Designing An Audio Amplifier

Designing of audio amplifier Academic session 2009/2010 Group 8
MINI PROJECT
DESIGN OF AUDIO AMPLIFIER
2.0 ABSTRACT
Amplifiers, which are devices that increase the gain of an audio signal, dominate modern audio
technologies. In this project, we designed and built our own audio amplifier from scratch in order
to demonstrate that such a key device can be constructed using basic electrical engineering
principles. After performing major circuit calculations by hand, we modeled our circuit in
Multisim, which is computer software that analyzes electrical circuits. In particular, we studied
the variance that using budget electrical components introduced into the circuit overall by
comparing three different amplifiers that we constructed. We found the variance between our
three amplifiers to be minimal, confirming our method of building a low budget, low power
audio amplifier. Human hearing extends from approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Hence, in our
design, the frequency of 1kHz is chosen as it is fallen in this range. For our project, we set out to
design an audio amplifier. The inputs of our circuit were alternative signals from a function
generator. Although we used a low-power speaker, we needed to achieve approximately three
times gain over the entire circuit. In addition, the amplifier had to be produced at a low cost with
available materials. Before building the actual amplifier, we realized that we had to design,
simulate, and test the circuit. Each step was necessary to understand the concepts involved in
amplification.
3.0 INTRODUCTION
An audio signal is a representation of sound waves in a different form. Typically this is an
electrical voltage, but these signals can be expressed through alternative mediums such as
magnetic particles. An audio signal can be manipulated, stored, transmitted and reproduced in
ways that a sound wave cannot. Microphones convert sound pressure waves into voltage, an
electrical audio signal. Therefore the microphone sensitivity is as millivolts per pascal.
Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical audio signal into sound. Although many audio
signals have their origin as a sound wave, devices such as synthesisers are designed to create
audio signals.
The term amplifier refers to any device that increases the amplitude of a signal, usually measured
in voltage or current. This versatile device is used in a variety of different electronic applications.
Especially in audio technology, a wide range of amplifiers can be produced based on product
specifications (i.e. power, voltage, current). Currently, there are many types of audio amplifiers
available for consumers. Sound signal amplification is used for instruments, such as the guitar or
the bass. They are also used commonly in home theater systems and with stereo speakers. The
basic design behind all of these amplifiers is derived from the simplest concepts of circuit design.
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Audio power amplifiers are, in principle, very simple. There is an input voltage and an output
voltage, and at any instant of time these are both just numbers (with units of volts). If the input
voltage is 1 volt at a certain instant of time and the output voltage is then 20 volts, then the
amplifier has a gain of 20. In an ideal amplifier this number, 20, would be a complete description
of the performance, and the output voltage would always be simply 20 times the input voltage. In
a real amplifier with an input voltage varying with time the output voltage has a maximum level,
and a maximum rate of change, and the gain falls at high frequencies, but within these limits it is
still possible to approach the ideal behaviour.
4.0 BACKGROUND
Before beginning the design process, it was necessary to understand several core concepts of
electrical engineering. When designing electronics, three main specifications govern all circuit
components; voltage [V; measured in volts (V)], current [I; measured in amps (A)], and
resistance [R; measured in ohms (Ω)]. These three concepts are connected by Ohm’s Law, where
1V = 1 A * 1 Ω. For amplifier circuits, it is also important to consider both types of current in the
design because both alternating and direct current run through the system. Alternating current
(AC) acts like a sinusoidal curve, providing the signal for the amplifier. On the other hand, direct
current (DC) runs through the circuit as a voltage source. Used together, AC source creates the
signal at the horizontal axis, which is determined by the value of the DC source. Each is
analyzed independently of the other, but without one type of current, it is meaningless to include
the other.
4.1 OUTPUT STAGES

