Chapter 15 Evaluation

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ÔENERAL PRINCIPLES
The need to evaluate hazards is driven by the acknowledg ment that chemical,
biological, and physical agents can cause injury, disease, and premature
death among exposed workers. The U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of
Statistics reported 6.2 million occupational work -related injuries and illnesses
in private industry in 1997. The actual number is much larger, because many
occupational illnesses are unrec ognized, many injuries and illn esses are not
reported, and the public sector is not included in this count. For example,
Leigh et al used multiple data sources to estimate the socie tal burden of
occupational injury and illness: 6,500 job -related deaths from injury, 13.2
million nonfatal injuries, 60,300 deaths from disease, and 862,200 illnesses
each year. The task of evaluating the nature and severity of hazards and
prevention of disease and death relies on judgment based on many factors:

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the inherent capacity of an agent to cause harm, the nature of that
harm, and target organs affected.
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the amount that workers absorb through all routes
of entry during work.
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the awareness of operat ions, from raw
materials through their transformation to prod ucts and by-products, that may
result in the release of chem icals or energy that could cause harm.
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the knowledge of acute
incidents, infrequent events, leaks, and releases that are missed in routine
evaluations.
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a literature review of pop ulation-based
research and case-based surveillance that may provide information about
adverse health effects not yet noticed in a small work force.
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the information provided by workers, regard ing health symptoms,
tasks, and changes in conditions, that can provide essential details regarding
process analysis, health impact, and other stressors on the job that may be
chemical, physical, ergonomic, or biological.
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awareness that some populations of workers
are more likely to experience increased risks of diseases and injuries in the
workplace, e.g., older workers are at greatly increase d risk of injury fatality;
more partially disabled workers who may require special protection; have
been able to re-enter the workplace with protection afforded by the ADA; and
increasing numbers of working teens are at higher risk of injury.
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the way individuals vary in their susceptibility
because of factors such as age, size, respira tory rate, and general health
status. Recognition of the nonuniversality of response helps maintain
awareness of possible unrecognized hazards.

The purpose of evaluation is the prevention of hazardous exposures and

resulting adverse health effects. Unlike health care providers, whose job is to
treat existing conditions, industrial hygienists can prevent illness through
recognition and correction of h azards before they cause harm. The industrial
hygienist uses many sources of information and methods in evaluating the
workplace. The next section describes some of them.

£asic Approach to Hazard Recognition

Almost any work environment has either potential or actual environmental
hazards that the health and safety profes sional must recognize, measure, and
monitor. The first step toward recognition of these potential hazards is the
considerarion of the raw materials being used, including any known impurities,
and the potential of those materials to do harm. The next consideration is how
these raw materials are modified through intermediate steps. Finally, an
evaluation of the finished product or by -products must also be done, both
under normal conditions and under anticipated emer gency conditions, to
determine whether any hazards might exist at this point.
A basic, systematic procedure can be followed in the recognition of
occupational health hazards. Hazard re cognition merhods are similar whether
a chemical, physical, or biological agent is involved. Questions should be
formulated to organize information:
#ühat are the raw materials?
>ühat is produced?
> ühat intermediate products are formed in the process?
> ühat by-products may be released?
> ühat are the usual cleaning or maintenance procedures at the end of the
day, end of a run, or changeover to another product?
> ühat hazardous waste is produced and how is it disposed?

There is a wealth of health and safety information that should be researched

to help anticipate potential hazards in any work setting. Included in this search
should be a review of the known hazards associated with industrial processes
or job classifications. An inventory can then be ma de of previously identified
hazards by category, and any relevant stan dards or guidelines can be
referenced. Armed with this information, the next step is to study the specific
operation or process and consider where air contaminants are released, as
well as where and when employees are exposed.

Any job can include physical hazards as well as chemical hazards. Energy
uses, electromagnetic fields, noise sources, fire hazards, physically
demanding tasks, and material -handling jobs must all be noted. Hazar ds that
could result in acute trau matic injuries also include vehicles and sources of
energy. Vehicles include automobiles, forklift trucks, and overhead cranes.
Energy sources could be mechanical (pneumatic or hydraulic), electrical,
thermal, or chemical. The pattern of work may include sitting, standing, or
lifting. Physical hazards could also include vibration, radiation, barometric
pressure alterations, and hazardous motions or postures that could cause
cumulative trauma disorders. Temperature extreme s, lighting levels, and
machine pacing ate additional factors to consider in the initial hazard
surveillance approach.
Biological hazards include infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites, and
fungi), toxins associated with plants or animals, and pha rmacoactive
substances such as enzymes, hormones, or other biological materials.
Infectious agents include tuberculosis in shelters, clinics, hospitals, or offices;
bloodborne pathogens for first aid providers; and mold or mildew in a
basement office after a flood. In evaluations of agricultural work areas, one
may need to consider other agents. In biotechnology or pharmaceutical
companies, exotic endotoxins or biological materials may be employed.

Psychological hazards such as high job demands and low con trol can cause
stress and should also be considered. Some factors that can result in
emotional strain include machine pacing; boring, repetitive tasks; complex,
highly demanding requirements; shift work; fear of layoffs or physical violence;
computer monitoring of performance; and the absence of social or coworker
support.

Review of Literature
Prior to evaluating any workplace, it is useful to know what hazards are
anticipated. A literature review of the industry in question or the type of
operation being done can facilitate this analysis. Recommended general
resources include Burgess (1995); Cralley & Crallcy (1986, 1986a, & 1986b);
the International Labour Organization (ILO) (1983); üeeks et al (1991) Lew &
üeeman (2000): and U.S. Deoartment of Health, Education and üelfare
(U.S. DHEü), NIOSH (1977).

Page 489

Other resources include current publications, review articles in journals; and

computer sources such as compact disk, or CD-ROM, services. Sources to be
consulted include technical journals in the fields of industrial hygiene,
occupational medicine, environmental analysis, and epidemiology. Some trade
associations incorporate health and safety articles into their reg ular
communications with members. The National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupa tional Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) have published very useful pamphlets, criteria documents, reports,
and technical bulletins on many ergonomic subjects, which can be consulted
prior to a workplace evaluation. The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA)
also has several publications. Most of these are available on their websites
under the heading ³Publications. " The OSHA website is www.osha.gov, and for
NIOSH, www.cdc.gov/NIOSH/homepage/html. NIOSH maintains a mailing list
to inform interested persons about new publications and courses offered for
further training.
Inventory
A list should be prepared of all chemicals present m the facility. The list
should include all raw materials and final prod ucts. This chemical inventory is
required by OSHAs Hazard Communication Standard, 29 '

1910.1200, for
the purpose of anticipating possible hazards and ensuring that these risks are
communicated to employers and employees before they are encountered in
the workplace.
The manufacturer or supplier of each chemical must provide a material safety
data sheet (MSDS) for every product.

For every chemical, the relevant standards should be looked up; they cover
many of the most hazardous materials currently in use and often highlight
possible chemical exposures that must be controlled. The legal standards are
OSHAs permissible exposure limits (PEI-s), which set the maximum
boundaries for allowable worker exposures. There are different types of limits.
Time-weighted average limits (TüAs) are used to evaluate average sampling
results covering a whole shift. Short -term exposure limits (STELs) or ceiling
levels are used to evaluate brief expos ure times or peak
releases.
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Although not enforceable by law, other guidelines are often more current and
therefore more protective of workers. These include recommended exposure
limits (RELs), developed by NIOSH to guide OSHA in promulgating its legal
standards, and Threshold Limit Values® (TLVs®), offered by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) annually in a
pocket-sized booklet as a guideline for good workplace cont rol. See Appendix
B for the 2001 TLVs and BEIs®. A convenient reference for OSHA and
NIOSH limits is the NIOSH 
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(1997).

Unfortunately, there are no standards or guidelines for most chemicals that

reflect experience or research with them.

It has been estimated that new chemical products are intro duced into the
workplace at a rate of 1,000 to 3,000 every year, yielding a total of 60,000
chemicals in widespread commercial use in the western nations. Of these,
OTA estimates that only 5,000 chemicals have ever been tested for toxicity.
Only 454 chemicals have specific limits promulgated by OSHA. Maintenance
of a complete inventory helps to pro vide oversight and to keep track of any
previously unrecognized problems and health effects

Table 15-A.  


 
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Definition
{azard Infectious/biological agents such as bacteria, viruses.fungi, or
Categories parasites, that can be transmitted by contact with infectious
£iological patients or with contaminated body secretions/fluids

 amples Found in the {ospital Setting

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Hepatitis B or C virus
Tuberculosis
Ergonomic

Lifting patients Lifting supplies/ radiation shields Standing for long

periods of time Poor lighting Poor workstation design

Ergonomics attempts to fit the job to the worker instead of the traditional
method of fitting the worker to the job. It is the study of human characteristics,
both behavioral and biological, for the appropriate design of the living and working
environment.

Chemical

Chemicals that are potentially toxic or irritating to the body, including

medications, gases, laboratory reagents, or cleaning products
Ethylene oxide Formaldehyde Glutaraldehyde üaste anesthetic gases
Chemotherapy Pentamidine Ribavirin

Psychological
Factors/situations encountered in the workplace that create or potentiate
stress, emotional strain, or interpersonal problems

Stress
üorkplace hierarchy
Shiftwork
Fear of layoff
Fear of violence

Physical - Physical agents that can cause tissue trauma

Radiation - Lasers - Noise - High voltage - equipment - Extreme

temperatures - Needlesticks

Page 490

The inventory can be extended to include physical, ergonomic, biological,

and psychological hazards as well as chemical ones. For example, see Table
15²A for an inventory of potential hazards in a hospital setting.
Any inventory should be maintained, updated, and used to develop, man age,
and evaluate the appropriate programs an d to ensure awareness of the broad
range of hazards that may be present in the workplace.
uESCRIPTION OF PROCESS OR OPERATION
The inventory provides information about the identity of the hazards present,
but it cannot indicate the degree of risk from ex posure to those materials. It
does not quantify the amounts employed in the process; indicate how or
where they are used or produced; or detail at what point, via what route, or for
how long employees are potentially exposed. The severity of the hazards
present depends on the potential for worker contact as well as the duration
and concentration of exposure to the hazardous materials; therefore, informa -
tion about the industrial processes and operations is needed to link the
hazardous materials to their use in production and to personnel contact.
Facility engineering and manufac turing personnel should be consulted
regarding usual operations, abnormal operating conditions, and other factors
that can affect exposures.

There are numerous industrial operations that should immediately alert the
health and safety professional to a potential health hazard. Lists of industrial
operations such as the ones shown in Table 15 -B are helpful in reviewing
processes that might create special risks such as the aerosolizatio n of a
hazardous material. After a list of process operations that possibly produce
harmful air contaminants has been prepared, certain operations should be
selected for closer scrutiny.

Process Flow Sheet

A simple process flow sheet should be drawn that shows in a stepwise
fashion how and where each material is introduced and at what point products
and by-products are made (Figure 15-1). Process flow sheets and the
standard operating procedures (SOPs) that describe the particular operations
involved should be obtained and studied. They not only pro vide a good
description of the general operations involved, but also serve as an excellent
source for the terminology used in that particular industry. In many industrial
operations, many different hazards exis t simultaneously.

Contaminant Contaminant Page

491

Table 15-£ 
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Page 492

Therefore, it is necessary to carefully examine the overall process so that

potentially hazardous conditions are not overlooked.

It is important to identify the air contaminants produced and to pinpoint the

location and tasks of personnel that might be exposed to them. Repetitive
operations, wherein a worker remains in one location and repeats the same
task, can be relatively straightforward to analyze.
In ’rocess Types Type  amples

 
üelding Gases (g) Chromates (p)
Chemical reactions Particulates (p) Zinc arxl compounds (p)
Soldering (Dusts, fumes, Manganese and
mists) compounds +,
Melting Metal oxides (p)
Molding Carbon monoxide (g)
Burning Ozone (g) Cadmium
oxide (p) Fluorides (p)
Lead (p) Vinyl chloride
(g)

operations during which several contaminants are generated, the evaluation

process involves identifying the points at which each material is released and
the duration of each release, and factoring in the maximum number of times
per workshift these exposures occur. This allows prediction of the amount of
contaminant potentially released into the environment, and can help tax -get
areas for personal or area air sampling. In workplaces where tasks vary from
day to day, depending on the products being made, work assignment, and
other factors, a process flow sheet may be less useful, a nd individual
assessments are necessary.

Chemical process companies involved with the manufacture of large

volumes of chemicals use closed systems. Although chemicals are not
routinely released to the atmos phere, exposure to air contaminants in
work areas arises from the following:
>Leaks from joints, fittings, closures, and other compo nents that allow release
from the otherwise closed system
>The process of charging the system or preparing and
loading the raw materials
#Intentional releases of conta minants from vents, process sampling points, or
quality control checkpoints
>Stack gases from combustion processes Accidental of unintentional
releases resulting from equipment malfunction or failure
>Maintenance or repair activities or infrequent ly performed functions without
standard operating procedures
Many valves leak even when they are supposed to be shut, and such leaks
can release significant concentrations of chemical air contaminants.
Table 15-C. 
 
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Page 493
Purges, minor overpressures, and system breathing into the atmosphere should
be contained by collection, scrubbing, reaction, incineration, or other measures
that safely dispose of the products or eliminate their release altogether. Envi -
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) emission requirements may require further
control measures. Efforts by the environmental movement have influenced state
and local legislation to discour age the use of hazardous materials completely.
These toxic use reduction (TUR) efforts have emphasized review of chemical
operations to eliminate or reduce the use of hazardous chemicals and substitute
safer materials wherever possible.

Checklists
A checklist for evaluating environmental hazards that can arise from industrial
operations is presented here. It should be modified to fit each particular
situation.

OVERALL PROCESS OR OPERATION

List all hazardous chemical or physical agents used or formed in the process.
Carry out the following tasks, answering all of the appropriate questions:
' List the conditions necessary for the agent to be released into the
workroom atmosphere. Does it usually occur in the process as a dust, mist,
gas, fume, vapor, a low-volatile liquid, or a solid (Table 15-0? ühat process
conditions could cause material to be sprayed or discharged into the air as a
liquid aerosol or dust cloud? Have the conse quences of the exposure of raw
materials or intermediates on people or operations been considered? Are
incompatible materials, such as acids and cyanides in plating opera tions, kept
separate from one anorher?
' Review storage of raw materials and finished product. Are unstable
materials such as methyl ethyl ketone per oxide properly stored? Have
chemical incompatibilities been considered? Are containers appropriate? Has
flam-mability been considered?
' Consider transport and disposal. Have provisions been made for the safe
disposal of toxic materials in compliance with all relevant regulations? Can
reactants be removed and disposed of promptly in an emergency? Can spills
be quickly and effectively contained?
' List the background airborne concentration levels in the workroom that
would usually be present as a function of time. List the peak airborne
concentrations as a function of task duration. List the appropriate PELs,
RELs, TLVs®, and STELs.
Ƒ Review fire safety. Are fire extinguishers the correct type and
size for the materials present? Are they inspected and
recharged on a scheduled basis? Are the extinguishing agents
compatible with process materials? Is an evacuation plan
prepared and disseminated? Are alarms visible, audible, and
understandable? Are employees trained in fire safety? Do
they know where emergency equipment is located?
> List the levels of those physical agents that are normally present (such as
ionizing and nonionizing radiation, temperature extremes, vibration, and
noise). List any relevant standards or guidelines.
Page 494

EQUIPMENT
Conduct all of the following procedur es, listing those pieces of equipment that
contain sufficient hazardous material or energy such that a hazard would be
produced if their contents were suddenly released to the environment:

> List the equipment that could release hazardous levels of phy sical agents
during normal operations or abnormal situations such as power outages.
> List the equipment that can produce hazardous concen trations of airborne
contaminants. For each item indicate the control measures installed to
minimize the hazard. Is the health and safety control measure adequate, fail -
safe, and reliable? Is it checked on a routine basis?
>List process equipment with components that are likely to fail due to
corrosion or to leak hazardous materials such as valves, pump packing, and
tank vents. ühat safeguards have been taken to prevent expected leakage?
Is each safeguard adequate, fail -safe, and reliable? Is there a preventive
maintenance program in place to ensure rou tine examination and
replacement of these components?
>Label all chemical containers, transport vessels, and pip ing systems in
accordance with the OSHA hazard communication standard. Are labels
appropriate for the literacy level and language of the work force?
> Ensure that all equipment can be correctly lock ed out
and tagged out during necessary procedures. Are emer gency disconnect
switches properly marked?

CLEANINÔ METHOuS
Cleaning operations should be noted to identify hazardous materials and
processes. The primary cleaning methods used in industry include the
following:
Ƒ Manual wiping of parts or equipment with a solvent -soaked rag
Ƒ Chemical stripping, degreasing, or removal by dissolving
>Use of hand-held or mechanical brushes
' Scraping or sanding
' Dry sweeping or wet mopping
' üet sponging
' Abrasive blasting
' Steam cleaning
' Using compressed air to blow off dust
' Using vacuum-cleaning devices

The common feature of all these operations is that by some physical and/or
chemical action a contaminant is dislodged from the surface to which it was
adhering and could be released into the work environment. In addition the
cleaning agent used to remove a hazardous material might introduce another,
equally hazardous, chemical into the workplace.

