market session on lunar March 27 (often falling on solar May), but it
is not a farming produce trading market but a love market. The name and activities of the
market have common things with love market in Sapa.

But what’s different is that Khau Vai is a love market for various ethnic minority groups
from four mountainous districts in Dong Van Plateau and ethnic minority groups in
communes adjacent to Bao Lam and Bao Loc districts of Cao Bang province.

Local senior people said that this love market dated back to 1919. Roads are now more
accessible than the previous years, so more people come to the market. However,
activities of the market are still rich in cultural identity.

A local myth tells the story of a young couple from different tribes who fell in love with
each other. The girls belonged to the Giay group and the boy belonged to the Nung
group. The girl was so beautiful that her tribe did not want to let her get married with a
man from another tribe. Consequently, violent conflict arose between the two tribes.

One day, the boy witnessed an aggressive fight between the tribes as a result of their love.
To stop the blood shed, the lovers sorrowfully decided to say goodbye. However, they
made plans to meet once a year on that day, lunar March 27.

The place where they used to meet is Khau Vai, which thereafter became a meeting place
for all of those in love.

In the market area, there are two temples called Ong and Ba (Mr and Mrs). A story tells
that, once upon a time, there was a boy and a girl born in two different places of the Dong
Van Plateau. The boy’s surname is Linh and the girl’s surname is Loc. They love each
other very much despite being hindered by deep streams and high rock mountains.

Because their families prevented their marriage, they together came to Khau Vai, a
prosperous land with rich plants which they could live on.

Although they did not have a child but they lived happily until they died. In honour of
their merits in cultivating the wild land into a rich land, the local people built the two
temples to worship them.

Therefore, on every lunar March 27, Khau Vai attracts couples of different ages,
including those who seek their partners for the first time. However, most of them are
those who love each other very much but cannot wed together because of many different
reasons.

On the day when the market session takes place, it is likely that both the wife and her
husband together go to the market but they look for their own partners to share emotions.
If one of them has to stay at home, he or she is not jealous in love because the dating at
the marketplace is really a faithful feeling exchange.

It can be said that the beauty of love is a basic factor to keep the existence of Khau Vai
love market for such a long time.

With the assistance of Ha Giang Culture and Information Department, Meo Vac district
and Khau Vai commune authorities hold the traditional love market of Khau Vai in order
to promote cultural identity of ethnic minority groups in the locality.

The love market festival is held on lunar March 26 and 27 with the participation of a
large number of locals. The festival features food and drink culture, song performances
and folk games. Ethnic costumes, jewellery, ethnic musical instruments and culture and
art publications are on display at the market, reflecting activities of the local people.

Hung Temple Festival

The festival begins with a palanquin procession performed by three villages of Co Tich,
Vi Cuong and Trieu Phu. The procession carries bamboo elephants and wooden horses
symbolizing the submission of animals to the Kings Hung and the wedding of the
Mountain Genie and Princess Ngoc Hoa. Banh chung (square sticky rice cake) and banh
giay (round sticky rice cake) are indispensable offerings in the procession in order to
honour the merit of the Kings Hung who taught people to plant rice and to remind people
of Lang Lieu who invented these cakes.
The worship service is held on the 10th day of the 3rd lunar month and commences with
a flower ceremony with the participation of state representatives. Held in Thuong
Temple, where the Kings Hung used to worship deities with full rituals, the ceremony is
conducted with the traditional rituals representing the whole nation. During that time, the
nha to Do Ngai guild performs singing and dancing to welcome visitors.

The children of the Kings Hung throughout the country converge on the temple to offer
incense. The procession includes the state representatives, one hundred young men and
women in traditional costumes symbolizing “children of the Dragon and Fairy” and
pilgrims.

The procession marches are followed by a Xoan singing performance (a kind of folk song
of Vinh - Phu region) in Thuong Temple, ca tru (a kind of classical opera) in Ha Temple,
and other activities including bamboo swings, nem con (throwing a sacred ball through
the ring), cham thau (beating bronze drum), dam duong (pounding rice).