Output stage is to provide the amplifier with a low output resistance so that it can deliver the
output signal to the load without loss of gain. Since the output stage is the final stage of the
amplifier, it usually deals with relatively large signals. Linearity remains a very important
requirement. In fact, a measure of goodness of the design of the output stage is the total
harmonic distortion (THD) it introduces. This is the rms value of the harmonic components of
the output signal, excluding the fundamental, expressed as a percentage of the rms of the
fundamental. A high-fidelity audio power amplifier features a TDH of the order of a fraction of a
percent.
4.2 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Some basic components in amplification are resistors, capacitors, and transistors. Resistors
produce a voltage based on the amount of current passing through the circuit. Capacitors consist
of two metal plates separated by a weak conducting material. At DC, these devices temporarily
store the charge. However, at AC, the frequency is high enough to complete the circuit. At this
point, the capacitors act like wires. The main advantage of these devices is the ability to block
the direct current while allowing the AC signal to flow through transistors are the most important
part of amplifier circuits. Capable of controlling an output signal in comparison to an input signal,
a transistor can produce gain. In other words, the transistor is responsible for the amplification
component of the audio amplifier. Although there are several types of transistors, simple bipolar
junction transistors were acceptable. These devices consist of three terminals: the base, the
collector, and the emitter. Simply put, they are terms used for labeling measurements,
calculations, and schematic diagrams.
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4.3 CLASSES OF AMPLIFIERS

Assembled in different configurations, resistors, capacitors, and transistors can create several
classes of amplifiers that can be distinguished by performance characteristics. Output stages are
classified according to the collector current waveform that results when an input signal is applied.
4.2.1 Class A stage

Class A amplifiers are very linear (meaning the integrity of the signal is maintained through the
amplification process); however, this amplifier topology is known to be very inefficient. In
addition, Class A amplifiers invert the signal (meaning the function is reflected over its axis). A
stage conducts for entire cycle of the input signal; that is, the conduction angle is 360°(never
switch off) . Since Class-A amps are inefficient, generate lots of heat, and require a far more
complex power supply than conventional Class-AB amplifiers, there have to be some compelling
reasons to use this arrangement. The benefit of this is that the signal is subjected to
comparatively little amplification, resulting in an open loop (i.e. without feedback) gain which is
generally fairly low - probably less than 250 (48dB), and possibly as low as 50 or so (34dB).
This means that very little overall feedback is used, so stability and phase should be excellent
over the audio frequencies. A well designed Class-A amplifier should not require any frequency
compensation (or very little), so the open loop gain will remain reasonably constant over the
audio range. This results in superior transient response, and dramatically reduced "Transient
Intermodulation Distortion" (or TID, aka Dynamic Intermodulation Distortion), which is thought
by many designers to be caused by phase and time delays between the input and feedback signals.
It may be possible that this is the cause, although the existence of TID is virtually zero in any
competently designed amp.
Figure 1: Class A
4.2.2 Class AB stage

Class B amps are much less linear, leading to higher distortion of the signal, but they are much
more efficient. Output devices conduct for 180 degrees (1/2 of input cycle).Since a Class B amp
only amplifies half of a signal, two Class B amps are generally used in synchronization. The
compromise between these two topologies is the Class AB amplifier. The Class AB is more
efficient than the Class A with lower distortion than the Class B. It conducts halfway (or partway)
between the above two examples (181 to 200 degrees typical). Often the different types of
amplifiers are used in combination with other amplifiers into order to achieve the specifications
of a particular design.
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Figure 2: Class B Figure 3: Class AB
4.2.3 Negative Feedback