For example, cleaning chemicals and disinfectants have b een associated with
work-related asthma. Surveillance of work-related asthma was funded by
NIOSH in four states.
The results indicated that cleaning materials were the fifth most frequently
reported cause of asthma cases, including both new -onset asthma and work-
aggravated asthma. Cleaning agents and disinfectants may contain strong irri -
tants (e.g. chlorine, ammonia) or sensitizers (e.g. benzalko -nium chloride,
formaldehyde, chlorhexidine). Similarly, rag cleaning with organic solvents
results in worker exposure to organic vapors, by inhalation and byskin
contact. A brush used to sweep up dusty substances or a scraper used to dis -
lodge built-up cakes of dry substances can disperse dust into the air. The use
of compressed air to blow dust from surfaces reentrains dust that had settled
out and will probably ptoduce the greatest concentration of air contaminants.
OSHA regulations prohibit the use of compressed air to clean except when
the pressure is reduced to 30 psi, and then only if an effective chip guard and
personal protective equipment ate used. The use of compressed air with
asbestos dust is forbidden.

High-pressure water blasting and steam cleaning are essentially wet methods
that might initially appear to be designed to suppress the generation of ai r
contaminants. However, hydroblasting equipment to remove a solid can
produce substantial concentrations of air contaminants, as can steam
cleaning, because of the temperatures and forces involved.

The use of vacuum cleaners, which collect and contain ma terial for removal,
appears to be the most satisfactory method of cleaning dry, dusty materials
without producing excessive amounts of contaminants. However, a special
vacuum with a high-efficiency particulate filter (HEPA) is needed when dealing
with certain highly toxic dusts such as asbestos, lead, arsenic, or cadmium.
HEPA vacuuming is often accompanied by low pressure, wet methods such
as misting or airless spraying, in order to keep levels of airborne toxic dusts to
a minimum.

A preferable step is to reduce the dispersal of airborne dusts in the first place.
Some power sanders and soldering guns can be specially fitted for dust or
fume removal at the point of generation. The need for cleaning can
sometimes be further reduced by analysis of the source of the material that
must be removed.
For example, degreasing is not necessary if oil or coolant is not applied to a
part in the first place. A toxics use reduction approach would seek to identify
and prevent the source of the contamination, if possible, and then use the
safest method to remove it; for example, with a water -based cleaner rather
than a volatile organic solvent.

Process Safety Management

Inherent in the use or storage of large quantities of highly hazardous or
flammable chemicals is the risk of catastrophic releases that would prove
injurious or fatal both to employees and to those living in the immediate
vicinity of the facility. On Dec. 2, 1984, methyl isocyanate was released from
Union Carbide's pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, which caused at least
6,500 deaths and an estimated 20,000 to 50,000 serious injuries.

Page 495
This experience taught the world a tragic lesson about worker and community
consequences of an unexpected chemical release and the need for controls
and emergency preparedness.

Process safety management is a systematic approach to evaluating an entire

process for the purpose of preventing such unwanted releases of hazardous
chemicals into locations that could expose employees and others to serious
hazards. In 1992, OSHA promulgated a standard for general industry, 29 '


1910.119, which mandates process safety management of highly hazardous
chemicals for companies that use or store large quantities of flammable or
highly hazardous chemicals in one location. It requires them to implement a
program that incorporates analyses, written operating procedures, training,
inspection and testing, and safety reviews for their own employees and for
contractors. OSHA defines process safety management as the proacti ve
identification, evaluation, and mitigation or prevention of chemical releases
that could occur as a result of failures in process, procedures, or equipment.

OSHA acknowledges several methods to evaluate hazards of the process

being analyzed: ühat-if scenarios, checklists, what-ifs in a checklist format,
hazard and operability studies (HAZOPs), failure mode and effects analysis
(FMEA), fault tree analysis, or other equivalent methods are all acceptable.
Employers are required to determine and document th e priority order for
conducting process-hazard analyses based on a rationale that considers the
extent of the process-hazards, the number of potentially affected employees,
the age of the processes, and the facility's operating history.
This approach requires the development of expertise, experience, and
proactive initiative by a team of concerned individuals. These are attained
primarily by conducting process-hazard analyses, directed toward evaluating
potential causes and consequences of fires, explosion s, releases of toxic or
flammable chemicals, and major spills of hazardous chem icals. The health
and safety professional, with the assistance of process managers, employees,
and others, must determine the potential failure points or modes in a process.
The focus is on equipment, instrumentation, utilities, human actions (routine
and nonroutine), and external factors that might impact the process.
For the health and safety professional, a process -hazard analysis can provide
a starting point in an overall ha zard evaluation. Such analyses should be
performed whenever possible. For those evaluating businesses where
quantities of hazardous materials in use fall below the OSHA require ments for
a written plan, the guidelines contained in the Process Safety Stan dard may
still serve as a useful tool in the evaluation process.

FIELu SURVEY
Thus far in the evaluation process, most of the research rec ommended has
probably been conducted outside of the workplace. Process diagrams,
literature searches, and inven tories can be reviewed in the office, but
evaluation requires on -site, direct observation, measurement, and
assessment.
It is at this point that the anticipation of hazards must be inte grated with actual
conditions. ühether the motivation for the evaluation is compliance,
insurance, expert testimony, complaint investigation, or development of a
comprehensive health and safety plan, direct, on -site involvement on the part
of the industrial hygienist is required. This usually begins with a walkthrough
of the workplace.

The walkthrough, or initial field survey, follows the flow of materials into the
facility, through all the various processes involved in the operation, to the
shipping of finished product, as well as tracking unwanted by -products. It
should also include nonproduct areas such as maintenance and other service
operations. It should be conducted with die facility or process man ager,
someone familiar with both the process design and usual operations. The
walkthrough introduces the industrial hygieni st to the language of facility
operations, establishes a baseline of current conditions, and allows an initial
assessment of hazards or areas that may require further evaluation.

The industrial hygienist can use this opportunity to meet operators of key
processes, area supervisors, and other health and safety personnel.
Communication with these individuals is essential to understanding the
sources and effects of hazards on the job, and for planning future sampling
and analyses. A checklist, a sketch of the facility layout, preliminary notes, or
a tape recording is useful for documenting initial impressions and serves as a
reminder to return to areas that require more intensive inspection.

As our society becomes mote and mote service oriented, the traditional facility
tour may be conducted less frequently. The field survey will, however, remain
a viral tool of the industrial hygienist, with the focus of the initial walkthrough
being individual operations within a building. Conducting the initial
assessment of the operation with an area supervi sor who can help obtain a
sketch of the physical operation of interest and familiarize the industrial
hygienist with the current problems will remain invaluable, as will developing a
checklist to use in the walkthrough itself.

Sensory Perception
Field surveys also allow industrial hygienists to make use of their sensory
perceptions (vision, hearing, and sense of smell) to note potential hazards.
Observing dusty operations, patterns of shavings or powder on the floor
(Figure 15-2), over-spray on walls, puddles underneath valves, or wetness
around an area not currently in use alerts the industrial hygienist to problems
not consideted before. The exact location of processes of concern, such as
welding stations, degreasers, flammable storage, exits, and break areas can
be precisely located and added to the facility layout for later consideration.
The absence or presence of visible dust should not sway ini tial judgment
excessively. Because dust parricles of respirable size are not visible to the
unaided eye, lack of a visible dust cloud does not guarantee an atmosphere
free of respiratory hazards
Page 496

Figure 15-2. Observing dusty operations, patterns of shavings or powder on

the floor, overspray on walls, puddles underneath valves, or wetness around
an area not currently in use alerts the industrial hygienist to problems not
considered before. The pattern of wood dust under this saw indicated that the
local exhaust ventilation was disconnected.

Timing of dry sweeping and shaking out of dust col lection devices should be
noted. The need for air sampling for dusts should be determined by the
source, identity, toxicity, health complaints, and processes of concern.
ühenever the tour guide must move closer to the industrial hygienist in order
to be understood, it is likely that noise levels are excessive and this fact
should be noted. Patterns of hearing protector use should also be recorded
during the walkthrough.

The presence of many vapors and gase s is detectable by smell. The odor
thresholds for some chemicals arc in the parts per billion range, which helps
serve as an early warning of exposure. This is especially true for someone
entering an area from elsewhere and for certain aromatic or strong -smelling
chemicals such as ethyl acrylare or hydrogen sulfide. The sense of smell
fatigues with time and is variable from person to per son. Odor thresholds
listed in resource tables can vary by a factor of 100 from one person to
another. Detecting an odor or experiencing eye or throat irritation should
indicate to the occupational health professional that a chemical is present to
some degree in the air, and an attempt should be made to identify the
process or chemical. These sensory impressions do not neces sarily reveal
an overexposure, but they can provide important clues to a potentially
hazardous source. Also, it is important to note that absence of an odor or
irritation does not necessarily mean the absence of a chemical exposure.

Control Measures in Use

During the walkthrough or initial yield survey, the types, locations. and
effectiveness of control measures should be appraised. Controls include local
exhaust and general dilu tion ventilation, shielding, and personal protective
equipment such as gloves, respirators, hearing protectors, and safety
glasses. Storage of respirators and availability of replacement cartridges are
good indicators of a company's oversight of their respirator program.
Ventilation design should be appropriate for the hazard and the process.
Homemade ventilation may be inadequate. For example, it might consist of a
canopy hood for unhealed processes or of hoods distant from the source,
both of which would provide less than adequate capture velocity. Ventila tion
and airflow patterns can be visualized with an air current tube or estimated by
taking air velocity measurements. The distance between the air collection
device and source should be observed, and any turbulence created by
portable fans or locations on aisles should be rec orded.
Administrative controls such as job rotation, scheduling of particularly
hazardous operations during shifts when fewer workers are present,
enforcement of lock-out/tag-out, etc., are not always obvious; questions
regarding these types of controls should be included on any questionnaire.

Observation and Interview

Observation and interviews with workers can reveal the best information
regarding hazard evaluation and adequacy of con trols. During the
walkthrough, or while conducting sampling, the occ upational health
professional must carefully observe workers performing their jobs and note all
opporrunities for exposure by each route of entry. üithout jeopardizing worker
confidentiality, employees should be interviewed regarding the content of their
jobs, how they spend their time, exposures of concern, and any health
symptoms, especially as they relate to contact with various chemical products
or processes. Identifying particularly hazardous operations may be possible by
a review of recent incidents.

Page 497

Table 15-u Checklist for 
aluating

Chemical  posure
A Evaluate the Potential for Airborne
Exposure
1.   
. 
(rank high/medium/low):
a Types and amounts of chemicals in use or
created by combustion or decomposition,
b.' Visible leaks, spills, or emissions from
process equipment, vents, stacks, or from
containers.
c. Settled dust, which may be resuspended
into the air.
d. Open containers from which liquids may
evaporate.
e. Heating or drying, which may make a
chemical more volatile or dusty.
f. Odors. Consult an odor threshold table to
get an estimate of concentration.
g. Do air monitoring where the presence of
a contaminant is suspected but cannot be
verified by sight or smell,
h. Visualize exposure by taking photogra phs or
videotape.
2. Uob Functions *estimate hours/day):
a. Manual handling in general.
b. Active verb job tasks such as grinding,
scraping, sawing, cutting, sanding, drilling,
spraying, measuring, mixing, blending,
dumping, sweeping, wiping, pouring, crushing,
filtering, extracting, packaging.
3. Control Failures:
a. Visible leaks from ventilation hoods,
ductwork, collectors.
b. Hoods that are located too far from the
source or are missing or broken.
c. Ductwork that is clogged, dented or has
holes.
d. Insufficient make-up air to replace
exhausted air.
e. Contamination inside respirators.
f. Improperly selected, maintained, or used
respirator.
g. Lack of or inadequate housekeeping
equipment.
h. Lack of or inadequate doffing and laundering
procedures for clothing contaminated by dust.
£ Evaluate the Potential for Accidental
Ingestion
1.  posure Sources *rank
high/medium/low):
a. Types and amounts of chemicals in use or
created by combustion or decomposition. Solids
are of primary concern.
b. Contamination of work surfaces, which
may spread to food, beverage, gum, cigarettes,
hands or face.
c. Contamination of hands or face, which
may enter mouth.
d. Do wipe sampling to verify the presence
of a contaminant on work surfaces, hands, face,
and so forth.
2. Control Failures:
a. Contamination of inside of respirator,
which may enter mouth.
b. Contamination of lunchroom surfaces,
which may spread to food, beverage, gum,
cigarettes, hands or face.
C Evaluate the Potential for Skin Contact
and Absorption
1.  posure Sources:
a. Types and amounts of chemicals in use or
created by combustion or decomposition. Check
dermal absorption potential.
Do not rely on OSHA skin notations. Assume
most liquids will penetrate skin.
b. Consider whether one chemical can act as
a carrier for other chemicals.
c. Visualize dermal exposure by taking
photographs or videotape.
Ñ
Uob Functions:
a. Dipping hands into material.
b. Handling of wet objects or rags.
3. Control Failures:
a. Contamination of inside of gloves.
b. Improperly selected, maintained, or used
gloves.
c. Improperly selected, maintained, or used
chemical protective clothing.
d. Lack of or inadequate facilities for washing
of hands and face close to work areas.
e. Lack of or inadequate shower facilities.
(Reprinted from ë.
Spring 1991, p.
77, P.O. Box 281200, Lakewood, CO 80228 -
8200.)

Documenting variations in production levels, assignments, shifts, seasonal

work, and ventilation patterns helps in determining when peak exposures
might occur and where sampling would be most useful (Table 15 -D).
MONITORINÔ ANu SAMPLINÔ Rationale
There are a number of reasons why environmental measure ments should be
taken in the workplace. Of primary concern to the health and safety
professional is evaluating the degree of employee exposure to hazardous
materials on the job. Other important reasons include identification of the
tasks or processes that could be sources of peak exposures, evalua tion of the
impact of process changes and control measures, and compliance with
occupational and environmental regu lations.

Page 498

Figure 15-3 In personal monitoring, the measurement device, or dosimeter,

is placed as close as possible to the contaminant' s route of entry into the
body. For example, when monitoring an air contaminant that is toxic if
inhaled, the measurement device, or dosimeter, is placed on the employee's
lapel or as close to the breathing zone as possible. ühen monitoring noise,
thedosimeter should beplaced close to the ear.

Environmental sampling can be used to clear an area for reoccupancy,

decide if a confined space is safe for entry, establish background or usual
concentrations, or warn of a peak release of a hazardous product.

Monitoring
Monitoring is a continuous program of observation, meas urement, and
judgment. It requires an awareness of the pres ence of potential health
hazards as processes undergo change, and constant assessment of the
adequacy of the control measures in place.
Monitoring is more than simply sampling the air to which an employee is
exposed or examining the medical sta tus of that employee. Id t is a
combination of observation, interview, and measurement that permits a
judgment to be made relative to the potential hazards and the adequacy of
protection afforded employees. Included in the process are both personal
and environmental monitoring, performed during a given operation where
hazardous materials may be released, and follow -up biological and medical
monitoring of the employees involved in that process.

PERSONAL MONITORINÔ
Personal monitoring is the measurement of a particular employee's
exposure to airborne contaminants and, in the ory, reflects actual exposure
to the employee. It is usually done during a specific time period, often an 8 -
hour shift or a I5-minute period, to ensure compliance with OSHA PELs or
STELs; it can therefore include times when the employee is at break or
involved in activities where the contaminant of interest is not in use. It is
because of this variability that it is extremely important to observe
individuals being monitored and to interview them about their work, before,
during, and after the monitoring is done.

In personal monitoring, the measurement device, or dosimeter, is placed as

close as possible to the contaminant's route of entry into the body. (Figure
15-3). For example, when monitoring an air contaminant that is toxic if
inhaled, the measurement device is placed on the employee's lapel or as
close to the breathing zone as possible. ühen monitoring noise, the
dosimeter should be placed close to the ear.

Even with the proper placement of the dosimeter, there is no guarantee that
results of personal sampling will reflect actual exposure levels. Some
materials are absorbed through the skin or mucous membranes in addition
to being inhaled. The release of contaminants is often not uniform, and the
side of the employee where the monitor is placed may n ot be the side
closest to the point of release of the contaminant. The results would
therefore underestimate the exposure. On the other hand, if the sampling
device is placed outside a respirator or face shield, the result might
overestimate the true exposure to the worker.

Personal sampling relies on portable, battery -operated sampling pumps that

the employee wears throughout the sampling. This offers freedom of
movement because there is no need to maintain proximity to electrical
outlets. The pumps, however, can be noisy and heavy, and employees are
sometimes not willing to wear them on a continuous basis.
In addition, because the pumps are battery operated, they might have a
variable output throughout the day, or might actually stop operating in the
middle of sampling. The effective use of personal sampling pumps relies on
proper calibration and maintenance and consistent supervision by well -
trained professionals during the monitoring process.

Page 499
Figure 15-4. Centralized analytical devices can be attached to remote
probes so that data can be acquired from several areas simultaneously and
monitored from a central location.
Figure 15-5. An alarm can be sounded if a preset limit is exceeded.

AREA MONITORINÔ - Area sampling is another method used by industrial

hygienists to evaluate exposure. Here, however, exposure is meas ured not
in terms of a particular employee, but rather in terms of the ambient air
concentration of a particular sub stance in a given area at a given period of
time. The measurement device, which does not have to be battery operated
and can be larger and more rugged than those used in per sonal sampling,
is placed adjacent to a worker's normal work station. Centralized analytical
devices can be attached to remote probes so that data can be acquired
from several areas simultaneously and monitored from a central location
(Figure 15-4). An alarm can be sounded if a preset limit is exceeded (as
shown in Figure 15-5). Area sampling is an important technique to
determine the need to develop, implement, or improve control measures.

Ideally, area sampling would be so thorough and the pat tern of potential
exposure to workers so well defined that, in any given work space,
knowledge of a worker's activity would be sufficient to est imate that person's
exposure, and personal monitoring would not be necessary.