Hung Temple Festival not only attracts visitors from all over the country because of its
special traditional cultural activities, but it is also a sacred trip back in time to the origins
of the Vietnamese nation. People usually show their love and pride of their homeland and
ancestral land. This religious belief deeply imbedded in the minds of every Vietnamese
citizen, regardless of where they originate.

Lim Festival
Quan Ho" is a special folk song of Kinh Bac Province, now called Bac Ninh Province.
The festival takes place on Lim Hill where the Lim Pagoda is located. This pagoda is
where Mr. Hieu Trung Hau, the man who invented Quan Ho, is worshipped. The Lim
Festival takes place every year on 13th day of the first lunar month. Visitors come to
enjoy the festival and see the performances of "lien anh" and "lien chi". These are male
and female farmers who sing different types of songs in the pagodas, on the hills, and in
the boats.

Besides this, visitors can come to the Lim Festival to enjoy the weaving competition of
the Noi Due girls. They weave and sing Quan Ho songs at the same time. Like other
religious festivals, the Lim Festival goes through all the ritual stages, from the procession
to the worshipping ceremony, and includes other activities. The Lim Festival is a special
cultural activity in the North. The festival celebrates the "Quan Ho" folk song which has
become a part of the national culture and a typical folk song that is well loved in the Red
River Delta region.

Do Son Buffalo Fighting Festival

The Buffalo Fight in Do Son (Haiphong City) is officially held every year on the 9th day
of the eighth month of the lunar calendar. There are, in fact, two rounds of elimination
before the middle of the fifth month and 8th day of the sixth lunar month.
The preparation for this festival is very elaborate. Fighting buffaloes must be carefully
selected, well fed, and trained. These buffaloes must be between 4 and 5 years old, with a
good appearance, a wide chest, a big groin, a long neck, an acute bottom, and bow shaped
horns. The fighting buffaloes are fed in separate cages to keep them from contact with
common buffaloes.

The beginning of the worshipping ceremony lasts until lunch time. A typical procession
begins with an octet and a big procession chair, carried by six strong young men. The six
clean buffaloes that are part of the ceremony are covered with red cloths and bound with
reddish bands on their horns. There are 24 young men who dance and wave flags as two
teams of troops start fighting. After this event, a pair of buffaloes are led to opposite sides
of the festival grounds and are made to stand near two flags called Ngu Phung. When the
right signal is released, the two buffaloes are moved to within 20m of each other. At the
next signal, the two leaders release the ropes that are attached to the noses of the
buffaloes. The two buffaloes then rush into each other with well practiced movements.
The spectators then shout and urge the fighting along.

At the completion of the fight, the spectacle of "receiving the buffaloes" is very
interesting as the leaders must then catch the winning buffalo to grant it its reward.

The Buffalo Fight in Do Son is a traditional festival that is attached to a Water God
worshipping ceremony and the "Hien Sinh" custom. The most typical reason for the
ceremony is to express the martial spirit of the local people in Do Son, Haiphong.

Chu Dong Tu Festival

Chu Dong Tu is one of four immortal gods in the Vietnamese pantheon. The festival
annually takes place from the 10th to the 12th day of the second lunar month at two
temples, Da Hoa and Da Trach, in Khoai Chau District, Hung Yen Province.

Starting from Ha Noi, visitors can travel downstream on the Red River by boat or canoe,
or go by motorbike along the dyke of the Red River for 20 km. During the festival,
pilgrims in colourful dress converge on the two temples, Da Hoa and Da Trach.

At Da Hoa Temple
In the early morning of the 10th, the inhabitants of nine communes hold a long
procession along the dyke of the Red River to Da Hoa Temple. Marching in the van of
the procession is Hoang Trach Commune. Following are Dong Que, Bang Nha, Phu Thi,
Phuc Trach, Thiet Tru, Nhan Thap, Da Hoa communes, and finally Me So Commune.