Another popular method of controlling amplifier distortion is negative feedback. A portion of the
amplifier’s output is transferred back to the input. Overall, this method controls the gain of the
amplifier even when affected by outside factors (i.e.temperature). In addition, the recycled output
signal reduces amplifier distortion. In order to measure the success of an amplifier, designers use
many tests for circuit variables. One manner of representing the performance data is through a
Bode plot. A logarithmic frequency scale spans the x-axis (measured in Hertz). The y-axis
measured gain in decibels, which is also a logarithmic measurement. Combined, the two axes
present the output gain of an amplifier over a wide range of frequencies. After a certain point, the
gain reaches a maximum level. At even higher frequencies, gain becomes inversely related to
frequency as the performance drops off. This continues until the point that the gain drops with an
increase in frequency. This point is known as the 3dB point. For optimal performance, the 3dB
point of an amplifier should fall beyond the amplifier’s active range of frequencies.
4.2.4 Emitter Degeneration Configuration
Emitter degeneration is even more useful in the CE amplifier. With the exception of gain
reduction, these characteristics represent performance improvements. Indeed, the reduction in
gain is the price paid for obtaining the other performance improvements. In many cases this is a
good bargain; it is the underlying motive for the use of negative feedback. If for some reason the
collector current increase, the emitter current also will increase, resulting in an increased voltage
drop across Re. Thus the emitter voltage rises, and the base-emitter voltage decrease. The latter
effect causes the collector current to decrease, counteracting the initially assumed change, an
indication of the presence of negative feedback. Negative feedback action of gives the name
emitter degeneration resistance.
Rin=(β+1)re + (β+1)
This equation indicates that present of reduces the effect of on increasing Rin.
This is because shunt away some of the current that would have flowed through .
Open circuit voltage gain:
=-
4
That is ,the open circuit voltage gain obtained with a relatively small remain very closed to the value
without .
The output resistance is :
= (1+ )
Gm =
EMITTER WITHOUT DEGENERATION

For input resistance,
=
Voltage gain:
AV = - RC
Output resistance of the amplifier:

= RC
Gm =gm(RC||RL||ro)
Practically , < as =
4.2.5 Common Collector Configuration

For emitter follower configuration, there is no phase inversion and the output is approximately
the same amplitude as the input.
Figure 4: Emitter-follower
Voltage gain
As in all amplifiers, the voltage gain is . The capacitive reactance is assumed to be

negligible at the frequency of operation. For the emitter-follower, as shown in Figure 4,
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Where is but in Figure 4 =0 and
Notice that the gain is always less than 1.If , then a good approximation is
Since the output voltage is at the emitter, it is in phase with the base voltage, so there is no
inversion from the input to output. Because there is no inversion and because the voltage gain is
approximately 1, the output voltage closely follows the input voltage in both phase and
amplitude; thus the term emitter-follower is commonly used.
Input resistance
The emitter-follower is characterized by a high input resistance; this is what makes it a useful
circuit. Because of the high input resistance, it can be used as a buffer to minimize loading effect
when a circuit is driving a low-resistance load.
Output Resistance
The output resistance is very low, making the emitter-follower useful for driving low-resistance
loads.
Where is the resistance of the input source.
4.2.6 DC Operating Point

DC Bias
Bias establishes the dc operating point (Q-point) for proper linear operation of an amplifier. If an
amplifier is not biased with correct dc voltage on the input and output, it can go into saturation or
cutoff when an input signal is applied.
DC Load Line
The dc operation of the transistor circuit can be described graphically using a dc load line. This is
a straight line drawn on the characteristic curves from the saturation value where on
the y-axis to the cutoff value where on the x-axis.
Linear Operation
The region along the load line including all points between saturation and cutoff is generally
known as the linear region of the transistor’s operation. As long as the transistor is operated in
this region, the output voltage is ideally a linear reproduction of the input.
Waveform Distortion
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Under certain input signal conditions, the location of the Q-point on the load line can cause one
peak of the waveform to be limited or clipped. In the case that when the input signal is too
large for the Q-point location and is driving the transistor into cutoff or saturation during a
portion of the input cycle. When both peaks are limited, the transistor is being driven into both
saturation and cutoff by an excessively large input signal. When only the positive peak is limited,
the transistor is being driven into cutoff region. When only the negative peak is limited, the
transistor is being driven into saturation region.
Figure 5: Graphical load line

illustration of a transistor being
driven into saturation and /or cutoff
4.2.7 Crosstalk Distortion