If, for instance, vapor concentrations and their duration around equipment
were known and could be superimposed on a floor plan, then a worker's
exposure could be determined from observing that worker's movements and
plotting the frequency and duration spent in each area. The employee's
daily exposure could then be found by adding short -term exposures to
compute the time-weighted average (TüA). This in -depth area exposure
analysis is not routinely done, however. It requires a tremen dous amount of
time and monitoring equipment and may still miss crucial contributions to a
worker's exposure on any given day.

In most processes, airborne concentrations of materials usually vary ov er

time. The fluctuations may be large, and continue for hours, or they may be
brief, sometimes lasting only seconds or minutes. Only extensive, continuous
sampling can provide information about such fluctuations in any given
location.
The data, if collected with a real-time monitor or printed on a strip -chart
recorder, provide valuable clues about the main sources and timing of
exposure, arid thus a means to design controls that should be used in a
process.

Page 500

The computer printout or strip cha rt can be used to estimate an individual's

exposure and can also serve as a historical record.
Area sampling is also used to establish usual background concentrations for
chemicals that ate ubiquitous in our envi ronment. An incident that occurred
in Boston, Massachusetts, illustrates this rationale. A transformer fire
released polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) into an office basement and
ventilation system in October 1981. In June 1985 a new tenant, prior to
occupying the building, performed testing that revealed contamination,
including dioxins and dibenzo -furans, which required extensive cleaning.
Sampling methods were so sensitive, and the chemicals so persistent, that
they were detected, even after thorough cleaning, four years after the
incident.

Questions about the adequacy of the cleanup and the attendant risk led
researchers to consider what normal background concentrations in similar
settings might be. In order to establish normal background concentration
levels, area air sampling was conducted in similar buildings with no history
of PCB release. These results were subsequently used to develop a
criterion lor reentry into a previously contami nated area, with assurance that
the exposure and risk would be no greater than usual (U.S. Department of
Health & Human Services [U.S. DHHS], NIOSH, 1987, 1988). Area
sampling for the same purpose is used after asbestos or lead abatement in
commercial or residential settings.

Area sampling has its disadvantages, though. Sampling equipment can be

made rugged and reliable, but often it is not, and leaving it unattended for
hours or days at a time without the supervision of a trained technician could
result in no reliable data collection during a crucial period in the process.
Area sampling may underestimate exposure if the worker works close to a
process but the measurement probe or collection device is at a farther
distance from the exposure point.

£IOLOÔICAL MONITORINÔ ANu MEuICAL SCREENINÔ - Biological monitoring is a

tool that can be used to assess workers' total exposure to chemicals, or
provide information about the impact of workplace hazards on health. Air
sampling evaluates the inhalation hazard; measurement of an individual's
exhaled air, blood, or urine can provide infor mation about absorption o f
hazardous materials by all routes of exposure and the physiological effect of
the total dose.

In general, there are three categories of biological monitoring: measurement

of the contaminant itself, measurement of a metabolite of the chemical, and
measurement of enzymes or functions that reflect harm caused by a
hazardous exposure. The most direct approach measures the contaminant
itself in blood or urine; this method is used with lead, mer cury, cadmium,
and arsenic. Carbon monoxide may be pie, met hylene chloride is
metabolized to carboxyhemoglobin in the human body, and elevated
carboxyhemoglobin levels in the blood could reveal overexposure to
methylene chlotide. Another example is stytene, for which exposure and
absorption can be evaluated by the concentration of mandelic acid in urine
at the end of a workshift.
Sometimes the adverse effect of a workplace exposure is only revealed
when medical evaluation reveals an unusual laboratory result or abnormal
function test. These are usu ally ordered to help diagnose a health problem.
For example, a pulmonary function test on an autobody spray painter with a
cough can reveal deficits in forced expiratory volume. Such a reduced ability
to exhale may be a marker of occupa tional asthma caused by contact with
the isocyanates in polyurethane paint.

Another medical test result that may indicate occupa tional injury or disease
is a slowed nerve conduction velocity, which may be done to help diagnose
numbness and tingling in the hands. Slowed conduction (pr olonged time)
may indicate trauma, repetitive strain, or peripheral neu ropathy. Abnormal
liver function enzymes may reflect hepatitis or liver injury from chronic
solvent exposure. Such results reveal a disease process or harm but do not
necessarily indicate the cause of the harm, which also may be attrib utable
to factors outside the workplace or to unrelated medical conditions.
Therefore, the results are nonspecific and require interpretation by a trained
occupational physician or occupational health nurse. Unfortunately, many
physicians have not been trained to identify the occupa tional or
environmental causes of diseases, and some fail to ask their patients about
their work and exposure hazards. For example, abdominal pain, insomnia,
infertility, and high blood pressure may never be linked diagnostically to the
lead poisoning that caused them.

Interest in biological monitoring has increased recently. The American

Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) wrote a position statement (1999)
calling for the incorporation of requirements for biological monitoring into
more OSHA standards. üith 800,000 work-related illnesses each year, they
reasoned, PELs to limit inhalation exposures have not prevented
occupational disease. AIHA calls for biological monitori ng as an
inexpensive, practical, effective hazard assessment tool, as used in
Germany and England. The Social Concerns Committee of AIHA countered
that biological monitoring is limited in its usefulness because of issues
limiting interpretation of the res ults, as well as privacy, confidentiality,
invasiveness, and worker acceptance issues.

The values measured can be compared to background pop ulation values or

to reference values such as the ACGIH Bio logical Exposure Indices®, in the
same way air-sampling data are evaluated. If conducted side -by-side with
industrial hygiene sampling, then biological results may be correlated with
airborne concentrations. This information is useful in etiological research
and in demonstrating health effects at concentrat ions of chemical previously
thought to be acceptable.

Page 501 - The test must be reproducible, as well as sensitive and spe cific
to be sure that true positives (people with an adverse health effect or
disease) and negatives (those without disease) are identified.
See the section, "Required accuracy and preci sion" about these same
issues in relation to air sampling test ing. The laboratories must be proficient
and certified and participate in laboratory quality control programs. The
interpretation of test results may be difficult. The usefulness of the biological
test may be limited by:
>Few validated tests
>Laboratory reliability
>Interindividual variability
>Intraindividual variability
>Timing of testing may not be appropriate. Value may reflect a peak
exposure or a valley from time away from work or clearance of the chemical
from the body. Knowledge of the metabolism and half-life of the chemical are
required
>üide range of normal values in the
population
>Background levels are elevated for many who are not occu pationally
exposed (see the ACGIH BEI® notation
>Biological indicator may be nonspecific (see
the ACGIH BEI notation "Ns")
>Quantitative interpretation is ambiguous (see
ACGIH BEI notations "Nq" and "Sq" )
> Biological value may indicate exposure and uptake have occurred, but the
health consequences are unknown

Biological monitoring may be an important component for evaluating illness

and linking symptoms to exposures, but caution should be exercised in its
use and interpretation. The significance of results from biological monitoring
is open to interpretation; alterations in function or unusual laboratory findings
can be viewed as evidence of harm, or they can be viewed as only a marker
that exposure has occurred. For example, the indication on chest x -ray films
of pleural plaques (small, hard, plate -like surfaces on the pleura), which can
exist in the absence of disease is a marker of past asbestos exposure.
Interpretation of radiological findings in the lungs is known to be inconsistent;
abnormalities are difficult to detect and even more difficult t o interpret, so x-
ray films should not be the sole determinant in diagnosis of occupa tional
disease (Figure 15²6). There is no simple test to diag nose occupational
disease.

Guidelines for biological monitoring must reflect an understanding of the

biochemical dynamics of the contaminant in relation to physiological
processes. Measurements may represent peak exposures and absorption
prior to any significant clearance, or they may reflect equilibrium levels
attained only after steady state has been reache d. Obtaining information
about the relationship between the timing of exposure and biological testing
is very important.

For example, lead concentration in blood is used as an index of lead

exposure by inhalation and ingestion in the previous days or weeks, whereas
zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) is used as a measure of lead exposure during the
previous three or four months.
Research shows that bone x-ray fluorescence (XRF) (Hu, 1998; Hu et al,
1989) may reveal the total body burden of lead, including that po rtion stored in
the skeleton. These measurements can be used to identify hazardous
exposures, dangerous work practices, or inade quacies in ventilation and
personal protective equipment. Differences in blood lead and ZPP
concentrations provide information about the timing of exposure and which
tasks pose the greatest risk. Blood lead values can be used to iden tify
individuals at risk, who should be removed from any further exposure.

Page 502

Medical surveillance Medical surveillance can extend beyond bi ological

monitoring of individuals to incorporate screening of exposed populations for
the adverse effects of those exposures. For example, audiometric testing can
be used to determine the extent of temporary or permanent shifts in
thresholds of hearing acuity caused by noise exposure. Liver enzymes can be
measured to assess the effect of solvents suspected of causing hepatitis or
other liver injury. The appearance of the lungs on x -ray films can reveal pneu-
moconiosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, or oth er respiratory diseases.
Baseline skin testing, followed by further skin testing after a potential
exposure, is essential for those working in health care or other occupations at
high risk for exposure to tuberculosis. Positive changes from baseline sho uld
lead to further evaluation or medical treatment.
One purpose of medical surveillance is the early detection of disease or
conditions for which treatment can prevent fur ther illness. The affected
individual should be removed from the hazardous exposure and receive
needed medical treatment and supervision. OSHA has incorporated this
concept of medical removal protection (MRP) in its standards to protect
workers overexposed to lead and cadmium. OSHA requires that if a worker's
medical evaluation indicate s overexposure or rhe adverse healrh effects
associated with these substances, the employer must either provide
alternative work in an area where there is no risk of exposure or allow the
employee to stay home with full compensation during the period of tr eatment.
Medical screening can also be an invaluable preventive tool in hazard control.
For example, regular testing of urine for mercury in an exposed worker
population allows identification of individual workstations or work practice
sources. Routine analysis of the group may allow early detection of subtle
increases in mercury absorption that might reflect a breakdown in controls or
a weakness in the training program.
OSHA has proposed that medical screening and evalua tion be used to
measure the effectiveness of its PELs. If workers exhibit adverse health
effects, while at the same time air-sampling results show compliance with
OSHAs standards, then OSHA will use the results to teexamine the ade quacy
of the PEL.
Over 20 OSHA standards now have requirements for medical examinations or
tests, focusing on either medical screening of individuals or surveillance of an
entire exposed group (Table 15 -E). The medical evaluation required may
involve screening of an exposed employee group for an indi vidual agent, or it
may include a more comprehensive examination of employee health in the
workplace.
The more hazardous the exposure, the more in -depth the health evalu ation
should be. For example, hazardous waste workers should receive
preplacement screening and periodic medical examinations, with testing for
specific exposures as necessary. Table 1 5-F describes a recommended
medical program. In work environments where respirator use is necessary,
workers should be evaluated medically for fitness to wear a respirator. In most
cases medical surveillance should include a medical and occupational history
and a physical examination, with attention paid to the target organs and
functions potentially affected. Medical records should be maintained to allow
for review of deviations from the baseline of pre placement health status.
£iological exposure indices The concept of biological monitoring has led
the ACGIH to develop a list of biologi cal exposure indices (BEIs®), published
annually in their TLV® booklet. Similarly, OSHA has incorporated required
biological monitoring into several standards (Table 15 -E). Several of OSHAs
standards (such as rhose for benzene and ethylene oxide) only require
medical surveillance when air sampling has revealed a pattern of exp osure
above either the action level (AL) or PEL during a specific number of days per
year. In 1988, OSHA published an advance notice of proposed rulemaking on
medical surveillance programs. To date, no standard has been adopted.
NIOSH, in conjunction with state departments of health, has promoted the use
of medical screening and biological sam pling results to investigate
occupational exposure and illnesses. Many states now have occupational
lead registries that facilitate investigation of the number of wo rkers poisoned
by lead on the job and promote analyses of those industries most responsible.
These results can be used to develop edu cational materials for small
businesses needing assistance in controlling hazards, and in selecting sites
for government intervention for public health purposes. For example, the
Massachusetts Occupational Lead Registry found that 70 percent of their
registrants with blood lead concentrations greater than 40 micrograms of lead
per deciliter of blood worked in painting, delead ing, and other construction
jobs (Tumpowsky et al, 1998; Rabin et al, 1994). This discovery led to efforts
to work with the state's highway department to more closely supervise bridge -
painting conttacts.
Combined effects At present, very little is known about how the body
integrates two different types of stress and the resultant strain, even if both
stressors are chemical. The usual assumption is that chemicals affecting
different organs or tissues should be considered independently, whereas
those that affect the same organ or tissue should be considered jointly
because they may produce additive or synergistic effects.
Synergism is known to occur with certain exposures. The best -known
synergistic effect is that of smoking combined with asbestos exposure. T he
risk of lung cancer increases greatly, beyond that expected from adding the
risks together. Similarly, in vitro studies of organophosphotus pesticides have
shown that a combined exposure to malathion and Diazinon (dimovlatc)
results in cholinesterase inhibition significantly greater than a mere
summation of the effects would predict (Iyaniwura, 1990).

Page 503 - Table 15-E. OSHA Standards Requiring Medical surveillance

Page 504 - Table 15²F.

$
  





 -




Preplacement screening Medical history.

Occupational history. Freezing preplacement
Physical examination. serum specimen for later
Determination of fitness testing (limited to
to work while wearing specific situations).
Yearly testing with

routine medical tests.

protective equipment.

Baseline monitoring for
specific exposures.


Periodic medical Yearly update of medical

examinations and occupational
history; yearly physical
examination; testing
based on examination
results, exposures, and
job class and task. More
frequent testing based
on specific
exposures.


Emergency treatment Provide emergency first

aid on site.
Develop liaison with
focal hospital and
medical
specialists. Arrange for
decontamination of
victims. Arrange in
advance for transport of
victims. Transfer medical
records; give details of
incident
and medical history to
next care provider
Nonemergency Develop mechanism for

treatment nonemergency health
care.

Record Keeping and Maintain and provide

review access to medical
records
in accordance with
OSHA and state
regulations.
 Report and record
occupational injuries and
Illnesses.
Review site safety plan
regularly to determine
whether additional
testing is needed.
Review program
periodically. Focus on
current
site hazards, exposures,
and industrial hygiene
standards.

Other research has focused on less obvious combined effects. One study
looked at the effects of different chemi cals on hearing and found that
trichloroethylene, arsenic, heavy metals, organo-tin compounds, and
manganese all caused some degree of hearing loss or audiometric abnor -
malities in occupational^ exposed workers. Carbon disul fide interacted with
noise to cause sensorineural hearing loss; toluene and noise acted
synergistically to increase the incidence of hearing loss (Ryback, 1992).
Another study, looking at the combined effects of chemicals commonly found
at hazardous waste sites, saw both synergistic and antagonistic interactions.
ühereas lead tetraacetate and ar senic trioxide produced antagonistic
effects in one assay, tetrachloroethylene and dieldrin produced
synergistic effects. The authors of this genotoxicity study cautioned that
compounds may behave differently in a mixture than when alone (Ma et al,
1992).
The OSHA airborne exposure limits, as well as the RELs and TLVs®, have
been developed under the assumption that workers are exposed to chemicals
one at a time. In fact, exposure to iust a sinale chemical rarelv occurs. One
method combined exposure is to add concentrations as a fraction of their
respective TLVs. If the total equals or exceeds one, then an overexposure has
been detected. This is not a conservative approach, because it assumes
additive effects and allows excessive exposures if the effe cts are synergistic
or if other stressors are present.
In most workplace exposure assessments, chemical, phys ical, biological, and
psychological hazards are present at the same time. For example, the
process of tunneling can involve simultaneous exposures to high atmospheric
pressure, dust, noise, heat, high humidity, carbon monoxide, and physical
safety hazards. An assessment of strain produced by any one of these
stressors would be complicated by the presence of any or all of the others.
Limitations of biological monitoring Biological monitoring is one way to
compare exposure to dose. However, it must be remembered that it measures
exposure only after it occurs, and after the contaminant has affected the body
in some way. It must be used properly and in conjunction with other
environmental controls and not as the sole control measure, as is sometimes
the case when employers want to soare the cost of a more comorehensive.
and therefore, more medical surveillance are not replacements for
environmental or personal sampling but should be used to complement
them.