When the procession reaches the temple, palanquins and offerings are placed at a
stipulated place. Then, the members of the procession and pilgrims begin the opening
ceremony at the courtyard.

As the opening ceremony and incense presenting ceremony end, people participate in
traditional games that take place during day and night.

At Da Trach Temple
In the morning of the 10th, residents of Da Trach, Ham Tu, Yen Phu, Dong Tao and Tu
Dan communes, Khoai Chau District, Hung Yen Province hold a procession from Da
Trach Temple to the Red River to get water.

The water procession is preceded by a 20 meter-long dragon. Thirty strong young men
carry the dragon and dance in the rhythm of drumbeats, which makes the procession
jubilant. Following are two rows of women in colorful dresses holding flags, gongs and
drums, and parasols. Young women perform a dance with conical hats and castanets with
coins stringed. Young men carry palanquins holding a jar, and a profusely decorated stick
and conic hat - the two magic articles bestowed on Chu Dong Tu by the Buddha. Then
come three palanquins containing the tablets of Chu Dong Tu and his two wives. The end
is God of Carp palanquin " Be ngu than quan". Notable men in traditional dresses go after
the procession.

When the procession arrives at the riverbank, the boats of Khoai Chau District sail
downstream the Red River to meet the procession of Mai Dong Commune (Hung Yen
Province), Khai Thai and Tu Nhien Communes (Ha Tay Province). They join into a long
procession and row to middle of the river to get water. The procession brings water to the
temple at 11.30 a.m and the opening ceremony begins.

After the water palanquin is placed in the temple, palanquins of gods are placed in the
courtyard, then the dragon dancing group comes to the temple's door worship god; senh
tien dance and conical hats dance are performed on Tien Bridge.

After the opening ceremony, various games and activities are organized such as
wrestling, human chess, and traditional and religious dances.

Huong Pagoda Festival

Approximately 70 kilometers southwest of Ha Noi, Huong Son boasts quite a few
pagodas built in the Posterior Le Dynasty. Until the beginning of the 20th century, there
have over 100 pagodas. Visitors can go to Huong Son via the Ha Dong - Van Dinh route.

Vietnamese or foreigners alike wish to come to Huong Son in springtime. Heading there
tourists come to a magnificent land, a famous beauty spot in Vietnam.

Going boating in Yen Stream, visitors get a stunning view of the landscape in springtime.
Here lies Ngu Nhac Mountain, there stand Hoi Bridge, Dun and Voi Phuc (Prostrating
Elephant) mountains. Then come Thuyen Rong (Dragon Boat) and Con Phuong
(Phoenix) mountains, not to mention various other mountains named after their shape like
Ong Su (Buddhist Monk), Ba Vai (Buddhist nun), Mam Xoi (Tray of Sticky Rice), Trong
(Drum), or Chieng (Gong).
At Trinh Temple visitors stop to burn incense and present to the Mountain Deity before
going on their journey to Ba Cave. In front of the cave spreads a land with magnificent
beauty. Leaving Ba Cave, tourists go to Tro Wharf, the starting point for the trekking up
the mountain. Thien Tru Pagoda is the first destination. Known as the Kitchen of Heaven,
it boasts Thien Thuy - a tower-like natural rock, and Vien Cong Tower an exquisite
terracotta architectural structure dated back to the 17th century. On the right of the
pagoda stands Tien Son Grotto, housing five statues carved out of stone and many
stalactites and stalagmites which can be used as musical instruments.

To reach Huong Tich Grotto one go past a winding path paved with slabs of stone nature
has smoothed. Alongside the path visitors has a chance to feast their eyes on stunning
landscapes. In the 18th century, upon coming here Lord Trinh Sam had the words “The
most beautiful grotto under the Southern sky” chiselled above the mouth of the grotto.
Pushing into its belly, visitors get a spectacular view. Many stalactites and stalagmites are
named after their shape: Rice Pile, Money Pile, Gold Tree, Silver Tree to name but a few.
Inside there are statues of King’s Father, Queen, Avalokitesvara, and so on. Noteworthy
is the Cuu Long structure with nine dragons flanking from above.