Crossover distortion is a type of distortion which is caused by switching between devices driving
a load, most often when the devices (such as a transistor) are matched. It is most commonly seen
in complementary, or "push-pull", Class-B amplifier stages, although it is occasionally seen in
other types of circuits as well.The term crossover signifies the "crossing over" of the signal
between devices, in this case, from the upper transistor to the lower and vice-versa. The term is
not related to the audio crossover—a filtering circuit which divides an audio signal into
frequency bands.
Distortion mechanism
The image shows a typical class-B emitter-follower complementary output stage. Under no
signal conditions, the output is exactly mid-way between the supplies (i.e., at 0 V). When this is
the case, the base-emitter bias of both the transistors is zero, so they are in the cut-off region
where the transistors are not conducting.
Consider a positive going swing: As long as the input is less than the required forward V BE drop
(≈ 0.65 V) of the upper NPN transistor, it will remain off or conduct very little - this is the same
as a diode operation as far as the base circuit is concerned, and the output voltage does not
follow the input (the lower PNP transistor is still off because its base-emitter diode is being
reverse biased by the positive going input). The same applies for the lower transistor but for a
negative going input. Thus, between about ±0.65 V of input, the output voltage is not a true
replica or amplified version of the input, and we can see that as a "kink" in the output waveform
near 0 V (or where one transistor stops conducting and the other starts). This kink is the most
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pronounced form of crossover distortion, and it becomes more evident and intrusive when the
output voltage swing is reduced.
Less pronounced forms of distortion may be observed in this circuit as well. An emitter-follower
will have a voltage gain of just under 1. In the circuit shown, the NPN emitter-follower and the
PNP emitter-follower will generally have very slightly different voltage gains, leading to slightly
different gains above and below ground. Other more subtle forms of crossover distortion,
stemming from slight differences between the PNP and NPN devices, exist as well.
Crossover distortion
5.0 METHODOLOGY
5.1 DESIGN REQUIREMENT
From the very beginning of the design process, the design specifications were crucial to the
choices for topologies and components. Our amplifier had to be able to amplify a signal from a
portable music player (a 0.8V – 1.1V supply voltage load). In order to reach satisfactory
amplitude, 1.7 times gain was necessary for each section of the input stage. Class A designs are
capable of this gain, and their high inefficiency was not a major factor in the small scale of our
experiment. However, these amplifiers invert the input signal. The DC voltage remains the same,
but the AC signal reflects over its x-axis. As a result, two Class A amps were used to correctly
orient the output signal and provide the necessary gain. Each Class A amplifier was a common
emitter BJT. Together these two amplifiers constitute the input stage of the audio amplifier.
Considering a starting voltage of around 1VPP (1 volt peak to peak) , two amplifiers with
approximately 1.7 times gain brought the output gain up to around 3 times after the input stage.
As the current flows into the output stage, the voltage becomes irrelevant. Instead, the designer
needs to increase the power gain in order to drive the speakers at the output. Class AB amplifiers
are capable of producing power gain (at the slight expense of the previous voltage gain). A Class
AB amplifier consists of two PNP common emitters and two NPN common emitters in a loop.
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CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
CLASS A CLASS A
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
CLASS A CLASS AB
CLASS A
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
5.2 THEORETICAL DESIGN