Page 505
ühen biological monitoring is required by an OSHA comprehensive standard,
the health care provider conducting the monitoring must be given a copy of
the requirements. In some cases, the medical personnel will want to tour the
workplace to enhance their awareness of potential hazards. The California
Department of Health has developed model language to ensure that
employers and health care providers develop a contract that accurately
reflects the expectations and needs of both parties. (California Occupational
Health Proeram, 1990). It is available in a workbook developed tor the radiator
repair industry, and -^^JgS nia Occupational Health Program (COH1 ,
^P*- °
Services, 2151 Berkeley üay, Annex Eleven, Berkeley, Call
fornia 94704.
Sampling
STRATEÔY
The preliminary research and initial field survey help iden tify potential hazards
to which workers may be exposed. The next task is to devise a sampling
strategy to determine the intensity of exposur e, the source of the hazards, and
the adequacy of controls in place. Included in the plan must be a
consideration of the sources of error, the desired precision and accuracy of
measurements, and the degree of confidence needed for interpretation of the
results.
If the industrial hygiene sampling is conducted to evalu ate a problem, the
sampling strategy can be designed to measure the "worst case." An example
that occurred in central Massachusetts in 1990 illustrates this approach.
Periodic use of a degreaser had resulted in dizziness and headaches in its
two operators, as well as complaints from a neighboring department. Because
the use of the degreaser was limited to three hours in the morning, it seemed
unlikely that the eight -hour time-weighted average exposure exceeded the
relevant PEL. However, the health symptoms and com plaints indicated a
problem with the operation of the degreaser, its cooling coils, or the local
exhaust ventilation. Air sampling was planned to capture the particular solvent
used during the worst-case exposure, when the smallest parts were being
cleaned. Before sampling proceeded for this suspect carcinogen, the
industrial hygienist made sure that the work practices and ventilation were
exactly the same as they had been the day befo re, when the complaints had
occurred.
Evaluating the worst case first, during the time of greatest exposure, at a
location known to have caused problems, offers three advantages. First, this
sampling is designed to solve a problem. Measuring the concentrat ion of the
chemical believed to have caused health symptoms and concerns helps
identify the source, improve the controls, and correct the problem. Second,
such results teach employees valuable
lessons about indicators of equipment malfunction, the warnin g signs of
overexposure, and the impact of work practices on airborne solvent levels,
such as reducing drag-out of solvent. Finally, the process of evaluating the
worst case during the longest exposure time to the highest expected con -
centration²if lower than the referenced PELs, STELs, TLVs®, and RELs ²
allows assumptions and assurances to be made regarding shorter -term,
lower-level exposures.
Another approach to air sampling is to capture "typical´ conditions. This is not
always as easy as it sounds. Day-to-day variations may make a typical
exposure difficult to define and measure. In addition, managers and
employees being monitored may take extra precautions when they know they
are being observed by health and safety professionals. Concerns about being
³sampled´ or evaluated may serve to encourage companies to present their
best face by adding ventilation or opening doors and windows that are more
likely to be open, and the timer for the ventilation is on the occupied setting.

A good sampling strategy makes use of both worst-case and typical sampling
methods, each selected to answer the questions what, where, when, how,
and whom to sample.

üHAT ANu HOü TO SAMPLE

The first and key principle to keep in mind is that samples should represent
workers' exposures. Decisions about which chemicals to evaluate should be
based on such factors as quantities and methods of use; worker reports of
adverse experiences; concerns regarding high toxicity, volatility,
carcinogenicity, or teratogenicity; and percent representation in mixtures.

For time-weighted average sampling, the ë-.
$

) 

$ 
/001
can be referred to for the correct sampling technique. There is
a wide choice of collection media, from charcoal or silica gel tubes for organic
nonpolar vapors or polar vapors, respectively, to cellulose ester or fiber glass
filters for fumes and particulate materials. The appro priate medium for a
specific reagent is stated in the NIOSH manual if there is an approved
method. These are methods that have proved to be reproducible, given
certain flow rates and sampling and analytical conditions.

Also available to the industrial hygienist are grab sam pling methods, in which
a specific release point is monitored at a specific time in the process. (See
Figure 15-7.) This is done with colorimetric tubes (such as Draeger or
Sensidyne tubes) or by "grabbing" a volume of air in a sam pling bag, canister,
or other container, which is then ana lyzed in an accredited laboratory. The
colorimetric tube method has limitations in its accuracy and should be used
only as an initial, rough exposure estimate. The sampling bag method has
limitations in collection efficiency and should be performed under the
guidance of a laboratory accredited by the American Industrial Hygiene
Association (AIHA).

Page 506 - Figure 15-7 The gas detector tubes shown here are useful for
obtaining direct readings of gas or vapor contamination in the workplace air
µ
Direct-reading instruments are available for a number of different chemical,
physical, and radiation hazards (Figure 15 -8). They provide immediate
information about current conditions or concentrations, and can therefore be
used to locate a source or detect a leak. Given this instan t feedback, changes
can be made in operating conditions, and the work site can be evaluated for
improvement. For example, it might be possible to alter ventilation settings
and observe the impact on airborne hazard levels, or turn off a compressor
and note a drop in noise levels.

Materials that are not listed in the NIOSH manual are more difficult to
evaluate, and an accredited analytical labo ratory should be consulted. All
samples taken should be sent to an accredited analytical laboratory, and
results will be reported back at a later date.

üHERE TO SAMPLE
Personal monitoring is used to evaluate actual exposures to an individual by
sampling for specific agents in the worker s immediate vicinity for durations
corresponding to the process of concern or the appropriate occupational
exposure limit (such as TüA, STEL, or ceiling). The sampling device is
attached directly to the employee and is worn throughout the sampling period,
reflecting worker movements in rela tion to the source of contamination, during
both work and rest periods. The results from personal monitoring should be
used to determine the effectiveness of control measures (engineering, work
practices, and administrative) imple mented to prevent overexposure.

Area monitoring is used to measure th e contaminants found in the work area

that is generally occupied by employees.

Page 507 ± Figure 15-8 This portable ambient air analyzer can be used to measure
concentrations at the operator's workstation. (Courtesy Foxboro Co.).

Also called environmental monitoring, it provides information about the

amount and type of exposures found in a fixed area of inter est. It reflects the
effectiveness of engineering controls put into place to control the release of
hazardous materials. It only reflect s actual employee exposure to the extent
that the time period mon itored represents the time most employees spend in a
given area.

Monitoring conducted for the purpose of measuring employee exposure is

normally done with personal sampling. The recomm ended sampling method
or equipment may, however, be inconvenient to use. If the industrial hygienist
wishes to determine what air concentrations are in an area where the highest
levels of contaminant release are antici pated, or where continuous exposure
close to a particular point source may occur, then area monitoring is often
useful. If results from these types of "worst -case" exposures are less than the
upper regulatory or recommended limits, and if the contaminant in question is
released only in that a rea, then an assumption can usually be made that
workers spending their day in this area have exposures below the acceptable
upper limit. This type of assumption is frequently made.

üHOM TO SAMPLE
If the initial determination indicates the possibility of excessive exposure to
airborne concentrations of a toxic substance, measurements of the most
highly exposed employee should be made. This can be determined by
observing the point of release and selecting the employee who is closest to
the source of the contaminant in question.
Air movement patterns within a workroom must be con sidered when
evaluating potential exposures to workers. Especially in operations or
processes involving heating or combustion, the natural air circulation could be
such that the maximum-risk employee might be located at consider able
distance from the source. The location of ventilation booths, air supply inlets,
and open doors and windows and the size and shape of the work area are all
factors that affect workroom airflow pattern s and can produce elevated con -
centrations at locations far removed from the source.
Differences in work habits of individual workers can sig nificantly affect levels
of exposure. Even though several workers are performing essentially the
same tasks with the same materials, their individual methods of performing
their work could affect the contaminant concentration to which each is
exposed. Initial monitoring is often limited to a rep resentative sample of the
exposed population, usually those considered at greatest risk. Exposure
results over the action level or PEL indicate that more extensive sampling is
needed.
üHEN TO SAMPLE
Another factor that must be considered is when to sample. If temperature
varies greatly from season to season, with win dows kept open during one
season and not another, then sampling should be done during both periods.
Or, in this case, because more dilution of the contaminant occurs with
windows open, worst-case exposure monitoring should be done with the
windows closed. If air conditioning is used, levels of contaminant may be fairly
constant throughout the year. However, this is not necessarily the case with
variable air volume (VAV) systems that restrict fresh airflow during the coldest
and hottest periods of the year. (See Chap ter 21, General Ventilation of Nonindustrial
Occupancies, for further discussion.) If the facility has more than one workshift,
samples should be collected during each shift. Concentrations can vary
considerably from time to time during the day, because of such factors as
differences in production rate, degree of supervision, and ventilation provided
during off-peak shirts.
How LONÔ TO SAMPLE
The volume of air sampled and the duration of sampling is based on the
sensitivity of the analytical procedure or direct -reading instrument, the
estimated air concentration, and the OSHA standard or the TLV® for that
particular agent. Again, the ë-.
$

) 
$ 
or an
accredited analytical laboratory should be consulted.
The duration of the sampling period should represent some identifiable period
of time; for example, a complete cycle of an operation or a full shift.
Page 508

Often, the appropriate time period is specified in the regulatory upper limits
when looking at a PEL, a full eight -hour shift of monitoring is called for. For
comparison to an OSHA short-term exposure limit (STEL), 15-minute samples
during a worst-case exposure scenario are required. Longer workshifts
require recalculation of the relevant standard, because the total time exposed
is increased. For example, a 10 -hour workshift requires that the PEL or TLV®
be modified to reflect the extra exposure time and be reduc ed to four-fifths of
the original eight -hour standard. To illustrate this point, OSHA's lead standard,
in which the eight-hour TüA is 50 ug/m 3, requires employers to calculate the
permissible exposure limit for workers exposed to lead for more than eight
hours in any workday, using the following formula: Maximum permissible limit
(in ug/m3) = 400/hours worked
in a day.
The concentration of contaminant in the workplace is sometimes low. Direct -
reading instruments and other devices used to collect samples for subsequent
analysis must collect a sufficient quantity of the sample so that the chemist
doing the analysis can accurately determine the presence of minute amounts
(parts per million or sometimes parts per billion) of the contaminant.

üHAT TO NOTE uURINÔ SAMPLINÔ

Accurate record keeping is essential for the correct interpre tation of air-
sampling results. The fundamental records include total time sampled; pump
flow rate, both at the beginning and end of the sampling period; location of the
area or identification of the person being monitored; and a description of the
process being evaluated. In addition, sam pling notes should include the
engineering controls present and the location of any local or general exhaust
ventilation, as well as any measurements of these taken at the time of
sampling. If other processes are located close enough to affect the sampling
results, they should be described.
Use of personal protective equipment should be docu mented. Observations of
work practices can help explain differences between results for workers
performing the same task. An air -sampling worksheet can be developed to
help prompt such notes (see Figure 15 -9).

How MANY SAMPLES TO TAKE

There is no predetermined number of samples that must be taken in order to
adequately evaluate a worker's exposure. The number of samples to be taken
depends on the purpose of the sampling, the number of different tasks a
worker performs in a given day, and the variability inherent in the con taminant
generation process.
There are guidelines in ! 
-
  
. 
. 

$
(U.S. DHEü, NIOSH, 1977) that can help in this decision -making
process. They direct the industrial hygienist to ask pertinent questions
such as STEL, one can be personally confident that they are not normally
exceeded. However, one cannot be statistically confident of these results
because the sampling periods were not randomly chosen. üithout this
random selection, a confidence limit for a worst-case exposure estimate
cannot be computed because the results are not statistically representa tive of
the entire exposed group.

üHEN TO STOP MONITORINÔ

For the chemicals it regulates, OSHA requires that monitor ing be conducted
on a routine basis; the frequency depends on the subst ance and the results
from the initial or most recent monitoring. For example, monitoring for
formaldehyde can be terminated if results from two consecutive sam pling
periods, taken at least 7 days apart, show that employee exposure is below
both the action level and the STEL. Any change in process or engineering
controls requires additional sampling to 
the effects of the change.
If initial sampling results are low, it is not necessary to repeat routine
monitoring of employee exposure, as long as mon itoring of other factors
crucial to the overall health and safety program continues. Areas of interest
should include the adequacy of engineering controls, work practices; the use
of personal protective equipment, and training in all of these aspects.
Documentation of this oversight should be part of any effective health and
safety management program. This continued monitoring also serves to meet
the requirements of many OSHA standards, including the Hazard Communi -
cation Standard (29 '

1910.1200), Occupa tional Exposure to Hazardous
Chemicals in Laboratories (29 '

1910.1450), the Respirator Standard (29
'

1910.134), and other, more specific ones that may apply to a given
workplace.

üHO SHOULu CONuUCT SAMPLINÔ

Although the concept of air sampling and the use of air-monitoring devices
may at first appear to be simple, there are many considerations that must be
balanced when devising a sampling strategy and interpreting the results, and
it is often previous experiences that allow a final judgment to be made. It is
therefore crucial that those conducting the sampling be adequately trained
and supervised by a professional industrial hygienist. They must be cognizant
of the potential for error and ensure proper calibration, mainte nance, and use
of sampling equipment. They must be familiar with potential problems and be
available to resolve them if they occur. They must be aware of the limitations
of sampling alone, know how to integrate observation and interviews with
quantitative measurements, and know wh en it is not necessary to sample.
The initial sampling strategy may lead to further questions or contradictions
and significantly alter the overall plan. A comprehensive evaluation of the
workplace depends on the judgment of the industrial hygienist.

Page 509 - Figure 15-9. Example of an air-sampling worksheet.

Page 510 - Figure 15-10 It is possible for a measurement to be precise but

not accurate, and vice versa. (Reprinted with permission from Powell CH,
Hosey AD, eds. ! 
 
 2


 
2nd ed.
U.S. Public Health Services Pub No. 614, 1965.)

The title  
 
 
(CIH) indicates that the professional has
at least five years' experience in the field of industrial hygiene, is currently in
active practice, has met certain educational requirements, and has passed the
series of professional exams required by the American Board of Industrial
Hygiene (ABIH). Certification rosters are maintained by the ABIH.
Membership in other professional organizat ions, such as the AIHA and
ACGIH, indicates active participation in the current field of industrial hygiene
but does not guarantee the CIH title. Both the AIHA and ACGIH maintain
rosters of their members.

REQUIREu ACCURACY ANu PRECISION

Although the word 
is commonly used, its full implications are not
always realized. To sample means to measure only part of the environment,
and, from the measurements taken, infer conclusions about the whole. In all
sampling methods, there are both systematic and random errors to con sider
that can affect the interpretation of results and, there fore, final judgment about
the work environment as a whole. Any exposure average calculated from air -
sampling measurements is only an estimate of the true exposure. It is
important to recognize, preferably in advance, where possible sources of error
lie; to eliminate or control them to the degree possible; and to account for
them in the interpretation of results.

Accuracy Accuracy concerns the relationship between a measured value

and the true value. For a measurement to he accurate, it must be close to the
true value.

Precision Precision is the degree of agreement among results obtained by

repeated measurements under the same conditions and u nder a given set of
parameters. It is possible for a measurement to be precise but not accurate,
and vice versa (Figure 15-10).
Accuracy is affected by controllable sources of error. These are called
determinate or systematic errors and include method erro r, personal error,
and instrument error. Incorrect calcula tions, personal carelessness, poorly
calibrated equipment, and use of contaminated reagents are examples of
systematic error. They contribute a consistent bias to the results that renders
them inaccurate. ühere possible, these must be identified before sampling is
performed, and eliminated or controlled.
Precision is affected by indeterminate or random errors, which cannot be
controlled. These include intra - or inter-day concentration fluctuations,
sampling equipment varia tions such as random pump flow fluctuations, and
analytical method fluctuations such as variation in reagent addition or
instrument response. These factors cause variability among the sample
results. Statistical techniques are used to account for random error. For
example, increasing the number of samples taken minimizes the effect of
random error.
In several of the OSHA substance-specific standards, accuracy ranges for the
sampling methods are specified for both the PEL and the STE L. For example,
the Ethylene Oxide Standard (29 '

1910.1047) requires that a sam pling
method with accuracy to a confidence level of 95 per cent (within 25 percent)
be obtained for airborne concentrations of ethylene oxide at the 1.0 ppm PEL
and within 35 percent at the action level of 0.5 ppm.

In order to ensure accuracy and precision, the following guidelines should be

used:
>Manufacturers' data for direct-reading instruments should be obtained
whenever possible, stating the accu racy and precision of their method.
>A calibration schedule should be established and docu mented for all
sampling equipment.
>The ë-.
$

) 
$ 
should be consulted for accuracy
and precision of the methods cho sen. ühen reporting the results of the
sampling, the NIOSH sampling method followed should be cited.

Page 511

> Only laboratories that participate in industrial hygiene quality control

programs, such as the one conducted by the AIHA, should be used.

In addition, to ensure compliance or violation, OSHA compliance officers use

one-sided confidence limits (upper and lower confidence limits, UCL and LCL)
whenever sampling is performed (OSHA Technical Manual, 1991, Appen dix
1-F). This practice recognizes that the sample measured on the empl oyee is
rarely the same as the "true" exposure, because of sampling and analytical
errors (SAEs). The UCL and LCL incorporate these error factors statistically in
order to obtain the lowest (LCL) and the highest (UCL) value that the true
exposure could be, within a 95 percent confidence interval. The UCL and LCL
are called one-sided limits because they are used by both OSHA and
employers to ensure that the true exposure lies on one side of the OSHA
permissible exposure limit (PEL), either above or below it.

For example, if neither the measured results nor its UCL exceed the PEL,
then one can be 95 percent confident that the exposure does not exceed the
PEL. On the other hand, if both the measured exposure and its LCL exceed
the PEL, then one can be 95 perce nt confident that the exposure exceeds the
PEL, and a violation is established. Also listed in Appendix 1 -F are grayer
areas of evaluation; for example, when the UCL of an exposure exceeds the
PEL but the measured exposure does not. OSHA offers guidance i n these
instances, including suggesting that further monitoring be
conducted.
In order to compute the UCL and the LCL, the coeffi cient of variation (CV) for
each analytical method must be computed. These can also be found in the
ë-.
$

) 
$ 


3
/44


m
where
sd = standard deviation of the method
m = mean (or analytical result)
100= factor to convert from fraction to percent

SAEs are often listed in OSHA report forms, but can he derived from the
CVtotal:
SAE = l.645( CV total )

where CV total = the coefficient of variation of the samplingmethod plus the

coefficient of variation of the analytical method.