There are many interesting pagodas, caves and grottoes in Huong Son. Among them
include Long Van, Tuyet Son, Hinh Bong, and so forth. The Ong Bay (Sung Sam) Cave,
2km from Long Van Pagoda, still retains traces of ancient people some tens of thousands
of years ago.

Unlike any other places, Huong Pagoda harmonizes the characters of a Buddhist
architectural complex with the impressive natural beauty. Coming here, tourists have
chances to live in a boisterous atmosphere of a spring festival amidst beautiful landscape.
They seem to be free from all tiredness and sorrow and come to pay respect to the
compassionate Buddha.

Tay Phuong Pagoda Festival

On the main festival day, villagers get sacred water for moc duc ceremony (washing
statues) and worshipping. The festival involves the incense offering, food offering,
praying the Buddha for blessings. The pilgrimages come to the festival to enjoy the
landscape, the architecture of the pagoda and the wooden statues of the 18 arhats as well
as take part in traditional games such as puppet-play, tug-of-war, cock fighting, human
chess, wrestling... at the foot of the hill.

Thay Pagoda Festival

Tu Dao Hanh was a Buddhist monk in the Ly Dynasty. He had outstanding merits
regarding the popularization of the religion, the treatment of diseases for people and the
creation of many games original to Vietnam, including water puppetry. The Thay Pagoda
Festival is held on the seventh day of the third lunar month in remembrance of his merits.

Several days prior to the festival, Buddhist followers and pilgrims far and near flock to
the pagoda, further adding to the boisterous atmosphere of the festival. The Pagoda is
cleaned and incenses, candles lit, bringing about a charming scene.

The statue bathing ritual takes place before the opening of the festival. Buddhist monks
and the people participate in the ritual. Pieces of red cloth are used to clean the statues.
Those standing around solemnly hold their hands in front of their chests, whispering
Buddhist sutras. When the ritual ends, the used water, the holy water the Buddha
bestows, will be scattered all over the pagoda in a wish for bumper crops and prosperous
life. The cloths are also torn into smaller pieces to divide among the people as they are
thought to have the power of warding off the evils. The rite of cleaning objects of
worship comes after this statue bathing ritual.

The procession of Tu Dao Hanh’s worshipping tablet takes place on the 7th day of the
third lunar month, with the participation of four villages Thuy Khue, Da Phuc, Sai Khe
and Khanh Tan. Covering under a yellow cloth, the colour of the outfits worn by those
having supernatural powers, the tablet is carried by four representatives from the four
villages mentioned above. Each village carries its own tutelary god’s tablet. Noteworthy
is that in the procession the tablet and white horse of Da Phuc must go ahead those of the
Thuy Khue. Normally the procession comes to the pagoda at twilight.

At the pagoda the ritual of presenting offerings to Buddha is held in a solemn manner to
the accompaniment of musical instruments. The offerings in various kinds and different
colours are out into the altar, looking impressive in the smoke of incenses and candles.
Wearing fine outfits, holding sticks to which are decorated with flowers, Buddhist monks
chant Buddhist sutras while dancing to display the journey of mankind in striving for
noble things.

Among fascinating games in Thay Pagoda Festival, water puppetry stands out. It is
performed at the Thuy Dinh House in Long Tri pond in front of the pagoda. Tu Dao Hanh
is said to be the founder of this artistic performance.

Going to Thay Pagoda Festival pilgrims have an opportunity to revere the relics imbued
with the imprints of outstanding monks and men of the past.

Vieng market Festival

Vieng Market Festival (Vu Ban District): display goods for sale and buy such as
handicraft products, antiquities and false antiquities, utensils, tools for agriculture
production, and many kinds of ornamental plants. Specialities are barbecued beef and
giay cake.

