Electrical engineering:

Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and
application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an
identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric
telegraph and electrical power supply. It now covers a range of subtopics including power,
electronics, control systems, signal processing and telecommunications.

Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made,

usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the
problems associated with large-scale electrical systems such as power transmission and motor
control, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of small-scale electronic systems
including computers and circuits. Alternatively, electrical engineers are usually concerned
with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronic engineers are concerned with using
electricity to transmit information. More recently, the distinction has become blurred by the
growth of power electronics.

Transformer:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This
effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding
and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to
the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in
proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making
Ns less than Np.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power
grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While
new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits,
transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains")
voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long
distance transmission economically practical.
Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil
of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing
the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing
magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary
coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of
very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary coils.

Electrical generator:

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy

to electrical energy. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy
is done by a motor; motors and generators have many similarities. A generator forces
electrons in the windings to flow through the external electrical circuit. It is somewhat
analogous to a water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water
inside. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam
engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine,
a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of mechanical
energy.

Electric motor:

An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric motors
operate through interacting magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to
generate force, although a few use electrostatic forces. The reverse process, producing
electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by an alternator, generator
or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. For
example a starter/generator for a gas turbine, or traction motors used on vehicles, often
perform both tasks.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by
direct current (e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating
current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in
electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest
electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline
compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the
source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of
motion they give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric

current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing
efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of
electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical
distribution networks.

Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some
mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually termed
actuators and transducers, respectively.

Electric current:

Current means, depending on the context, a flow of electric charge (a phenomenon) or the
rate of flow of electric charge (a quantity).[1] This flowing electric charge is typically carried
by moving electrons, in a conductor such as wire; in an electrolyte, it is instead carried by
ions, and, in a plasma, by both.

The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere, which is charge
flowing through some surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is
measured using an ammeter.

For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the current I in amperes can be calculated with
the following equation:

where Q is the electric charge transferred through the surface over some time t. If Q and t are
measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, I is in amperes.

More generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flows through
a given surface as:

Conductor:

In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is a material which contains movable

electric charges. In metallic conductors, such as copper or aluminum, the movable charged
particles are electrons (see electrical conduction). Positive charges may also be mobile in the
form of atoms in a lattice that are missing electrons (known as holes), or in the form of ions,
such as in the electrolyte of a battery. Insulators are non-conducting materials with fewer
mobile charges, which resist the flow of electric current.

All conductors contain electric charges which will move when an electric potential difference
(measured in volts) is applied across separate points on the material. This flow of charge
(measured in amperes) is what is meant by electric current. In most materials, the direct
current is proportional to the voltage (as determined by Ohm's law), provided the temperature
remains constant and the material remains in the same shape and state.
Most familiar conductors are metallic. Copper is the most common material used for
electrical wiring. Silver is the best conductor, but is expensive. Because it does not corrode,
gold is used for high-quality surface-to-surface contacts. However, there are also many non-
metallic conductors, including graphite, solutions of salts, and all plasmas. There are even
conductive polymers. See electrical conduction for more information on the physical
mechanism for charge flow in materials.

All non-superconducting materials offer some resistance and warm up when a current flows.
Thus, proper design of an electrical conductor takes into account the temperature that the
conductor needs to be able to endure without damage, as well as the quantity of electric
current. The motion of charges also creates an electromagnetic field around the conductor
that exerts a mechanical radial squeezing force on the conductor. A conductor of a given
material and volume (length × cross-sectional area) has no real limit to the current it can carry
without being destroyed as long as the heat generated by the resistive loss is removed and the
conductor can withstand the radial forces. This effect is especially critical in printed circuits,
where conductors are relatively small and close together, and inside an enclosure: the heat
produced, if not properly removed, can cause fusing (melting) of the tracks.

Thermal and electrical conductivity often go together. For instance, most metals are both
electrical and thermal conductors. However, some materials are practical electrical
conductors without being good thermal conductors.

Electromagnetic induction:

It is the production of voltage across a conductor moving through a magnetic field. It

underlies the operation of generators, all electric motors, transformers, induction motors,
synchronous motors, solenoids, and most other electrical machines

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is a type of alternating current motor where

power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction.[1]

An electric motor turns because of magnetic force exerted between a stationary electromagnet
called the stator and a rotating electromagnet called the rotor. Different types of electric
motors are distinguished by how electric current is supplied to the moving rotor. In a DC
motor and a slip-ring AC motor, current is provided to the rotor directly through sliding
electrical contacts called commutators and slip rings. In an induction motor, by contrast, the
current is induced in the rotor without contacts by the magnetic field of the stator, through
electromagnetic induction. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer
because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the
rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Unlike the normal transformer which changes the
current by using time varying flux, induction motors use rotating magnetic fields to transform
the voltage. The current in the primary side creates an electromagnetic field which interacts
with the electromagnetic field of the secondary side to produce a resultant torque, thereby
transforming the electrical energy into mechanical energy. Induction motors are widely used,
especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial drives.

Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged
construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) and—thanks to
modern power electronics—the ability to control the speed of the motor.
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils
passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting rotating magnetic
field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating
conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip in order to produce torque.
They operate synchronously with line frequency. As with squirrel-cage induction motors,
speed is determined by the number of pairs of poles and the line frequency. Synchronous
motors are available in sub-fractional self-excited sizes to high-horsepower direct-current
excited industrial sizes. In the fractional horsepower range, most synchronous motors are
used where precise constant speed is required. In high-horsepower industrial sizes, the
synchronous motor provides two important functions. First, it is a highly efficient means of
converting ac energy to work. Second, it can operate at leading or unity power factor and
thereby provide power-factor correction.

Electronic Engineering:

Resistor:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films,
as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient,
noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the
resistor.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.
Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must
be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.

This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400 ohms, a
current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.

Capacitor:

A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by

a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical
force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to
the potential difference between them.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region[8] called the

dielectric medium though it may be a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region
chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[9] and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of
charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[10]

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Inductor:
An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic
field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic
energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a
conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field inside
the coil due to Ampere's Law. Due to the time-varying magnetic field inside the coil, a
voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's
Law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic electronic
components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability
of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents. Inductors called chokes are used as
parts of filters in power supplies or to block AC signals from passing through a circuit.

Diode:

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in

only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type
today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical
terminals.[1] A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies)
is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action. This is
due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the
construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform
many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener
diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio
frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel
diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.

Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying
abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor
diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals
such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as
germanium are sometimes used.

Transistor:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is

made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection
to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides
amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more
are found embedded in integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the
transistor revolutionised the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper
radios, calculators, and computers, amongst other things.

Instrumentation:

it is defined as the art and science of measurement and control.

An instrument is a device that measures and/or regulates process variables such as flow,
temperature, level, or pressure. Instruments include many varied contrivances which can be
as simple as valves and transmitters, and as complex as analyzers. Instruments often comprise
control systems of varied processes such as refineries, factories, and vehicles. The control of
processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation. Instrumentation can also
refer to handheld devices that measure some desired variable. Diverse handheld
instrumentation is common in laboratories, but can be found in the household as well. For
example, a smoke detector is a common instrument found in most western homes.

Output instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit

breakers, and relays. These devices control a desired output variable, and provide either
remote or automated control capabilities. These are often referred to as final control elements
when controlled remotely or by a control system.

Transmitters are devices which produce an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20 mA
electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, pressure, or
ethernet are possible. This signal can be used for informational purposes, or it can be sent to a
PLC, DCS, SCADA system, or other type of computerized controller, where it can be
interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system.

Control Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field
and changing the field parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops.

Frequency:

It is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as
temporal frequency. The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period
is the reciprocal of the frequency. Loosely speaking, 1 year is the period of the Earth's orbit
around the Sun,[1] and the Earth's rotation on its axis has a frequency of 1 rotation per day.[2]

For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, frequency is defined as a

number of cycles per unit time. In physics and engineering disciplines, such as optics,
acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a Latin letter f or by a Greek letter ν
(nu).

In SI units, the unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist Heinrich
Hertz: 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second. A previous name for this unit was
cycles per second.

A traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechanical devices is revolutions per minute,
abbreviated RPM. 60 RPM equals one hertz.[3]
The period, usually denoted by T, is the length of time taken by one cycle, and is the
reciprocal of the frequency f:

The SI unit for period is the second.

Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values). These parameters

include:

Pressure:

It is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object.
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square meter (N/m2 or
kg·m−1·s−2)

Capacitance

It is the ability of a body to hold an electrical charge. Capacitance is also a measure of the
amount of electrical energy stored (or separated) for a given electric potential. A common
form of energy storage device is a parallel-plate capacitor. In a parallel plate capacitor,
capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates and inversely
proportional to the separation distance between the plates. If the charges on the plates are +Q
and −Q, and V gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance is given by

The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad is 1 coulomb per volt.

Electrical resistivity:

It (also known as specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) is a measure of how

strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material
that readily allows the movement of electrical charge. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is
the ohm metre [Ω m].

Electrical resistivity ρ (Greek: rho) is defined by,

where

ρ is the static resistivity (measured in ohm-metres, Ω-m)

 E is the magnitude of the electric field (measured in volts per metre, V/m);

J is the magnitude of the current density (measured in amperes per square metre,
A/m²).

Viscosity:

It is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or
tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness" or "internal
friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a
higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement
(fluidity).[1]

Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of
fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity felsic magma will create a tall, steep stratovolcano,
because it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity mafic lava will create a wide,
shallow-sloped shield volcano. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to
stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known
as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.