In general, the formula for the LCL at the 95th percentilelevel is

LCL (95%) =

ühere LCL (95%) = lower confidence limit at the 95 th percentile

X m e a n = a v e r a g e a ir b o r n e c o n c e n t r a t io n

C V t o t a l = c o e f f ic ie n t o f v a r ia t io n in c lu d in g s a m p lin g e r r o r

n = n u m b e r o f d a t a p o in t s t o d e t e r m in e

1.645 = appropriate factor from large sample statistics

In a similar fashion, the general formula for the UCL at the 95th percentile

OSHA uses simplified versions of the above formulas and distinguishes

between three types of samples: full-period, continuous single samples; full -
period consecutive samples; and grab samples. For a complete discussion of
the calculations, refer to Appendix 1-F of the -.)
! 
$

Example
A charcoal tube and personal sampling pump were used to sample for xylene
for an 8-hour period. The laboratory reported results of 105 ppm of xylene.
The PEL for xylene is 100 ppm. The SAE for the sampling and analytical
method is 0.10.

Solution
The steps required to calculate the UCL and the LCL for this full -period, single
sample are as follows:

1. Determine the standardized concentration, Y = X

PEL

ühere X is the full-period sampling result. Therefore, for our example,

2. Compute the VCL (95%) and the LCL (95%):

UCL (95%) = Y + SAE

LCL (95%) = Y - SAE

Therefore, for our example,

UCL = 1.05 + 0.10 = 1.15

LCL = 1.05 - 0.10 = 0.95

Page 512

2. ühen the UCL ^ 1 a violation does not exist, according to OSHA.

ühen the LCL > 1 a violation exists, according to OSHA. If the LCL <s
1 and UCL > 1, the result is classi fied as a possible overexposure. In
our example, because the LCL ^ 1 and the UCL > 1, a possible
overexposure exists.

INuUSTRIAL HYÔIENE CALCULATIONS Ôases and Vapors

Calculations for gas and vapor concentrations are based on
the gas laws. Briefly, these are as follows:
> The volume of gas under constant temperature is inversely proportional to
the pressure: Î
3
P2V2
>The volume of gas under constant pressure is directly proportional to the
Kelvin temperature, which is based on absolute zero (0 C = 273 K). The
Rankine temperature scale is also used, where 0C = 492 R, or degrees R =
degrees F + 460.

> The pressure of a gas of a constant volume is directly proportional to the
Kelvin (or Rankine) temperature:

and PV= nRT.

Thus, when measuring contaminant concentrations, it is necessary to know

the atmospheric temperature and pressure under which the samples were
taken. At standard temperature (0 C) and pressure (760 mmHg) (STP), 1 g -
mol of an ideal gas occupies 22.4 liters. If the temperature is increased to 25
C (normal room temperature) and the pressure is the same, then 1 g -mol
occupies 24.45 liters.

The concentration of gases and vapors is usually expressed in parts of

contaminant per million parts of air, or parts per million (ppm).

ppm = Parts of contaminant

million parts of air

This is a volume-to-volume relationship. Equivalent part s per million

expressions include

Sometimes it is necessary to convert milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m 3), a

weight-per-unit volume ratio, into a volume -per-volume ratio. To begin,
milligrams per cubic meter must be converted to millimoles per cu bic meter
and to milliliters per cubic meter, or parts per million. It is helpful in making this
conversion to use dimensional analysis.

At room temperature, to convert from ppm to mg/m 3, a similar conversion can

be performed:

Another method to predict gas or vapor concentration in parts per million is

the partial pressure method. By dividing the vapor pressure of the material in
question by the barometric pressure, the resultant percent fraction can then
be multiplied by one million (10 6) in order to give a volume percent in ppm.
= ppm of constituent

Example

Given the concentration of a vapor at STP in grams per liter, convert this to
parts per million (ppm).

Solution

Given that the gram-molecular volume at STP (OC and 760 mmHg) is 22.4 L,
and that molecular weight is g/mol, the concentration of vapor at STP is

Rearranging terms,

Substituting liters of vapor from Equation 21 into Equation 22,

Given that 106 L = 103 m3,

Page 513

For some chemicals, the analytical method requires the col lection of material
into a fixed volume of absorbing or react ing solution. The laboratory to which
the sample is sent first analyzes the concentration of contamin ant in the
collection medium, then multiplies the volume of solution by the con taminant
concentration and reports the total amount of contaminant collected during the
sampling period. This can be converted to air concentration by dividing the
total amount of contaminant sampled by the total amount of air collected.
Example
At 25C and 755 mmHg, 15L of air is bubbled through 30 mL of a solution that
has 100 percent collection efficiency for HCl (molecular weight = 36.5). The
analytical laboratory reports the solution concentration as 15 mg/mL. ühat is
the air concentration of HCl in ppm?

Solution
First, the total amount of HCl is

Correcting for temperature and pressure in micromoles ( mol), the volume of

1 mol of Hel is as follows:

Finally, the air concentration sampled in ppm is

Another useful equation to derive is the vapor concentration of a given

amount of material in a chamber or a room,given the following:

Î
= chamber volume in liters

Mü = molecular weight of a substance, in g/mol
!
3
absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin
(K = C+273)

= pressure in mmHg
p = density, in g/mL
Î 3
volume of material in chamber or room, in mL
C= concentration, in ppm

To find liters of pure vapor

One can also calculate the volume of liquid necessary to produce a desired
concentration in a given volume at room temperature and standard pressure:

Example

How much acetone (Mü=58.08 g/mol; density = 0.7899 g/mL) is needed to

generate a concentration of 200 ppm in a 20 -L container at 25°C and 740
mmHg?
Solution

= 0.012 mL

Vapor Equivalents
ühen a liquid is released into a space of known dimensions, it is useful to
determine the volume it will occupy when eval uating potential exposures from
this release. The following formula is often helpful, because it establishes the
amount of pure vapor formed at sea level by the complete evaporation of a
known volume or weight of a liquid into an area, based on the following
assumptions:
liters/mole of vapor at STP = 22.4
grams/pound = 453.6
liters/cubic foot = 28.32

Page 514
grams/gram-mole", Mü

This can be calculated for different temperatures and pressures.

Example .

At 70 F, what volume would one pound of toluene (Mü =92) occupy?

Solution
Note that the Rankine scale was used here, and that R = F + 460. Therefore,
70 F =530 R, and 0 C=32 F = 492 R. How ever, it must be noted that quantities
of liquids are often stated as volumes, for example in pints or liters, and that, in
order to use equation (31), liters or pints must first be converted into pounds.
Example
A 1-pint container of toluene breaks in a room 50 feet by 100 feet by 15 feet.
Assuming complete evaporation and no ventilation, what would you expect
the concentration of toluene to be in the room, assuming the following:

T=70 F
mass of water = 1.041 pounds/pint
specific gravity (sp gr) of toluene = 0.866 (the ratio of the mass of toluene to
the mass of water at that temperature)
and the room volume is (50 ft)(100 f t)(l5 ft) = 75,000 ft 3 .

The concentration is then

Example

A half-pound cylinder of chlorine fell and broke in a closed room 60 feet by 45

feet by 15 feet. ühat is the concentration of chlorine in ppm?

Solution

The room volume is

Therefore, the concentration of chlorine in the room is

üeight-per-Unit Volume
ühen a contaminant is released into the atmosphere as a solid or liquid and
not as a vapor²for example as a dust, mist, or fume²its concentration is
usually expressed as a weight pe r volume. Outdoor air pollutants and stack
effluents are usually expressed in grams, milligrams, or micro grams per cubic
meter of air (g, mg, or ug/m 3), ounces per thousand cubic feet (oz/1,000 ft 3),
pounds per thousand pounds of air (lb/1,000 lb), or as grains per cubic foot
(gcf)-
Time-üeighted Average *TüA) Exposure
The time-weighted average exposure evolved as a method to calculate daily
or full-shift average exposures, given that employees' job tasks may vary
during a day and that facility operating conditions may also vary. In typical
work environments, workers may experience several different, short-term
exposures to the same material. By taking a time -weighted average of these
exposures, the industrial hygienist can esti mate or integrate the short-term
measurements into an eight-hour exposure estimate and compare this to the
relevant health and safety regulations or information. The TüA is determined
by the following formula, where

3
concentration of the contaminant
!
3
time period during which this concentration was measured

The TüA is usually expressed in ppm or in mg/m 3. Because OSHA's PELs

and the ACGIH's TLVs® are both based on an eight -hour workday, the
denominator in this formula is usu ally eight hours. However, any TüA can be
determined, using the following formula:

Ttotal work time = TüA

where i is an increment of time and C is the concentration measured during

that time. In this way, sequential incremental measurements can be made,
allowing analysis of short -term exposures at the same time as a longer TüA
is being computed. The total time covered by the samples should be as close
to the total exposure time as possible.

Page 515

Example
A TüA of a foundry worker s exposure to particulates can be evaluated by the
following series of short-term samples:
Sample Number Time

1 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m.

2 8:00 a.m. to 9:30 a.m.
3 9:30 a.m. to 11 :OO a.m.
4 11:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.
(turned off and covered
during 30-rnin lunch)
5 1 :OO p.m. to 3:30 p.m.
The measurement obtained is a full-period consecutive-sample measurement
because it covers the entire time period applicable to the PEL or TLV®.
In some cases, because of limitations in measurement methodology ²for
example, direct-reading instruments or charcoal tubes²it is impossible to
collect consecutive samples whose total sampling duration equals that of the
required time period stated in the relevant standard. In these cases, the grab
methods are used for time periods that are felt to be representative of the
 ti ift.
E m l
It i t lt t ti t l t
l f .E lt i li it t i t ll ti ti . t f
t i l i t l t t l t , l i
ll t . f ll i lt t i :

S l lt

S l ti

i WA f t i

If t i t i ti i t l l f i t i i ,
i i t i t tt l ti i ti ,t it i
l t l t t tt i t i t WA. If
t i i ifi t i ti , , li l f t
ti i t .

E l

A l f f i t ift i
i t ti i f il t t t . t
i i f ,t l i t i
l i t i.W ti t l i t WA

S l ti
Example
A machinist works from 7:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. tending an automatic screw
machine. The following levels of oil mist were meas ured:

! ) 
5

-
! ) 
5


7
7
$
+6 , -
$
+6 ,
7:00-8:00 0 11:00-12:00 2.0
8:00-9:00 1.0 12:00-1:00 0.0*
9:00-10:00 1.5 1:00-3:00 4.0

10:00-11:00 1.5 3:00-4:00 5.0

* lunch period, no exposure

Solution
The TüA of the machinist's exposure to oil mist is calculated as follows:
Solution

Page 516

Example
An employee is exposed to an average level of 100 ppm of xylene for 10
minutes out of every hour; during the remain ing 50 minutes of each hour,
there is no exposure to xylene. ühat is the TüA for xylene for this employee?
Solution
Because there are eight hours in a workday, each of which includes 10
minutes' exposure to 100 ppm and 50 m inutes' exposure to 0 ppm, an eight -h
TüA can be calculated as follows:
(8) (10 min) (100 ppm) + (8) (50 min) (0 ppm)
480 min
8,000 min ‡ ppm = 16.7 = 17 ppm
480 min
Example
An employee is exposed to the same material at two work locations during an
8-hour shift. Monitoring of this workers exposure was conducted by taking
grab samples at each of the locations. The following results were obtained:
Example
As part of her job, a hospital central supply worker unloads sterilized materials
from an ethylene oxide (EtO) sterilizer. She does this 4 times per eight -hour
shift, it takes 15 minutes each time, and she has no other exposure to EtO
during the shift. The eight-hour PEL for EtO is 1 ppm; the 15 -minute
excursion limit is 5 ppm. The following 15-minute sampling results were
obtained: 4.8, 3.5, 4.9, and 3.4. None of the results exceeded the 5 ppm
excursion limit. ühat is the 8 -h PEL for this worker?
Solution
1
480m ~[(15min)(4.8min) + (15)(3.5)
+ (15)(4.9) + (15X3.4) + (420 min)(0 ppm)] = 0.52 ppm
Excursions
TüA concentrations imply fluctuations in the level of air borne contaminant.
Excursions above the TLV® are permissible if equivalent excursions below
the TLV occur. The TLV booklet stipulates that short -term exposures mav
exceed three times the TLV for no more than a total of 30 minutes during the
workday; under no circumstances should exposures exceed 
times the
TLV. This stipulation is valid if TLV -TüA is not exceeded. In some cases, a
specific short-term exposure limit (STEL) has been established, for example,
for formaldehyde and ethylene oxide.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Interpretation of the results obtained from sampling 
the final step in
evaluating the environment to which a worker is exposed. The chemicals
monitored, the sites chosen for the sampling, and the timing of the monitoring
all reflect the industrial hygienist's best judgment about which expo sures
might be significant. Potential sources of error and the limitations of the
sampling and analytical methods have been taken into consideration. There
are times when the interpretation of results is not a completely straightforward
process and it is always important to keep in mind why the sampling was
done. If it was done purely for compliance reasons, then OSHA sta ndards are
the absolute guide. If "good practices" are the ultimate goal, then ACGIH
TLVs®, NIOSH RELs, or other recommended limits mav be worth referencing.
In either case, it is important to know whether the referenced standard is
mandatory or recommended only, since the results may lie somewhere in
between. Appropriate follow -up and expenditure of resources may depend on
this.
As an example, a consultant Industrial Hygienist sampled for acetic acid
during a weekly decontamination procedure in a Biotechno logy firm's clean
room, as a result of nuisance complaints from a non -laboratory neighbor. She
looked to both OSHA and NIOSH for required or recommended occupational
upper exposure limits. OSHA's PEL (eight-hour) is 10 ppm; NIOSH has a 15-
minute, recommended Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) of 15 ppm. Three
25-minute samples were taken during the procedure of interest; results were
11.7, 9.10, and 19.3 ppm.

Page 517

If one were to do a PEL calculation, using the 19.3 ppm result and assuming
no other exposure to acetic acid during the rest of the day, the result would be
4.82 ppm. This is clearly lower than the OS HA -regulated PEL and requires
no further action. However, this same sample exceeds the 15 -minute
recommended NIOSH limit. ühile not required by law to reference limits other
than OSHA's, most health professionals would probably cite the NIOSH limit
as good practice and make changes in work practices or engineering controls
to stay within the limits.
Comparison with Standards and Ôuidelines
The first step in evaluating sampling results is to compare them with the
relevant standards and guidelines. The legally enforceable maximum allowed
exposures in general industry are the OSHA permissible exposure limits,
which have been determined for over 4 00 air contaminants and are listed in
three tables in the 

' 


(29 '

1910.1000).
Additional comprehensive standards have been promulgated for other
chemicals. Sampling results greater than the PEL and its lower confidence
limit can result in citations and fines.
Because of the role of sampling results in legal proceed ings, they must be
analyzed in a cookbook fashion. For example, unless documentation exists
that exposure levels are constant, any work time for which no sampling was
conducted must be considered as unexposed time, and a zero is factored in
any calculation of the time -weighted average. Consider, for example, the
sampling results for chloroform presented in equation 39. The time -weighted
average calculated for the six hours sampled was 57 ppm. The PEL for
chloroform is 2 ppm. The ACGIH TLV®-TüA is 10 ppm. Clearly, the sampling
results exceed both limits. NIOSH identifies chloroform as an occupational
carcinogen, and therefore recommends that exposure be kept to the lowe sr
feasible limit. NIOSH has not identified thresholds for car cinogens that will
protect 100 percent of the population. A situation like the one in the example,
that would result in such a high concentration of an occupational carcinogen,
would require immediate action to prevent continued overexposure.
If the solvent measured had been methyl isobutyl ketone (hexone), which has
a PEL of 50 ppm and a STEL of 75 ppm, and the six -hour TüA had also been
57 ppm, then the interpretation of the results would be different. At first, this
might also appear to exce ed the eight-hour PEL. However, there is an
additional consideration in this case. Two hours of the employee's workday
had not been sampled. If there is no documentation to prove that he was
similarly exposed during the remaining time, a 0 ppm concentratio n could be
factored into the eight-hour PEL calculation:
(57 ppm) (360 min) + (0 ppm) (120 min)
480 min
= 43 ppm
The sampling results remain the same, but the interpreta tion has changed.
This result, 43 ppm, is in compliance with the PEL. Such a result wo uld not
lead to a citation for viola tion of 29 '

1910.1000, but it can be interpreted
as a significantly high exposure to a volatile solvent, which should be
controlled. Such an exposure has the potential to harm the respiratory
system, eyes, skin, and central nervous system. If it is possible that the
worker is exposed to methyl isobutyl ketone at some concentration during the
time not sampled, it is possible that the sampling omission will allow workers
to remain overexposed indefinitely.
The results calculated in the example described in equa tion 40 can be
analvzed in a similar manner. The concen -tration of carbon monoxide (CO) is
in compliance with the OSHA PEL and the NIOSH REL for an eight -hour
TüA, despite the fact that during four hours of the day the worker is exposed
to 50 ppm. The ACGIH TLV for CO is 25 ppm (this standard has been
reduced over the years as the adverse effects of carbon monoxide exposure
have been demonstrated at lower levels). At first glance, this result might be
considered satisfactory because it does not exceed the OSHA PEL. However,
because there is evidence that a lower level is recommended by the ACGIH,
other questions might be triggered by these results: Are there excur sions
during the four hours over the STEL? Do res ults vary from day to day? üould
the results be viewed as acceptable if the worker in this example were
pregnant? Is it acceptable to leave the hazard in place and simply rotate
different employees into the area, so that no single individual is over exposed,
but all of them are exposed for part of the day?The best actions in response
to these sampling data would be to identify the source of the CO for the four
hours of exposure measured, to evaluate others who may be at risk of
exposure, and to attempt to reduce exposure to the lowest feasible level.