Vieng Festival in Chua Market (Nam Truc District): opens according to the custom of
giving a feast to the troops after the victory of King Quang Trung in the spring of Ky Dau
year (1789). There are sacrifies - offering ceremony and a procession of god.
 Keo Pagoda Festival
Description of the festival
The annual Keo Pagoda Festival lasts three days during which lots of religious and
traditional rituals and customs are held in celebration of the Buddhist monk who rendered
great merits to the people and the country. The festival also hosts different traditional
cultural activities, reflecting the life style, which is imbued with traits of the Red River
Delta’s agricultural culture, of a riverside residential area.

Preparation for the festival

On the 3rd day of the 6th lunar month, after carrying out the ritual of offering bia cakes to
Buddha, eight hamlets in Keo Village select their chief officiant. Each hamlet also
chooses its own assistant to the chief officiant. From this day to the 15th day of the eighth
lunar month, villagers decorate the pagoda. Ten days before going into the pagoda to do
this work, those selected must eat vegetarian food and have a bath to clean their bodies.

On the 15th day of the eighth lunar month, the chief officiant and his eight assistants
carry out the ritual of offering incense and changing the costumes of statues of gods. This
ritual is held on a good day according to the zodiac between the 15th day of the eighth
lunar month and the 10th day of the ninth lunar month.

On the 11th day of the ninth lunar month: the villagers hang high a big flag, and many
other small flags alongside the three - entranced gate of the pagoda. On the same day,
palanquin and boat bearers are selected.

On the 12th day of the ninth lunar month: On the morning of the 10th to the 12th days of
the ninth lunar month, eight hamlets launch eight boats in preparation for a boat racing.
Each boat is made out of light wood, 12m in length and 1m in width. Each boat can house
8 to 10 pairs of oarsmen, a guide and a helmsman.

Festival
On the 13th day of the ninth lunar month, the festival commences with a ceremony of
procession of palanquin in celebration of the 100th day death anniversary of monk Khong
Lo. The procession brings the altar, incense table and big and small boats to the three-
entranced gate in the morning.

On the afternoon of the 13th day of the ninth lunar month, there takes place a boat racing.
Spectators and fans flock to the banks of the Red River, standing along a distance of
several kilometers. After the signal is given, the competing boats rush forward. At the
end of three competing rounds, the first, second and third boat which reach the
destination without violation of rules become prize-winners. At the end of the three-day
competition, rating is carried out.

In the gia roi tower there takes place a contest of reading oration of sorcerers. The
orations are written by the sorcerers according to the topic of “six kinds of offerings”
(incense, light, flower, tea, fruit, and food). This contest is different from other
competitions as its orations are written in romanized script in the form of satire. The more
satirical the oration the higher the prize it gets.

In the evening, all the palanquin bearers, flag holders, and village dignitaries selected for
the festival come to pay respect to the gods. Next comes the contest of horn blowing and
drum beating. At 24:00 hours of this day, the chief officiant conducts the ritual of paying
respect to the pennon pole.

On the 14th day of the ninth lunar month, in celebration of the birth anniversary of monk
Khong Lo, in the morning, the procession ceremony comes after the incense offering
ritual. Two pairs of white and pink wooden horses drawn by some people head the
procession. Then come eight people holding eight flags, 42 people holding bat buu (eight
traditional weapons) and lo bo, four people wearing black gauze outfit and white trousers
bearing a dragon describing the journey by boat of monk Khong Lo to the capital of the
kingdom to treat the king, four people in the same outfit carrying a small gilded boat put
in a stand, depicting the period of monk Khong Lo’s life when he was a fisherman. Next
come the octet, four persons bearing the altar, four carrying the incense table, eight
children from 12 to 14 years old in yellow tunic, green trousers and red belts, resembling
the buffalo boys who made friends with monk Khong Lo when he was a fisherman. The
gilded palanquin in which is put the worshipping tablet of monk Khong Lo is carried by
12 boys. The chief officiant follows the palanquin. In a purple outfit he solemnly holds
his two hands in front of his cheat, walking leisurely to the salvo of the drum. The
festival goers come last.