The First Stage
Once we developed the general design, we created a schematic of our actual circuit. The base of
the first common emitter BJT receives the AC signal input. At this point, two resistors provide
the DC voltage. The output of the first amplifier, at the collector, is connected through a negative
feedback loop. Two resistors and a capacitor at the emitter ground the circuit. From the layout of
the schematic the resistor values can be chosen to match the specifications of voltage and current.
At the first stage, the required voltage going into the base was 3V in order to get the optimum
biasing. The parallel resistor values at this point have to be in a 3:1 ratio going from the DC
source to ground, giving us the 15k and 5k values at (refers to the first resistor at the base of
the first transistor)and (refers to the second resistor at the base of the first transistor. Within
the transistor, the calculations became more difficult. Ideally, there should be a drop of 0.7V
between the 3V input at the base and the emitter. Since the emitter goes to ground, the voltage
drop between the emitter and ground becomes 2.3V.
The current (IC) in this equation is dependent on the circuit and Vt is provided by the
manufacturer. Solving this equation for a gain of about 1.7 will produce the resistor value for the
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first resistor on the emitter. From there, the other resistors can be determined using the V=IR
equation. The entire process of determining resistor values is what constitutes DC biasing.
The value of must be fixed in the range of plus minus 6V in order for the output waveform of
stage one to fall in the centre of the DC load line to avoid any distortion on the cutoff or
saturation region. The resistor chosen must be big enough in order to let most of the to flow to
the second transistor. In this case, resistor value is chosen to be 4.7kΩ as it is suitable to
provide gain for the first stage transistor and avoid large loading effect. Resistor value that is
greater than 4.7kΩ will not provide any positive amplification but negative amplification.
All of the capacitors in the first stage are equal to 220μF (microfarads), except for the capacitor
involved with the negative feedback, which is 1000pF. These values were chosen because they
are large enough to be completely ignored at DC and they quickly become ‘shorts’ at AC.
The Second Stage

The second stage of our amplifier was very similar to the first stage of the circuit. Since they
were both Class A amplifiers in a common emitter configuration, this schematic looks very
similar to the first half of the input stage. The largest difference in the design is the lack of a
negative feedback loop. For this section of the circuit, the ideal voltage entering the base of the
transistor was 3V. The current increases from 1μamp in the first Class A amplifier to 5μA in the
second. Even though this will result in different resistor values, the equations involved in the
calculations are the same in both instances.
is fixed at 6V for the same reason as previous. However, the value of is chosen to be 1kΩ
in order to take into consideration tolerance in the circuit.
The Output Stage

The original design for our amplifier called for two Class A common emitters followed by a
Class AB output stage. Since the output stage of our amplifier consisted of an entirely different
amplifier, the schematic diagram of the final stage bears only a faint resemblance to the input
stage design. The resistors connected to the input bases of the output stages are arranged in a
parallel circuit as seen in the first and second stages of the amplifier, but the rest of the Class AB
follows another design entirely. Instead of a single transistor, it consists of four transistors
connected in a loop. In the diagram above, the top-left and bottom-right transistors are PNP
transistors. The other two are NPN transistors. All the resistor values in this circuit can be found
by manipulation of the equation V=IR. At this stage of the amplifier, the current was 20μA.
Using the V=IR equation and the ideal voltage drops, we found the resistor values at the DC bias
points. The resistor value of both must set to be the same in order to force the Q-
point in the central point. The resistor value of both must also set to be the same for
the same purpose.
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After the entire circuit was biased, we discovered that certain resistors required for our circuit
were either not manufactured values or not available to us. We were forced to make some
changes to the circuit, replacing the unavailable resistors with others that were close to our
calculated values.
Theoretical Resistor Values Actual Resistor Values

5k 4.7k
180 200
1.1k 1.2k
280 270
The adjusted circuit design needed to be biased again in order to account for the changes in
resistor, values. From the second bias, we obtained our ideal bias points for the circuit involving
our actual components.
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5.3 SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS
5.3.1 Analysis of stage 1 and stage 2