Exposure limits can be compared to speed limits. Travel ing one mile per hour
less than the posted limit does not guarantee safety. In addition, chemical
exposure has a cumulative effect if the time between e xposures has not been
sufficient to allow clearance of the chemical and its metabolites from the body
and recovery from the adverse physiological effects.

Limitations of Standards
Any sampling result that is less than the PEL is considered to be in
compliance with the law. This evaluation is often misinterpreted as meaning a
clean bill of health. A review of OSHA's sampling results shows that 92
percent of them were in compliance (Senn, 1992), but OSHA estimates that
hundreds of thousands of new cases of occupational illness occur annually.
There have been many criticisms of the OSHA standards (Castleman & Ziem,
1988; Roach & Rappaport, 1990; Robinson et al, 1991; Tarlau, 1991), includ -
ing the following:
>They evaluate only inhalation exposures.

Page 518

> They are often out of date because updates take years and proceed very
slowly; for example, by 1987, the ACGIH s TLV® list, which in 1968 formed
the basis for OSHA's original PELs, contained 168 substances not regulated
by OSHA, and had reduced guidelines for an additional 234 substances
(Robinson et al, 1991).
> They have been based on inadequate research that fails to consider chronic
toxicity data, including immune or endocrine system function, reproductive
toxicity, and neurological changes.
>-Standards are inadequate to protect employees who become sensitized to
chemicals that may cause asthma, dermatitis, and other immunologically
mediated effects.
> Standards were often adopted based on epidemiological da ta on workers
who were mainly white and male, excluding analysis of nonwhite and female
employees.
>They allow a level of risk not tolerated for general envi ronmental exposure,
such as a risk for cancer of one in a thousand compared to one in a million fo r
environmental exposures.
> They fail to account for multiple exposures that are addi tive or synergistic.
>They offer limits for less than 10 percent of the chemi cals in widespread
commercial use.
> The sampling results reflect conditions on one day a nd may miss excursions
that occur irregularly or peak exposures occurring only during maintenance,
leaks, and emergencies.
> Rather than representing a more scientifically based guideline, at times they
represent a political compromise between industry an d labor regarding
feasibility.

Industrial hygienists sometimes analyze sampling results and conclude that

compliance with PELs is not sufficient to guarantee health in the workplace.
ühere NIOSH RELs and ACGIH TLVs® differ from PELs, these guidelines
provide additional benchmarks that represent conclusions from research
designed to further control exposures.

RELs exist for nearly 200 chemicals; NIOSH tends to propose more
conservative exposure limits and has criticized several OSHA PELs as being
insufficiently protective (Robinson et al, 1991). Most RELs were developed in
the 1970s, and some have been outdated by more recent find ings. NIOSH
recommends, for example, that exposure to occupational carcinogens be
reduced to "the lowest feasible limit," ackn owledging the absence of
thresholds that will protect 100 percent of the population.

Roach and Rappaport wrote an article in 1990, titled "But they are not
thresholds: A critical analysis of the documenta tion of Threshold Limit
Values," in which they analyzed 127 TLVs. They found that the literature cited
in the TLV documentation showed that one in seven workers experienced
adverse health effects when exposure was limited to concen trations below the
TLVs. They observed that "factors other than health ap peared to have
influence in assignment of particular TLVs... the TLVs represent levels of
exposure that were perceived by the committee to be realistic and attainable
at the time." Other critics have charged that some TLVs were based on
insufficient data on chronically exposed animals, or on analogy to similar
chemicals rather than chemical-specific data.

Such deficiencies do not necessarily mean that all TLVs are wrong. Nor do
they deny the contribution to worker health that resulted from the TLVs. They
do, however, limit the conclusions that can be drawn when comparing air -
sampling results with them.

Another concern regards the concept that ACGIH limits are not expected to
protect "hypersusceptible" workers, a group described by Mastromatteo
(1981), who was a member of the TLV committee for many years, as
including those with genetic disorders, nutritional deficiencies, parasitic dis -
eases, or preexisting diseases such as asthma or chronic bron chitis; those
consuming alcohol or drugs; and cigarette smo kers. Others have stated that
large groups may be especially susceptible to hemolytic chemicals or
pesticides, and that female workers may react to certain chemical exposures
differently than males (Sentes, 1992).

The TLV process has been criticized as u nduly influenced by corporations by

Castleman and Ziem (1988). They wrote that unpublished corporate
communications that were largely unavailable for independent scientific
review were influential in developing TLVs for 104 substances. üith
unverifiable data, it could be argued that TLVs might inad equately protect
workers. The Board of Directors of the ACGIH wrote in response (1990),

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from all possible sources.

The ACGIH board also responded to the various criticisms with a defense of
their process and intent. They reiter ated "that TLVs® are developed as
guidelines and not for use as legal standards." They noted important
improvements that had been made in the TLV procedures, documen tation,
and research. Some of these included the following:
> Assigning of experienced occupational health profession als to staff the TLV
effort
> Development and implementation of conflict of interest
procedures
> Development of policies concerning TLV committee meetings with outside
groups
>Printing of the last revision date of each TLV in the booklet
>Publication of a booklet listing a number of different rec ommended exposure
guidelines, in addition to the TLVs, such as RELs, PELs, etc.
> Initiating the yearly publication of full text documenta tion for all intended
changes for public comment

Page 519

The task of providing guidance regarding risk in the absence of complete

information often leads occupational health specialists to settle for exi sting
data and guidelines without analyzing their adequacy. A minimum standard of
care in many responsible industries is the maintenance of air borne chemical
concentrations below all existing standards, guidelines, and internally
generated standards. In a ddition, when employee health complaints persist
when a standard is not exceeded, further investigation and action are often
needed to ensure health. The Industrial Hygiene Code of Ethics (see Chapter
23) requires placing employee health first in all consi derations.

Some have proposed reliance on the EPAs Integrated Risk Information

System (IRIS) database for standard setting in the workplace. The IRIS
database was developed by the EPA in the late 1980s to early 1990s to
systematically review human and ani mal toxicological data on chemicals of
environmental concern. This may be an additional resource in considering
worker exposure guidelines that are more inclusive.

Comparison of Results with Other uata

Sampling may be conducted to investigate a problem or to measure the
impact of changes in production processes or control measures. In these
cases current sampling results can be compared to previous results to
determine the effective ness of the new or modified control measure in
reducing airborne concentrations. In other cases, when the intent of the
sampling is to evaluate the effectiveness of in -place monitors used for regular
surveillance, the current data collected should also be compared to previous
results.
It can also be helpful to review sampling data from various types of
workplaces that are available from NIOSH 
 

reports,
in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the current sampling or the health and
safety oversight at the worksite in question.
Industrial hygienists are sometimes asked to evaluate the significance of
chemical-sampling results for which there are no published standards or
guidelines. In these situations, the manufacturer may have developed internal
standards for rhe chemical's use within the company. Lack ing any other
guidelines, a review of anecdotal reports in the literature, health surveys
among those exposed on the job, or a careful consid eration of animal
toxicology data can be helpful. The LD 50 (lethal dose for 50 percent of the
exposed animal population in question during experiments) can be found in
the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) database from
NIOSH. (See Appendix A, Additional Resources, for more information.)
Animal research that establishes a "no -effect level" (NOEL) is especially
useful.
ühile debate continues over the adequacy of standards and guidelines,
industrial hygienists must still conduct air sampling and analyze results,
attempting to make the best use of all that is available to them as evaluation
tools, including their skills in measurement, observation, interviewing, and
communication with employers and employees. In addition, they often consult
with other professionals in the fields of occupational medicine, infection
control, ventilation, architect ure, engineering, health physics, and others to
ensure a broad and in -depth analysis of an industrial hygiene problem. This
networking with other professionals is invaluable in the evaluation process.
SUMMARY
There are many factors to consider in evaluatin g the workplace. Evaluation is
a process that must incorporate new research, advances in production
  
 changing work force, and alterations in air -sampling
methodology, with the most fundamental concern being the lives and health of
workers. This is at the core of the code of ethics for industrial hygienists and
forms the basis for all interactions with other health professionals in the
practice of prevention of occupational illness and injury.
Chapter 16

Air Sampling
CONTAMINANTS
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TYPES OF AIR SAMPLINÔ
Air sampling is used to evaluate employee exposure, assist in the design or
evaluation of control measures, and document compliance with government
regulations. These sampling objectives define the type of air sampling selected.
Personal Versus Area Sampling
Personal air sampling is the preferred method of evaluating worker exposure to
airborne chemicals. The worker wears a sampling device that collects an air
sample. The sampling device is placed as close as possible to the breathing
zone of the worker (defined as a hemisphere in front of the shoulders with a
radius of 6-9 in.) so the data collected closely approximate the concentration
inhaled. (Concentration is equal to the mass of the contaminant collected divided
by the volume of air passed through the collection device.)
Area air samples can be used to evaluate background concentrations, locate
sources of exposure, or evaluate the effectiveness of control measures. The
sampling device is strategically placed in a fixed location in the area of interest.

Page 524

For example, if a leak is suspected in a process, several area samples taken at

key locations could be used to pinpoint the source. In general, this type of
sampling is not used to provide an estimate of worker exposure because
conditions at the fixed location may not be the same as those experienced by the
worker.
Ôrab Versus Integrated Sampling
Grab samples are taken to measure the airborne concentration of a substance
over a short time period (usually less than 5 min). Personal or area grab samples
are used to identify peak or ceiling concentrations.
Grab samples alone are rarely used to estimate an employee's eight-hour time-
weighted average exposure. This is because they do not account for the time
between samples. However, they can be used as a screening method to
determine whether more extensive sampling is needed. For example, if grab
samples and observations indicate that the concentration of a chemical is well
below the eight-hour time-weighted average exposure limit, then sampling for the
full shift 
not be necessary.
Integrated air sampling is used to estimate a worker's 8-h or 15-min exposure to
a particular substance by collecting one or more personal air samples for the
duration of a particular task or workshift. It is called integrated sampling because
the result integrates all of the various concentrations to which the worker has
been exposed during the sampling period. The resulting concentration represents
an average exposure over the sampling period, also known as a  

 
+!=),
AIR-SAMPLINÔ INSTRUMENTS
There are two categories of air-sampling equipment: direct-reading instruments
and sample collection devices. Direct-reading instruments provide an immediate
measurement of concentration. These devices are covered in Chapter 17, Direct-
Reading Instruments for Gases, Vapors, and Particulates. Sample collection
devices collect a sample of air that is subsequently analyzed or weighed at a
laboratory. These devices are the focus of this chapter.
Sampling Train
Air-sample collection devices are made of five basic components: an air inlet
orifice, a collection device, an airflow meter, a flow-rate control valve, and a
suction pump (see Figure 16-1).
Air enters the sampling train through the orifice and the chemical is collected on
a collection medium such as a filter. The airflow rate is set using the rate control
valve. Airflows are usually in liters or cubic centimeters of air per minute. Many
air-sampling pumps have built-in flow-rate meters to visually gauge the flow rate.
The suction pump moves air through all of the components of the sampling train.
Figure 16-1 Components of a typical air-sampling train used to collect airborne
particulates.
COLLECTION uEVICES FOR GASES ANu VAPORS
Gases and vapors are formless fluids that completely occupy a space or
enclosure. A substance is considered a gas if this is its normal physical state
under standard temperature and barometric pressure conditions (70 F and 760
mmHg). A vapor is the gaseous phase of a substance that under standard
conditions exists as a liquid or a solid in equilibrium with its vapor. In some
cases, a chemical may exist as both a gas or vapor and a solid particle at the
same time. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are an example. For such chemicals,
collection devices for both the gaseous and solid phases must be used-Gases
and vapors behave similarly. They follow the ideal gas laws in that their volume 


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in temperature and pressure. They mix freely with the
general atmosphere and quickly form homogeneous mixtures with other gases.
Ôrab Sampling
Although direct-reading devices are usually used :::  
sampling, the collection
of a known volume of air for subsequent laboratory analysis is also used. Figures
16-2 and 16²3 are examples of the most commonly used collection the
evacuated container and the gas-sampling bag. The advantages of grab
sampling are that it is in* it is simple to use, and it normally collects 100 percent
of the chemical. The disadvantage is that usually it cannot be used to sample
reactive gases such as hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide
unless the samples are analyzed immediately. Reactive gases can react with
atmospheric dust particles, other gases, moisture, container sealant
compounds, or the container itself, producing erroneous results.

Page 525
Integrated Air Sampling
Integrated air sampling involves the extraction of a gas or vapor from a sample
airstream followed by laboratory analysis. Two extraction techniques are
normally used: absorption and adsorption.
Absorption
In the absorption technique, a gas or vapor is removed from the airstream as it
passes through an absorption liquid. The liquid can be highly soluble and
nonreactive with the gas or vapor or it can contain a reactive reagent. Deionized
water, for example, is a commonly used absorbing solution for acids because
acids are highly soluble in water. A reactive absorbing reagent captures a gas or
vapor by quickly reacting with it and creating a more stable compound, which can
be analyzed by a laboratory. An example of these is Girard T reagent, which is
used to sample for acetaldehyde.
Figure 16-2 An 
container is used 
=

for analysis. (Courtesy MDA
Scientific.)
Absorption devices include gas wash bottles, spiral absorbers, and fritted
bubblers (Figure 16²4). The simplest is the gas wash bottle, which forces air
through a nozzle into the absorbing solution. Because absorbing solutions do not
collect 100 percent of the gas or vapor passing through, sometimes two
impingers are used in series. This increases the total amount of vapor or gas
collected. The spiral absorber forces the air to follow a spiral path through the
liquid, which increases the amount of time the air and liquid are in contact with
each other. The increased contact time increases the amount of material
absorbed. The same concept is used in the fritted bubbler, where many tiny
bubbles are formed as air is forced through the fritted surface. This increases the
surface area of air in contact with the absorbing liquid.

Figure 16-3 Portable, battery-operated pumps used to flexible plastic gas-sampling

bags with air for analysis. (Courtesy MSA.)

The spiral absorber and the fritted bubbler are used for gaseous substances that
are only moderately soluble or that react slowly with the absorbing liquid.
The most commonly used gas wash bottle is the midget impinger. The impinger
is placed inside a holster (Figure 16-5) and attached to the workers shirt collar.
During the course of work, the worker may accidentally invert the impinger,
causing the absorbing liquid to be drawn into the sampling pump. To avoid this,
an empty bottle or impinger is connected to the sampling train to collect spilled
liquid. Although this precaution prevents damage to the pump, the recovered
liquid is contaminated and cannot be used for an analysis. The use of spillproof
midget impingers has minimized this problem. Table 16-A lists selected National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) impinger sampling
methods.
Adsorption
Air sampling for insoluble or nonreactive gaseous substances is commonly
conducted using tubes filled with a granular sorbent such as activated charcoal
or silica gel. The gas or vapor is retained or adsorbed, physically and chemically
unchanged, onto the surface of the sorbent for subsequent laboratory extraction
and analysis.
Activated charcoal is the most widely used solid sorbent for adsorbing organic
vapors. The charcoal most commonly used is from coconut shells. Coconut shell
charcoal provides a large adsorptive surface area and is electrically nonpolar,
meaning it preferentially adsorbs organic vapors rather than polar molecules
such as water vapor. A standard charcoal tube is 7 cm long and 4 mm wide, and
is divided into two sections. The first section contains 100 mg of charcoal and a
fiberglass, glass wool, or urethane foam plug; the backup section contains 50 mg
of charcoal (Figure 16-6).

Page 526

Figure 16-4 Basic absorbers are shown: gas washing (A and B), helical (C), fritted bubbler (D),
and glass-bead column (E). They provide contact between sampled air and liquid surface for
absorption of gaseous contaminants. (Reprinted from Powell CH, Hosey AD (eds.). ! 
 

 ²


 
PHS Publication No. 614-1965.)

Other sizes are also available.

Although activated charcoal has a large adsorptive capacity, some contaminants
invariably pass through the first section. The backup section increases collection
efficiency by adsorbing some of the material that was initially missed.
9  
describes a condition in which the mass of a collected gas or vapor
in the backup section is greater than 10 percent of the mass in the front section.
This means that a significant quantity of the contaminant may not have been
collected. The calculated concentration, therefore, is of questionable validity.
Sampling methods that specify the maximum sample volumes and
recommended flow rates are designed to prevent breakthrough.