When the palanquin reach a pond, four persons manipulating seven wooden puppets
dance to welcome the procession. Of the seven puppets one is said to be Mrs. Chang with
a cheerful and happy face. Legend has it that she often bought fish of monk Khong Lo.

On the afternoon of the 14th day, the boi trai competition continue to take place in the
river. At the gia roi tower there is a ritual of dancing to pay respect to gods, which is
called “mua ech vo”.

On the 15th day of the ninth lunar month, the ritual of presenting incense as offerings to
Buddha continues. This night after the procession of palanquin the game of on - land trai
boat dancing.

The boat rowing dance on land is performed by 12 people in fine costumes, standing in
two parallel lines like the way they sit in the boat. Two persons direct, one holds a small
drum and the other, a wooden fish. Under their signal, the 12 performers “row” while
flexing their legs and crying rhythmically. This interesting performance attract large
audience. This performance also puts an end to the three-day Keo Pagoda Festival.

Co Loa Festival
On the afternoon of the 5th day of the first lunar month, all of the eight communes
(including Co Loa Commune and the establishing relations between seven communes)
hold the incense offering ceremony at the communal house. At Thuong Temple, village
officials and mandarins hold the similar ceremony and revise the king’s contributions and
achievements.

The official festival day, which is on the 6th of the first lunar month, starts with
processions and grand sacrifices- offering ceremony. In early morning, a solemn and
splendid procession takes orations from the oration writer’s house to the temple. The
chief officiant at Thuong Temple has to come up and receive the orations and puts them
on the altar. Next to the door of the temple is a pair of life-size pink and white wooden
horses. Their harnesses are decorated with phoenix motifs and beautiful gold thread
embroideries. The path to the temple is lined with decorative weapons and eight precious
votive objects. At that time, the palanquins of the establishing relations between seven
communes arrive at Thuong Temple and are put on the yard. The worshipping rituals
begin. Votive offerings include incense, flowers, truncated cone-shaped cakes made of
sticky rice, fruits, steamed sticky rice, meat, giay cakes and popcorn. According to folk
knowledge, the last two things were used by King An Duong Vuong to treat his troops.
The rituals last until 12 o’clock. Meanwhile, in the temple, some senior people
representing their communes pray to the king for peace and prosperity to their villagers.

Next is the procession to take the god from the temple to the communal house so that he
can watch the festivities. This is the biggest procession with the participation of all the
palanquins. When reaching the main entrance called Nghi Môn, the palanquins return to
their villages. Co Loa’s procession and palanquin do the same rituals once more at the
communal house. This is the end of the official festival day. From then to the end of the
whole festival, there are only duty ceremonies and votive offerings of residential groups,
family lines and visitors.

An Duong Vuong Temple Festival has a special procession for the fake king of Nhoi
village. On Mount Sai in Nhoi Village is a temple dedicated to Saint Tran Vu, who,
according to legends, helps the king drive away evil spirits and build Co Loa Citadel.
Every year, on the 12th day of the first lunar month, the king would go there together
with his mandarins to do worshipping rituals. But because such travelling was quite
complicated, King An Duong Vuong asked a local man to impersonate him and held a
similar ritual. Later generations put on stage that story. Though this custom is specific for
Nhoi Village, it helps to diversify activities of the Co Loa Festival.

The Co Loa Festival has many other fun activities such as human chess, wrestling, cock
fighting, swings, rope climbing, card playing, and cheo and tuong singing.

On the final day of the festival, a grand farewell ceremony will be held at the temple. The
rituals are the same as in the main festival day. After the rituals, the cult table of god will
be returned to the sanctuary. Local people enjoy the god’s favour and expect a year of
prosperity and protection from the god.