(a) R1 = R6 = 15 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 4.7 k
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(b) R1 = R6 = 10 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 3.9 k
13
(c) R1 = R6 = 15 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 5.1 k
14
(d) R1 = R6 = 10 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 3.3 k
15
16
After analysis of some values of resistors by simulation, we found that the 1 st and the 3rd
combination will give higher gain than others. Since these two combinations give the slightly
difference gain, we choose the 1st combination as our circuit design. Though the 1st combination
have lower gain than the 3rd combination, but the 1st combination has more lower resistance (it is
only 4.7 k), so the low power dissipation make the device works more efficiency.
5.3.2 Analysis of stage 3
NO R13 = R14 / ohm VB3 = VB4 VE3 VE4 Vout3
1. 51 5.970 6.813 5.157 475.3m
2. 68 5.975 6.804 5.177 471.3m
3. 82 5.978 6.799 5.187 470.1m
4. 100 5.981 6.795 5.199 467.2m
5. 200 5.989 6.778 5.232 455.3m
6. 510 5.994 6.755 5.267 433.2m
7. 1k 5.996 6.737 5.288 417.9m
8. 5.1k 5.998 6.695 5.336 370.3m
We have done some analysis on the R13 and R14 to choose the best value in order to make the
circuit run effectively. The optimum quiescent point in our circuit is 6V. From the table above,
we can notice that all resistors give the values near to the optimum quiescent point. So, we check
the output voltage to obtain the maximum gain as possible. Hence, we choose the first five
resistors to be tested at the next analysis.
NO R13 = R14 / ohm Vout(all)
1. 51 0.970
2. 68 1.030
3. 82 1.050
4. 100 1.068
5. 200 1.088
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When the resistor above is connected to the whole audio amplifier circuit, they give the different
output voltage. From the data obtained, we found that resistor 200 ohm is the best value of
resistor to get the maximum output voltage and gain.
6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS
6.1 SIMULATION
6.1.1 Overall result

Circuit Schematic
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Input voltage = 0.5 Vpk
Output voltage = 1.088 Vpk
Av =
= 2.176
Phase shift,  = 00
6.1.2 OUTPUT VALUE AT FIRST STAGE WHEN ONLY STAGE 1 IS CONNECTED ( CLASS A )
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Av =
= 3.772
6.1.3 OUTPUT VALUE AT SECOND STAGE WHEN ONLY STAGE 2 IS CONNECTED (CLASS A )
20
Av =
= 4.738
6.1.4 OUTPUT VALUE AT SECOND STAGE WHEN BOTH STAGE 1 AND STAGE 2 ARE
CONNECTED
21
Av =
= 7.244
6.1.5 OUTPUT VALUE AT THIRD STAGE WHEN ONLY STAGE 3 IS CONNECTED ( CLASS AB )
22
Output voltage = 451.461 mVpk
Av =
= 0.903
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6.2 PRACTICAL RESULT
Picture 1: Complete Circuit
Picture 2: Output waveform of first stage when only first stage is connected
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Picture 2: Output waveform of second stage when only second stage is connected
Picture 3: Output waveform of second stage when only first and second stage are connected
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Picture 4: Output waveform of third stage when only third stage is connected
Picture 5: Output waveform of first stage when all three stages are connected
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Picture 6: Output waveform of second stage when all three stages are connected
Picture 7: Output waveform of final stage when all three stages are connected
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Picture 8: power spectrum
1. Output value of first stage when only first stage is connected,
Phase shift,  = 180°
2. Output value of second stage when only second stage is connected
3. Output value at second stage when both first and second stage are connected
Phase shift,  = 0°/360°
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4. Output waveform at third stage when only third stage is connected
5. Output waveform at the first stage when all stages are connected
6. Output waveform at the second stage when all stages are connected
7. Output waveform at the final stage when all stages are connected
8. Cutoff input voltage for the overall circuit =0.68V
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9. Table for potting the power spectrum
F (HZ) I (mA) V(V) P(W)
50 50 0.4 0.02
100 90 0.7 0.063
150 110 0.85 0.0935
200 115 0.90 0.1035
250 120 0.90 0.108
300 125 1.00 0.125
400 130 1.00 0.13
500 130 1.00 0.13
600 130 1.00 0.13
700 132.5 1.00 0.1325
800 132.5 1.00 0.1325
900 132.5 1.00 0.1325
1K 132.5 1.00 0.1325
1.5K 140.0 1.00 0.14
2K 140.0 1.00 0.14
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6.3 ANALYSIS
6.3.1. Comparison between the practical, theoretical and simulation result for DC bias point:
Voltage Simulation Practical ∆V