Figure 16-5 Midget impingers are sometimes used to collect personal air samples. They are
placed in holsters so they can be worn in the worker's breathing zone. (Courtesy SKC, Inc.)
Figure 16-6 Standard activated charcoal tube used in organic vapor sampling. (Courtesy SKC,
Inc.)
Page 527

Table 16-A Selected NIOS{ Impinger Sampling Methods

Page 527

Charcoal tubes have a high adsorptive capacity for a large range of organic
vapors. They can be used to sample several kinds of vapors at once. However,
the analyzing laboratory should be consulted to determine whether there is a limit
to the number of organic vapors that can be extracted or whether any of the
sampled organic vapors must be collected separately.
Silica gel tubes are used to sample for gases and vapors that cannot be efficiently
collected or extracted from activated charcoal. They are constructed in the same
manner as charcoal tubes except that an amorphous form of silica is used as the
adsorbent material. Silica gel is not as commonly used as activated charcoal
because it is electrically polar and tends to attract interfering polar molecules
such as water vapor.
Many solid sorbent materials with chemical coatings have been developed to
sample for reactive gases and vapors that are not efficiently collected by charcoal or
silica gel. These include XAD-2, Tenax-GC, Ambersorb, and Chromosorb tubes
(see Table 16-B).
Passive Monitors
Passive monitors allow personal sampling without the use of sampling pumps.
ühereas solid sorbent tubes rely on a sampling pump to draw air through the
adsorbing material, passive monitors (Figure 16-7) rely on passive diffusion.
Diffusion 
the passage of molecules through a semipermeable barrier. It occurs
because molecules tend to move from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration. If the ambient concentration of a particular gas or vapor is
greater than the concentration inside the monitor, then the gas or vapor
molecules will diffuse across a barrier into the monitor and be collected by a
sorbent material (Figure 16-8). As the sorbent adsorbs the gas or vapor, the
concentration inside the monitor becomes less than the concentration outside. The
rate of diffusion is determined by the manufacturer of the device.
Monitoring begins when the device's cover is removed; the time is recorded. The
worker wears the monitor in his or her breathing zone. ühen sampling is
complete, the monitor is removed and resealed and the time is recorded. The
badge is then sent to the laboratory for analysis.
Passive monitors are used because they are inexpensive and easy to use. Their
accuracy has been studied extensively. Most commercially available monitors
meet or exceed NIOSH accuracy requirements ( 25 percent for 95 percent of
samples tested between 0.5 and 2.0 times the exposure limit).
COLLECTION uEVICES FOR PARTICUIATES
Airborne particulates can be either solid or liquid. Dusts, fumes, smoke, and
fibers are dispersed solids; mists and fogs are dispersed liquids. They range in
size from visible to microscopic. A number of devices can be used to collect
particulates, each using different mechanisms for particle capture (see Table 16-
C).
Filters
The filter is the most common collection device for particulates. There are several
types, including glass fiber (GF), mixed cellulose ester fiber (MCE), and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) filters.

Table 16-£ NIOS{ecommended Sorbent Tubes

Page 528

Figure 16-7 Passive diffusion monitors are an inexpensive and easy-to-use alternative to
solid sorbent tubes. (Courtesy 3M.)
Figure 16-8 Gas or vapor molecules diffuse into a passive diffusion monitor across a
permeable barrier and are collected by a sorbent material. (Courtesy 3M.)

They are selected based on their ability to collect material and their suitability for
laboratory analysis. For mineral and nuisance dusts, for example, the total weight
of the collected particulate is of concern. In this case, PVC filters are used
because they can be easily weighed. For metal dusts, the amount of a particular
metal in the sample is of concern, so a chemical analysis must be done. MCE
filters are generally used in this case. See Table 16-D for a list of NIOSH-
recommended filters.

A typical collection device used for particulate sampling is a closed-face filter

cassette, 37 mm in diameter, containing a filter supported with a cellulose backup
pad (Figure 16-9). 
means that the top of the cassette is not
removed during the sampling; only the top and bottom caps are removed. The air
inlet side of the cassette, opposite the filter, is usually marked so that the filter is
not attached backwards.
There are some exceptions to the standard filter setup. Asbestos, for example, is
collected using a 25-mm filter and cassette with an 
50-mm conductive
extension cowl (Figure 16-10). The cassette is used open-faced because an
even distribution of fibers on the filter is needed for microscopic analysis. The 25-
mm filter improves the sensitivity of the test. The electrically conductive extension
cowl reduces the number of asbestos fibers attracted to the sides of the cassette
by static electricity.
Table 16-C Sampling Techniques for Collection of Airborne ’articulates

Page 529
Table 16-D. .
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Cyclones
A cyclone is used to collect particles of respirable size. Res-pirable particles are
those that are retained in the lung and are generally considered to be of an
aerodynamic size below 10 pm. Cyclones have traditionally been used to sample
for mineral dusts containing crystalline silica because of the strong association
between the respirable dust fraction and lung disease silicosis.
Air is drawn into a cyclone tangentially through a small orifice. It is important that
the cyclone is operated at the airflow rate for which it was designed. The
centrifugal motion of the air inside the cyclone forces the larger particles to the
periphery of the airstream, where they fall to the bottom of the cyclone. The
respirable particles, in the center airstream, are drawn upward onto a preweighed
filter. After sampling is completed, the filter is analyzed or weighed to determine
how much material has been collected.
Use of a 10-mm nylon or aluminum cyclone (Figure 16-11) is currently the most
common method of collecting respirable dust samples in the United States. It
meets the particle size selection efficiency guidelines (Table 16-E) of the
American Conference of Governmental Indusrrial Hygienists (ACGIH) for
respirable particulates.
These guidelines specify how much of each particle size range the cyclone must
collect. These values were selected because they approximate the percentages
of inhaled particles that are retained in the gas-exchange (alveolar) region of the
lung.
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators use an electric charge to remove particles from the
sampled air. As the particles pass through a high-voltage elecrric field, they
acquire a charge and are attracted to an oppositely charged electrode. Collection
efficiency increases with the length of passage through the collector, so
precipitators are often used in series. Electrostatic precipitators are used when
the required sample air volume is large, high-collection efficiency is required for
very small particles (such as fumes), there is a possibility of filter clogging, or
high-temperature airstreams must be sampled.

Figure 16²9 Standard filters are 37 mm in diameter and are

placed in closed-face cassettes with a backup pad, which prevents contamination.
(Reprinted from OSHA Technical Manual.]
Figure 16²10 Air sampling for asbestos is conducted using
three-piece cassette, a 50-mm black conductive cowl, and a 25-mm filter.

Page 530

Figure 16-11. A cyclone attached to a filter cassette is used to sample for

respirable dust. The filter cassette holder can be placed in the worker's breathing
zone. (Courtesy SKC, Inc.)

Table 16-E ACÔIH Ôuidelines for Particle Size Collection

Inertial Impactors
Inertial impacors collect particles by impacting them onto a surface. If an obstacle
causes a moving airstream to deviate from a straight course, the particles in the
airstream tend to leave the airstream and impact on the obstacle. Obstacles
include filter paper, glass, stainless steel, and in the case of bioaerosol sampling,
nutrient agar. The collection efficiency of this method is affected by the mass of
the particles, the size and shape of the obstacle, and the velocity of the air.

Inertial impactors can be used to determine particle size distribution. The mini-
cascade impactor (Figure 16-12) is constructed with a series of stages, each of
which is calibrated to collect particles of a certain aerodynamic size range.

Impingers
The impinger is one of the oldest methods of particulate sampling, but it is little
used today. It is used in situations where the number of particles must be
expressed in millions of particles per cubic foot of air (mppcf).

Impingers use the same particle collection method as the inertial impactor,
except that the particles are collected in a liquid (usually water). Air is drawn at
high velocity into a liquid-filled flask through a glass nozzle or jet. The panicles
impinge on a flat plate or the bottom of the flask, lose their velocity, and are
trapped in the liquid. A small sample of the liquid is collected and then placed in a
special cell that allows the particles to be counted and sized as they are viewed
under a light microscope.

Impingers do not collect very small particles (less than 0.7 urn) well. For
maximum collection efficiency, the air must be drawn at such a high velocity that
larger particles are often shattered, thus producing erroneous results.

Elutriators
Elutriators ate used in front of a sampling train to temove coarse particles. The
coarse particles are removed by gravity, the smaller particles remain suspended
and are collected for subsequent analysis.
There are two types of elutriators: horizontal and vertical. The vertical elutriator is
commonly used for cotton dust sampling. It consists of a large vertical tube
through which the direction of airflow is opposite to the direction of gravity.

Page 531

Figure 16-13 Personal sampling pumps must be lightweight and easy to use. (Courtesy
Gillian Instrument Corp.)

Figure 16-12 Cascade impactor. (Courtesy Anderson Sampler, Inc.)

Due to the airflow requirements and elutriator size, it must be operated in a

stationary position. The flow rate is very important because if it is too high, the
larger particles will not settle out but will be collected on the filter. If the flow rate
is too low, some of the smaller particles may settle out and not be collected.

SUCTION PUMPS
Suction pumps are responsible for the movement of air through the sampling
train. To select the type of pump that meets the needs of a particular sampling
procedure, one must consider the airflow rare required, the pump's ease of use,
and the pump's suitability for use in a potentially hazardous or flammable
environment.

Most personal sampling pumps (Figure 16-13) are lightweight and quiet, use
nickel/cadmium rechargeable batteries, and can be easily attached to the
worker's belt. Each has a flow rate control valve and some are programmable.
They must approved by the Mine Safety Administration, Underwriters Laboratory,
or Factory Mutual Engineering Corp. for use in flammable or explosive
atmospheres if they are to be used in such atmospheres.

Air-sampling pumps are generally available in the following airflow rate ranges:
low-flow (0.5-500 mL/min), high-flow (0.5-5 L/min), and dual range (high- and
low-flow).
Low-flow pumps are used for solid sorbent tube sampling. High-flow pumps are
used for filter, cyclone, and impinger sampling.

However, there are situations where higher airflow rates are needed. The EPA,
for example, requires a minimum air volume of 1,200 L for clearance area
monitoring after an asbestos abatement project. Using a high-flow air-sampling
pump with a flow rate of 5 L/min to sample 1,200 L of air would be very time-
consuming. In this case, pumps that provide a flow rate of up to 10 L/min are
used.
The low-power circuitry and sensors, amplifiers and microprocessors, and light
plastic cases of the newer pumps have increased their susceptibility to
radiofrequency (RF) interference. RF can be generated from facility or
communications equipment and may alter the airflow rate or cause the pump to
stop. Many manufacturers are now providing RF shielding.

FLOü-RATE METERS
Maintaining a constant flow rate during sampling is critical. Devices that help
maintain a constant flow rate are pressure-compensating devices and critical-
flow orifices.
Pressure-Compensating Devices
Pressure-compensating devices are designed to overcome the flow-rate
variations inherent in many sampling situations. A sampling pump will slow down
if the filter becomes loaded with dust or the hose is crimped. Pumps with
pressure-compensating devices have sensors with feedback mechanisms that
detect pressure changes and maintain the preset flow rate.

Critical-Flow Orifice
Some pumps use critical or limiting orifices to regulate the airflow rate. A critical
orifice is a precisely drilled hole in a metal plate through which the airstream
being sampled is directed. ühen certain parameters are met, the flow rate
through the orifice remains constant despite conditions at the inlet (such as a
clogged filter). A critical orifice attached to a sampling pump causes the pump to
draw air at the desired flow rate.
The principle of the method is to draw air through the orifice under critical-flow
conditions and constant upstream pressure.

Page 532

The volume flow rate of a gas through an orifice will increase with a decrease in
the ratio of downstream pressure (p2) to upstream absolute pressure +  > , until
the velocity through the opening reaches sonic velocity. The ratio, p2/pi, at which
acoustic velocity is attained, is called the critical pressure ratio. The velocity
through the orifice will remain constant even if a much lower downstream pressure exists.
Therefore, when the pressure ratio is less than critical, the rate of flow through
the orifice is dependent only on upstream pressure.

Orifices are calibrated under certain temperature and air pressure conditions. If
the air sampling is conducted at a significantly different temperature and
pressure, then a correction factor must be used to determine the actual airflow
rate. (See the formula under Calibration Procedures later in this chapter.)

Some sampling pumps do not have a mechanism to maintain a constant airflow

rate. In these cases, a calibration device such as a precision rotameter can be
used to check the airflow rate during the sampling period. (Precision rotameters
are discussed later in this chapter.) If the rate changes, it is manually adjusted to
the desired rate using the flow-rate control valve.

SAMPLINÔ METHOuS
The selection of a sampling method depends on a number of factors:
>The sampling objective (documenting exposures, determining compliance,
pinpointing sources of exposure)
#The physical and chemical characteristics of the chemical
>The presence of other chemicals that may interfere with the collection or
analysis of the chemical
>The required accuracy and precision
>Regulatory requirements
>Portability and ease of operation
>Cost
>Reliability
>Type of sampling needed (area, personal, grab, integrated)
>Duration of sampling

Standardized sampling methods provide all the information needed to sample the
air for a particular chemical. Analytical procedures are found in the NIOSH
$

) 
$ 
and the OSHA  
.
 

:
-$
OSHA regulations do not specify a particular sampling method, but
they do require that the method used have a specified and proven degree of
accuracy. Some analytical laboratories have developed their own procedures
that meet or exceed the OSHA criteria.
The sampling method used depends on the recommendations of the laboratory
selected to analyze the samples. The laboratory must be experienced in
industrial hygiene sampling methods and should be accredited by AIHA and
involved in the NIOSH Proficiency Analytical Testing Program. These
organizations monitor laboratory performance to ensure that the information and
analytical results are accurate.

An example of a NIOSH sampling procedure is given in Figure 16-14.

This sampling method for acetic acid provides information for both the industrial
hygienist and the laboratory. The method requires a coconut shell charcoal tube
(100 mg of charcoal with a 50-mg backup section), an airflow rate between 0.01
to 1.0 L/min and an air sample volume between 20 and 300 L. Precautions
include analyzing the samples within seven days and ensuring that the
atmosphere being tested does not contain formic acid, which interferes with the
analysis.

The recommended air sample volumes are important guidelines to follow. The
minimum air sample volume is the minimum amount of air needed to ensure
analytical accuracy. It also allows the laboratory to analyze the sample to a
concentration well below the exposure limit for that chemical. This is called the
sampling method's lower limit of detection and is the smallest amount of the
chemical that the laboratory can detect.

Minimum sample volumes can be calculated if the lower limit of detection (LOD)
of the analytical method is known. This can be useful if there is no listed
minimum air sample volume or if the listed volume is quite large. Published
values must assume worst-case conditions are present and have built-in safety
factors to ensure that an adequate volume is collected. If the concentration of the
contaminant can be estimated, then the following formula can be used:
SV =LOD
ELxF
where SV = Minimum sample volume (L)
LOD = Lower limit of detection (åg)
EL = Exposure limit (mg/m3)
F = Anticipated fraction of threshold limit value (TLV®) in
atmosphere (decimal)

The LOD for acetic acid is 0.01 mg (10 ug). If the anticipated concentration is 25
percent of the TLV®, then the minimum sample volume is calculated as follows:
SV = 10 r*g
25 mg/m x 0.25 = 1.6L

Establishing a maximum air sample volume is necessary to prevent breakthrough

when sampling for gases and vapors or overloading the filter when sampling for
particles. Breakthrough occurs when a significant quantity of a gas or vapor
passes uncollected through a collection device. It happens when the device is
saturated with the chemical or interfering chemicals or the airflow rate is too fast.
In particulate sampling, if the filter is overloaded it may cause the suction pump
to slow down or quit, cause the loss of some of the sample as the filter is being
handled in the laboratory, or make the analysis of the filter difficult.

Page 533

Figure 16-14 - NIOSH Sample Method 1603 provides guidelines for acetic acid
sampling.

Page 534 -
Figure 16-14 *Concluded)

Page 535
Figure 16-14 *Concluded)

Page 536

The maximum air sample volume is designed to minimize these problems.

Established maximum air sample volumes are designed to handle concentrations
up to twice the exposure limit of a single contaminant. If the atmospheric
concentration is well above twice the exposure limit or there are other interfering
gases and vapors, saturation and breakthrough occur more quickly than
anticipated. Maximum air sample volumes in these cases must be adjusted.

The flow rate specified in the air-sampling method provides the greatest
collection efficiency for the chemical being sampled. For gases and vapors, it
means that the analyte will be in contact with the absorbing or adsorbing material
long enough to be captured. For particulates, it means that the particles will be
effectively captured without damaging the collection device.
üith the recommended flow rate and air sample collection volumes, the industrial
hygienist can determine the time necessary to collect a sample. For example, if
the recommended flow rate is 0.2 L/min and the minimum sample volume is 10 L,
the sample time is at least 50 min. The formula is as follows:
Required sample = Minimum sample volume (L)
time (min) Flow rate (L/min)

10L
Required sample time = 0.2 L/min = 50 min

Using the example above, it may be necessary, in this case, to use a series of
samples to cover an eight-hour shift.

Laboratories require blanks for each set of samples submitted for analysis. The
laboratory specifies the number and type of blanks needed. Two types of blanks
may be used: a field blank or a media or lab blank. A field blank is a sample
collection device that has been briefly opened and closed and is handled in the
field identically to the other samples. The field blank is used to determine whether the air
samples have been contaminated during handling. In contrast, a media blank is an

collection device used to determine whether the sampling collection
device itself is contaminated.

CALI£RATION
The suction pumps used for air sampling must be calibrated to the airflow
recommended in the sampling method. Calibration is critical because the
determination of air sample volume depends on the flow rate and the elapsed
time. There are two categories of calibration devices: primary and secondary.
Primary devices provide a direct measurement of airflow. They include soap-
bubble meters and spirometers. Secondary calibration devices provide indirect
measurements of airflow and must be periodically calibrated with a primary
calibration 
They include rotameters, wet test meters, and dry test meters.

Primary Calibration: Spirometer

The spirometer uses air displacement to measure air volume (Figure 16-15).
It is shaped like a cylindrical bell that contains a known volume of air with the
open end sitting under a liquid seal. ühen the liquid is discharged, the air is
displaced and forced out of the cylinder through the air-sampling instrument. The
volume of air displaced is calculated based on the dimensions of the cylinder.

Figure 16-15. Schematic drawing of a spirometer.