Dong Da Festival
On the early morning of the 5th day of Tet Ky Dau (in the first lunar month of 1789),
King Quang Trung defeated the Qin troops at Dong Da Hill, which became a glorious
historical site of Vietnamese nation. Ever since, on the 5th annual of the first lunar
month, Hanoi people hold a festival to celebrate this historic victory.

Early in the morning, residents in beautiful traditional dress gather at Khuong Thuong
Communal House, which is decorated with flags, to burn incense. A grand sacrifices -
offering ceremony is conducted after daybreak.

Until 12 o’clock, a god procession of celebration commences from Khuong Thuong to

Dong Da Hill. The procession includes flags, parasols, palanquins with a variety of
colours, and the sounds of gongs and drums. Its most special part is the fire dragon which
is decorated with straw, cataphyll, and coarse paper. The “Thang Long Fire Dragon” has
become a symbol of victory of the nation.

The whole procession walks and sometimes dances in the rhythm of castanets. A group
of young people, dressed in martial suit, then goes around and performs a piece that
recounts the whole period of the war.

When the procession comes to Dong Da Hill, there is an incense - offering ceremony
after which someone reads the story of the Ky Dau victory that praises the military genius
of the national hero, Quang Trung. There are also various games to play and competitions
that challenge the skills and intelligence of participants on the wide field in front of hill.

Giong (Soc Son) Festival

It is said that Soc Son was the final place Saint Giong took a rest before returning to
Heaven. The festival organizes every year in memmorating the day that the legend hero
took off his armour and flew to heaven. It involves an incense offering ceremony, Saint's
statue bathing ceremony, a bamboo flowers offerring (symbolize for riding-whip of the
Saint) is on the 7th day (the main festive day), then thowing them, then people strive
them for lucky. Cutting general ceremony symbolize for the action that Saint Giong cut
the General of Yin invaders.

On the 8th day holding gia dam (ending) ceremony. Games in the festival: fighting cock,
playing Chinese chess, swinging, ca tru singing to worship gods.

Ngu Xa Village Festival

The bat cong palanquin procession is carried by 36 young and strong youths, going
around the village. In the anniversary of the ancestor's death, people eat steamed
glutinous rice, meat of pig's head dipped in salt and bean sprouts sour. The offerings on
the anniversary of the death of ancestor are prepared by the 3 families: Nguyen, Tran, and
Le which include steamed glutinous rice, gelded cocks, sweet short cake (banh khao -
made of roast glutinous rice flour), green bean cake (banh dau).
Ngu Xa Spring Festival also exhibits productions of bronze casting. Casters display these
products on the row of tables covered by bright red cloth: dinh, vases, cranes, Buddha
statues, tigers, dragons... Besides, villagers even hold cock fighting contest.

Elephant Race Festival

The Elephant Race Festival takes place in springtime, normally in the third lunar month.
In preparation for the festive day, people take their elephants to places where they can eat
their fill. Apart from grass their food also includes bananas, papayas, sugar canes, corns,
sweet potatoes. The elephants are free from hard work to preserve their strength.

On the big day, elephants from different villages gather at Don Village. People from near
and far in their best and colourful costumes flock to the festival. The racing ground is
500m long and wide enough for ten elephants to stand simultaneously.

After a salvo of tu va (horns made into musical instruments), the elephant handlers called
nai take their elephants to the ground, standing in a row at the starting point. The leading
elephant stands in front, whirling his trunk and nodding his head in greeting the
spectators. Atop each elephant there are two handlers in traditional costumes for generals.
The tu va signals the start of the race and the elephants rush forwards amidst the
resounding cry of the spectators.

The first handler uses an iron stick called kreo in M'Nong language to speed the elephant.
The second handler beats the elephant with a wooden hammer called koc to ensure its
speed and to keep it in the right line. Upon seeing the first elephant dashing to the
destination the spectators shout boisterously amidst the echoing sound of drums and
gongs.