Result(V) Result(V)
2.80 2.80 0.00 0.00%
2.10 2.20 0.10 4.76%
7.76 7.80 0.04 0.52%
2.77 2.80 0.03 1.08%
2.07 2.00 0.07 3.38%
7.63 7.80 0.17 2.23%
5.98 6.00 0.02 0.33%
6.77 6.70 0.07 1.03%
5.98 6.00 0.02 0.33%
5.22 5.30 0.08 1.53%
6.01 6.40 0.39 6.49%
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6.3.2. Comparison between actual and practical value for the component used
COMPONENTS ACTUAL PRACTICAL (Value)

VALUE VALUE
R1 15K 14.91K 0.09 0.6m%
R2 4.7K 4.639K 0.061 1.3m%
R3 4.7K 4.633K 0.067 1.43m%
R4 1.2K 1.171K 0.029 2.42m%
R5 1.2K 1.169K 0.031 2.58m%
R6 15K 14.87K 0.13 0.87m%
R7 4.7K 4.639K 0.061 1.3m%
R8 1K 977.3 22.7 2.27%
R9 200 198.4 1.6 0.8%
R10 270 268.65 1.35 0.5%
R11 1K 987.3 12.7 1.27%
R12 1K 984.7 15.3 1.53%
R13 200 194.42 5.58 2.79%
R14 200 199.72 0.28 0.14%
C1 220uF 164.6uF 55.4uF 25.18%
C2 1000pF 987.24uF 12.76uF 1.276%
C3 220uF 184.6uF 35.4uF 16.1%
C4 220uF 169.3uF 50.7uF 23.05%
C5 220uF 170.4uF 49.6uF 22.55%
C6 220uF 166.9uF 53.1uF 24.14%
C7 220uF 168.4uF 51.6uF 23.45%
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6.3.3 Comparison between actual and practical value for the component used
VOLTAGE GAIN SIMULATION PRACTICAL

RESULT RESULT
3.772 3.6 4.56%

(only first stage is
connected)
4.738 4.6 2.91%
(only second stage is
connected)
7.244 6.8 6.13%
(at second stage when both
first and second stage are
connected)
0.903 0.8 11.4%
(third stage when only third
stage is connected)
7.0 DISCUSSION
1. Since the percentage error of practical and theoretical result is less than 5%, our project is
considered success.
2. The problem we encountered throughout the project
(a) The waveform is not exactly what we predicted although the simulation results show that the
circuit works.
(i) This problem can be solved by first checking all the components used to detect the faulty
device.
-The transistor can be checked in the following way:
For NPN BJT
-ve +ve
TERMINAL TERMINAL RESISTANCE
B E 5KΩ
B C 5KΩ
E C ∞
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For NPN BJT, low resistance are detected when the negative terminal of the multimeter are
connected to base terminal and the positive terminal of the multimeter are connected to the
emitter and collector terminal.
For PNP BJT
+ve -ve
TERMINAL TERMINAL RESISTANCE
B E 5kΩ
B C 5KΩ
E C ∞
For PNP BJT, low resistance are detected when the positive terminal of the multimeter are
connected to base and emitter terminal and the negative terminal of the multimeter are connected
to the collector terminal.
-The value of resistors and capacitor can be checked by using the measurement machine
provided in lab
(ii) Secondly, check all the connection to make sure all jumper and devices are properly
connected.
(iii) If the above three method still cannot solve the problem, then must proceed to
troubleshooting the circuit by changing the value of the passive element used.
3. Class A amplifier is more linear if compared to others. It will maintain all the information
carried by the signal which is one of the requirements in designing the audio amplifier. Hence it
is used to provide the amplification in our audio amplifier. However, the output waveform of
class A stage is 180°out of phase if compared to the input signal. Hence, two class A stages are
required in order to provide 0°or 360°out of phase for the output waveform.
4. The efficiency of the class A stage is very low. It conducts for entire cycle of the input signal;
that is, the conduction angle is 360°(never switch off). Hence, if only class A stage is used, the
power consumption will be very high. Hence, a class AB is included to increase the efficiency
and reduce the power consumption.
8.0 CONCLUSION
After completing our mini project, we found that all the results obtained are almost the same as
the expected results that had proposed. The design of audio amplifier based on the theory of
analog electronic is really working. Besides, throughout the project, we have encountered many
problems that will enhance our practical skills. Moreover, upon the completion of this project,
we can see how well the practical and theoretical result agreement. This enhances our
understanding towards analog electronic and thus improving the concept. Besides, the skills we
34
inculcate in troubleshooting and overcome the problems faced will definitely be beneficial in our
life.
35

Designing An Audio Amplifier

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Designing An Audio Amplifier

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Designing of audio amplifier Academic session 2009/2010 Group 8

4.1 OUTPUT STAGES

4.2 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

4.3 CLASSES OF AMPLIFIERS

4.2.1 Class A stage

4.2.2 Class AB stage

Figure 2: Class B Figure 3: Class AB

4.2.3 Negative Feedback

EMITTER WITHOUT DEGENERATION

Output resistance of the amplifier:

4.2.5 Common Collector Configuration

As in all amplifiers, the voltage gain is . The capacitive reactance is assumed to be

Where is but in Figure 4 =0 and

Where is the resistance of the input source.

4.2.6 DC Operating Point

Figure 5: Graphical load line

4.2.7 Crosstalk Distortion

AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER

5.2 THEORETICAL DESIGN

The Second Stage

The Output Stage

Theoretical Resistor Values Actual Resistor Values

5.3 SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS

5.3.1 Analysis of stage 1 and stage 2

(b) R1 = R6 = 10 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 3.9 k

(c) R1 = R6 = 15 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 5.1 k

(d) R1 = R6 = 10 k, R2 = R3 = R7 = 3.3 k

5.3.2 Analysis of stage 3

NO R13 = R14 / ohm VB3 = VB4 VE3 VE4 Vout3

1. 51 5.970 6.813 5.157 475.3m

2. 68 5.975 6.804 5.177 471.3m

3. 82 5.978 6.799 5.187 470.1m

4. 100 5.981 6.795 5.199 467.2m

5. 200 5.989 6.778 5.232 455.3m

6. 510 5.994 6.755 5.267 433.2m

7. 1k 5.996 6.737 5.288 417.9m

8. 5.1k 5.998 6.695 5.336 370.3m

NO R13 = R14 / ohm Vout(all)

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

6.1.1 Overall result

Input voltage = 0.5 Vpk

Output voltage = 1.088 Vpk

Input voltage = 0.5 Vpk

Output voltage = 1.886 Vpk

Phase shift,  = 1800

Input voltage = 0.5 Vpk

Output voltage = 2.369 Vpk

Phase shift,  = 1800

Input voltage = 0.5 Vpk

Output voltage = 3.622 Vpk

Input voltage = 0.5 Vpk

Output voltage = 451.461 mVpk

6.2 PRACTICAL RESULT

Picture 1: Complete Circuit

Picture 8: power spectrum

1. Output value of first stage when only first stage is connected,

Phase shift,  = 180°

2. Output value of second stage when only second stage is connected

Phase shift,  = 180°

Phase shift,  = 0°/360°

4. Output waveform at third stage when only third stage is connected

Phase shift,  = 0°/360°