The winning elephant is given a laurel wreath. Like its owner, the elephant expresses its
happiness and enjoy the sugar canes and bananas from the festivalgoers. After this race,
the elephants participate in the competition of swimming across the Serepok River, of
tug-of-wars, or throwing balls and playing football.

Coming to this Elephant Race Festival , tourists have a chance to indulge in the
boisterous atmosphere of the festival, of the echo of gongs and the spectacular
performances of the elephants from the Central Highlands forest.

When the race comes to an end, the competing elephants bring back the atmosphere of
the festival to their villages. Upon returning to their village, they receive warm welcome
from the villagers. Very often the elephants from Don Village win the prizes as the
village has a tradition of training and tending elephants.

The elephant race constitutes a big festival in the Central Highlands. It reflects the martial
spirit of the M'Nong people, an ethnic group famous for their bravery in wild elephant
hunting. The magnificent landscape of the Central Highlands further stresses the
grandiose characters of this traditional festival.
 Leaving the tomb Festival
Unlike other ethnic minorities in Vietnam, some groups in the Central Highlands,
including Ê dê, Gia Rai, Ba Na do not have the practice of worshipping their ancestors
and deceased persons. The bereaved only look after the tombs of the deceased for a
period of three, five or seven years, and thereafter perform a “leaving the tomb”
ceremony to bid farewell them to the village of the death, and the tomb is left unattended.
The “leaving the tomb” Festival is the most important one reserved for the deceased held
by their family members. All the local villagers attend the festival that lasts for three or
four days. It involves two to three slaughtered buffaloes and hundreds of small jars of
liquor.

The meaning of the “Leaving the tomb” festival is to see off the spirits of the deceased to
their permanent world so that they can reincarnate and continue a new life. As for the
living, they finish their duties and are free to remarry.

The festival is associated to the cycle of agriculture. It is held in the lunar first months
that is the transition time between the two cycles of production. The festival is also an
opportunity for farmers to give thanks to the gods and pray for a new bumper crop.

Although this ceremony is associated to the death, it is very cheerful, bearing the nuance
of a festival. The festival includes three steps: taking the tomb to pieces, erecting the new
tomb, and seeing off the death’s spirits to their world and treating the villagers with a
feast.

Ooc-Om-Bok Festival
Ooc-Om-Bok Festival is a religious service that worships the moon deity of the Khmer
minority group and prays for good luck, happiness, good weather and bumper crops. The
festival is usually held when the dry season begins and rice are ripening on the fields.

The Moon-worshipping ceremony takes place on the evening of 14th of tenth lunar
month before the moon goes to the top. The ceremony is held in the yards of the pagoda
or of residents’ houses. People erect bamboo poles with a crossbar on which they
decorate with flowers and leaves. Below is a table of offerings that include green rice
flakes, potatoes, bananas, coconuts, grapefruits, oranges and cakes. People sit on the
ground with crossed legs, clasping their hands before the altar and look up the Moon. An
old master of ceremonies says his prayers, asks the moon deity to receive the offerings
and bless people with the best.

After the ceremony, the elders ask the children of the house sit flatly on the ground with
crossed legs before the altar. The elders then take a handful of green rice, feed each child
and ask them what they wish while clapping their backs. If the children answer the
question clearly and politely, all the best will come to them that year. After that, people
enjoy the offerings together, and children play games or dance and sing in the moonlight.
Anyone who visits the Khmer’s houses on this occasion will be tasted com dep (a kind of
young sticky rice). At the pagodas of Khmer people, locals hold paper-lantern releasing
into the sky and putting on the rivers. The custom of releasing flying lights and floating
lights is believed to sweep away the darkness, impure and sadness from the village. Many
traditional activities of the Khmer are organised on the evening of 14th.

Lantern Festival in Hoian

During the full moon Festival, every house and shop in Hoi'an will be illuminated with
lanterns while fun activities are held along the streets and in Thu Bon River.

This festival takes place on every evening of the 14th of each lunar calendar month and
Hoian is the best place to participate this special festival.