Figure 16-16. Calibration setup for personal sampling pump with filter cassette.
(Reprinted from -.)
! 
$
1995 )
Figure 16-17. Electronic soap-bubble meter provides calibration results quickly and
accurately. Calibration information can be stored on a computer database. (Courtesy
Gillian Instrument Corp.)
Primary Calibration: Soap-£ubble Meter
The most commonly used primary calibration instrument is the soap-bubble
meter. It consists of an inverted volumetric burette connected to the sampling
train. The sampling train must contain the type of collection device that will be
used to conduct air sampling because each device causes a unique pressure
drop. The pressure drop will affect the sampling pump's flow rate and must be
accounted for during the calibration. The general procedure for soap-bubble
meter calibration is as follows:

Page 537

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16-16. üet the inside of the
burette with the soap solution or water before setup.
2. Allow the sampling pump to run for five minutes. Check the sampling
pump's battery. If the battery is low, recharge the pump. Check the
manufacturer's instructions for proper battery testing and recharging
procedures.
3. Connect the sampling train to the burette.
4. To create a bubble, momentarily submerge the opening of the burette and
then draw two or three bubbles up the length of the burette.
5. Adjust the pump to the nominal desired flow rate.
6. Create a soap bubble and, using a stopwatch, measure the time it takes to
traverse a convenient calibration volume. For high-volume pumps, a
1,000-mL burette is used and the bubble is timed as it travels from 0 to the
1,000-mL mark. For low-flow pumps, a 100-mL burette is used.
7. Calculate the flow rate. The flow rate is determined by measuring the time
required for the bubble to pass between two scale markings. For example,
if 30 s were required for the bubble to go from the 0-mL to the 1,000-mL
mark, then the flow rate is calculated as follows:

1,000 mL x 60 s
=
30 s 1 min 2,000 mL/min or 2 L/min

8. If a different flow rate 
desired, adjust the pump and repeat the procedure.
9. Repeat the determination at least twice. Calculate the average flow rate.
10. Record the following:
a. Volumes measured
b. Elapsed times
c. Air temperature
d. Atmospheric pressure
e. Make, model, and serial number of the sampling pump
f. Collection device used
g. Name and date of person performing calibration
Electronic soap-bubble meters (Figure 16-17) calibrate in less time and with
greater accuracy than the traditional burette method. A microprocessor is used to
time a bubble as it traverses from the first to the second sensor and to calculate
the volume per unit time. The margin for error is supplied by the manufacturer
and is typically 0.5 percent.

Page 538

Figure 16-18 The working parts of a wet-test meter.

(Reprinted from ! 
 
 ²


 
PHS
Pub. no. 614, 1965.)

Figure 16-19. A dry-gas meter consisting of two bags connected by mechanical

valves and a counting device. (Reprinted from ! 
 
 2



 
PHS Pub. no. 614, 1965.)

Figure 16-20 A single-column precision rotameter can be used as a secondary

calibration device. (Courtesy Fermilab Visual Media Services Dept.)

Secondary Calibration: üet-Test Meter

A typical wet-test meter is a partitioned drum, half submerged in a liquid (usually
water), with openings in the center and periphery of each radial chamber (Figure
16-18). Air or gas enters at the center and flows into one compartment, causing
the chamber to rise and rotate. The number of revolutions made by the chamber
is recorded on a dial. Because the liquid is replaced by air, the measured volume
depends on the height of the fluid, so a sight gauge is provided. Temperature
and pressure gauges are also provided.
Secondary Calibration: ury-Ôas Meter
A dry-gas meter, similar to a domestic gas meter, consists of two bellows
connected by mechanical valves and a counting device (Figure 16-19). As air fills
one bag, it mechanically empties another.
Secondary Calibration: Precision Rotameter
A rotameter consists of a float, or ball that is free to move, in a vertically tapered
tube (Figure 16²20).
Air is pulled through the tube so that the ball rises until there is an equilibrium
between the force of gravity and the force of the air traveling upward. The flow
rate is determined by reading the height of the float on an attached numerical
scale. Rotameters are frequently used in the field to check pump flow rate
periodically during full-shift sampling.

Page 539

The rotameter's numerical scale has no meaning until it has been calibrated
against a primary calibration device. A soap-bubble meter is usually used as the
primary calibration device. First, an air-sampling pump is calibrated with the
soap-bubble meter. Then a rotameter is attached to the sampling train (see
Figure 16-21) to determine what scale marking relates to this flow rate. This is
done several times so that a graph (see Figure 16-22) or chart of measured flow
rate versus rotameter scale reading can be made. For rotameters used on a
regular basis, this process should be repeated monthly.

Rotameters that are part of an air-sampling pump are not precision rotameters
and should not be used for calibration purposes. They provide only an
approximate indication of the airflow rate.

Calibration Parameters - Temperature and Pressure

Air volume is directly affected by temperature and pressure. If the conditions

during air sampling are significantly different from those during calibration, then a
correction factor must be used when calculating the sample air volume (the field
volume). This can be done using the following expression:

Vfield = Vcalibration x T field x P calibration

!calibration Pfield

where V field = air sample volume in liters obtained during sampling period
V calibration = air sample volume in liters obtained by multiplying the
calibrated airflow rate by the elapsed sampling time.
Tfield = absolute temperature during sampling in degrees Kelvin or
Rankine
T calibration = temperature during calibration in degrees Kelvin or
Rankine
P calibration = atmospheric pressure during calibration in mmHg or
inches
P field = atmospheric pressure during sampling in mmHg or inches of
water

Figure 16-21 Precision rotameter connected to a sampling train. (Courtesy Fermilab

Media Services Dept.)

Error
The accuracy of calibration depends on the measuring limits of the equipment
used. Each measuring instrument has a margin for error. This information can be
obtained from the manufacturer.
Soap-bubble meter calibration, for example, uses a volumetric burette and a
stopwatch. The burette may be accurate to within 5 mL (or 5 percent); when the
1,000-mL mark is read, the true volume could be anywhere between
1,005 and 995 mL. Stopwatches have a similar margin for error.
The margin for error associated with the calibration of airflow rate can be
calculated using the error of measurement from each piece of equipment used in
the calibration, using the following equation:

Error = [ (instrument error)2 + (instrument error)2] 1/2

For the soap-bubble meter, for example, if the accuracy of the burette is 0.5
percent and the accuracy of the stopwatch is 0.5 percent, then the total margin
for error is 0.7 percent. A calibrated flow rate of 2 L/min is more accurately
reported as 2 L/min 0.7 percent.
SamplingTechnique
The instructions for air-sampling techniques are detailed in the Appendix to this
chapter, which is reprinted, from the 1998 ë-.
$

) 
$ 
SAMPLINÔ ANu ANALYTICAL ERROR
Once the air sample results are received from the analytical laboratory and the
time-weighted averages are calculated, there should be a calculated margin of
error associated with the results.

Page 540

Figure 16-22 A calibration chart is needed when using a precision rotameter.

The chart relates the rotameter's scale to a specific flow rate.

This is called the sampling and analytical error (SAE), and can be calculated
using the following formula:
SAE = [ (airflow error)2 + (time error)2 + (analytical error) 2 ] 1/2

The airflow error is the error of measurement associated with the calibration of the air-
sampling pump. The time error is associated with the instrument used to measure
the time period over which the sample was collected. The analytical error is the
error associated with the analytical methods used by the laboratory.

RECORu KEEPINÔ
Complete and detailed records must be kept on sampling procedures, sampling
conditions, and sample results.

Page 541 - Figure 16-23 - Air-sampling worksheet used by OSHA to record all
pertinent information related to the collection of an air sample.

Page 542 - continuied

The hygienist must document that sampling was conducted according to

accepted professional standards. Records should include the identity of the
equipment and collection devices used, the calibration procedures and results,
the identity of the analytical laboratory and related laboratory reports, and the air-
sampling calculations.
The conditions under which the sampling was conducted should also be carefully
documented to ensure the integrity and usefulness of the results. Anything that
might help interpret or explain the final air sample result should be recorded. For
example, in a production welding operation, the record should contain the name
and location of the welder, the material being welded, the welding rods used, the
number of pieces welded, the use of personal protective equipment, and the use
and location of local exhaust ventilation.
Many industrial hygiene programs have developed air-sampling forms to ensure
that all the necessary information is collected. OSHA has developed an air-
sampling worksheet (Figure 16-23) for its Industrial Hygiene Compliance
Officers.
OSHA Standard 29 '

1910.20, Access to Employee Exposure and Medical
Records, requires that employee exposure records be preserved for at least 30
years. This information must be readily available to employees and their
representative(s). Background data such as laboratory reports and field notes
need only be retained for one year as long as information on the sampling
method, the analytical and mathematical methods, and summary of other
background information is retained for the required 30 years.

SUMMARY
Evaluating and controlling employee exposure to airborne occupational health
hazards usually includes a comparison of the measured concentration of an
airborne chemical to a recognized exposure limit. The various methods,
instruments, and devices used for such air sampling have been described in this
chapter.
Page546

TA£LE1TYPESANuUSESOFSOLIuSOR£ENTS[2]*
Activated charcoal
By far the most commonly used solid sorbent. Very large surface area:wt. ratio.
Reactive surface, high adsorptive capacity. This surface reactivity means that
activated charcoal is not useful for sampling reactive compounds (e.g.,
mercaptans, aldehydes) because of poor desorption efficiency. The high capacity,
however, makes it the sorbent of choice for those compounds which are stable
enough to be collected and recovered in high yield. Breakthrough capacity is a
function of type (source) of the charcoal, its particle size and packing configuration
in the sorbent bed. Humidity may affect the adsorption as well.
Silica gel
Less reactive than charcoal. Because of its polar nature, it is hygroscopic and
shows a decrease in breakthrough capacity for non-water soluble substances with
increasinq humidity [3].
Porous polymers
Lower surface area and much less reactive surface than charcoal. Adsorptive
capacity is, therefore, generally lower, but reactivity is much lower as well.
AmbersorbsŒ
Properties midway between charcoal and porous polymers.
Coated sorbents
One of the sorbents upon which a layer of a reagent has been deposited. The
adsorptive capacity of such systems usually approaches the capacity of the reagent to
react with the particular analyte [4].
Molecular sieves
Zeolites and carbon molecular sieves retain adsorbed species according to
molecular size. A limiting factor is that the water molecule is of similar size to
many small organic compounds and is usually many orders of magnitude higher
in concentration than the species of interest. This unfavorable situation may
result in the displacement of the analyte by water molecules. Drying tubes may be
used during sampling to eliminate the effects of humidity [5].
Thermal desorption
Thermal desorption tubes may contain several different sorbents in order to collect a
wide range of different chemicals [6]. These tubes are generally used in situations
where unknown chemicals or a wide variety of organics are present, e.g., in indoor
environmental air quality investigations. Analysis is often by gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry
(GC/MS).
*NOTE: Solid sorbents are used for the collection of vapors only. Aerosols are not collected
effectively by most sorbent beds, but may be collected by other components of the sampler (e.g., a
prefilter, or the glass wool plugs used to hold the sorbent bed in place).

Page 547

TA£LE2TYPESANuUSESOFAEROSOLSAMPLERS[6]
Membrane filters
By far the most frequently used filters. This class of filters includes those made from
polyvinyl chloride, Teflon®, silver, and mixed cellulose esters. Filters from this class are
used for sampling asbestos, minerals, PAhfe, particulates not otherwise regulated, and
elements for ICP analysis.
Ôlass and quartz fiber filters
Quartz filters have replaced glass in many applications. They are used in applications
such as sampling for mercaptans and diesel exhaust.
Polycarbonate straight pore filters
Because of their characteristics, these filters are good for the collection of particles to be
analyzed by electron microscopy and x-ray fluorescence.
Respirable dust samplers
The 10-mm nylon cyclone and (preferably) conductive cyclones with a 50% cut at 4 pm
are used with polyvinyl chloride filters to collect various forms of silica.
Inhalable dust samplers
The Institute of Occupational Medicine^ (IOM) sampler is used, in conjunction with a
polyvinyl chloride filter, for sampling formaldehyde on dust [7].

Page 548
TA£LE 3 FACTORS AFFECTINÔ THE COLLECTION OF ÔASES, VAPORS, and
AEROSOLS [2,7] I
Temperature
Since all adsorption is exothermic, adsorption is reduced at higher temperatures.
Additionally, if there is a reaction between an adsorbed species and the surface,
or between two or more adsorbed species (e.g., hydrolysis or polymerization),
the rate of such reactions increases at higher temperatures.
Temperature stability of a filter must be considered when sampling hot environments
such as stack effluents.
Humidity*
üater vapor is adsorbed by polar sorbents; their breakthrough capacity for the
analyte is thereby reduced for most organic compounds. However, for water
soluble compounds,the breakthrough capacity is increased, e.g., chlorine and
bromine [8] and formaldehyde [3]. This effect varies from substantial for more
polar sorbents, such as charcoal and silica gel, to a smaller effect for
AmbersorbsΠand porous polymers.

Filter media may also be affected by humidity. Moisture may affect a filters
collection efficiency. Very low humidities (#10% RH) may make some filters (e.g.,
cellulose ester) develop high charge levels, causing non-uniform deposits and
repulsion of particles [9]. üater absorption by some filters (e.g., cellulose ester)
can cause difficulty in obtaining tare weights for gravimetric analysis. |
Sampling flow rate*/ Face velocity
Breakthrough volume of a solid sorbent bed tends to be smaller at higher sampling
flow rates, particularly for coated solid sorbents. For sorbents such as charcoal
whose breakthrough capacity for most organic compounds can be significantly
reduced by high humidity, lower sampling flow rates may actually result in smaller
breakthrough volumes [10]. The collection efficiency of filters will change with face
velocity.
Concentration*
As the concentration of contaminant in air increases, breakthrough capacity (mg
adsorbed) of a solid sorbent bed increases, but breakthrough volume (L of air
sampled) decreases [10].
Particle Characteristics
Filter collection efficiency is a function of pore size [11]. Particles smaller than
about 0.2 pm are collected primarily by diffusion, while particles larger than about
0.2 pm are collected primarily by impaction and interception. Most sampling filters
are highly efficient ($95%) for all particle sizes, with the minimum efficiency in the
0.2 åm size range. Polycarbonate straight pore filters exhibit poor collection by
diffusion, so particles smaller than the pore size are not collected efficiently.
Filter considerations
The pressure drop of a filter can limit the sampling time, because of the load on
the personal sampling pump. In addition, pressure drop increases with dust
loading on the filter. Fine particles (#0.5 åm) will increase the pressure drop
much faster than coarse particles ($ 10 å,
Heavy loading ($ about 1 mg) may
result in poor adhesion of collected particles to the filter surface.
*NOTE: It is important to distinguish between equilibrium *saturation) adsorptive
capacity and kinetic *breakthrough) adsorptive capacity of the solid sorbent
£reakthrough capacity is the important characteristic in actual sampling
situations; it may be affected significantly by sampling flow rate and relative humidity
of the air being sampled and may be significantly less than saturation capacity, which
is not dependent on sampling flow rate or relative humidity

Chapter 17
uirect- Reading Instruments for Ôases, Vapors, and Particulates

Page 561

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MONITORS INTENuEu FOR ONE COMPOUNu OR ÔROUP OF
COMPOUNuS
Combustible Ôas Monitors
Many portable direct-reading instruments for the measurement of combustible
gases and vapors are commercially available. The operator must be thoroughly
familiar with the calibration, use, and limitations of the instrument being used
because an elevated level of combustible gases in the environment could be life-
threatening. These instruments are based on one of two principles: the change in
resistance of a conductor subjected to heat released by gas combustion, or the
change in electrical conductivity of a metallic oxide semiconductor in the
presence of a combustible gas. Both types require calibration using a reference
gas (often pentane or hexane) and must be interpreted correctly.

Page 562

Figure 17-1 A schematic diagram of a typical hot-wire combustible gas monitor.

(Courtesy MSA.)
EXPLOSIVE *FLAMMA£LE) LIMITS *LElyUEL)
ühen certain proportions of combustible vapor are mixed with air and a source of
ignition is present, a fire or explosion can occur. The range of concentrations
over which this occurs is called the explosive (or flammable) range. The low end
of this range is called the lower explosive (or flammable) limit (LEL), and the high
end is called the upper explosive (or flammable) limit (UEL). The explosive
(flammable) range and the lower and upper explosive limits are expressed as
volume percents. If the atmosphere is above the UEL, dilution with fresh air could
bring the mixture into the flammable or explosive range, so any atmosphere with
a flammable or explosive gas near or above the UEL should be considered a
significant explosion hazard.
On the simplest type of combustible gas instrument, only one sensitivity is
provided, usually with readings from 0 to 100 percent of the LEL. Different
models of combustible gas meters are supplied with meters that range from 5
percent of the LEL to 100 percent by volume of the combustible gas, full scale.

Figure 17-2 A multigas monitor that uses catalytic decomposition to measure

combustible gases. ( Neotronics of North America, Inc.)

INSTRUMENT uESIÔN
Combustible gas monitors are based on three different types of detectors. They
are the catalytic combustible gas sensor, the metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)
detector, and the thermal conductivity detector. They are described below in
more detail. Monitors using each of these types of combustible gas detectors are
commercially available, and many are multi-gas monitors containing additional
sensors that allow for the measurement of percent oxygen and parts permillion
(ppm) levels of toxic gases such carbon hydrogen sulfide.
In the catalytic combustible gas detector, heat is released when a combustible
gas or vapor, in contact with the detector, is burned (oxidized). In simple versions
of these monitors, the detector element is a heated coil of platinum wire that
forms one arm of a üheatstone bridge circuit (see Figure 17-1). The heat
released by the burning causes a change in the electrical resistance of the
detector filament that is proportional to the combustible gas concentration. The
change in resistance produces an imbalance in the bridge circuit that can be
measured electrically and is translated into a combustible gas concentration.

More recent versions of the sensors for catalytic combustion devices have a
matched-pair of alumina coated filaments. The sensing filament forms one leg of
a üheatstone bridge and burns the combustible gas. The compensating filament
forms a second leg of the üheatstone bridge but does not burn the combustible
gas. In all other respects the two filaments behave similarly. This improved
catalytic combustible gas sensor allows for significantly improved zero and span
stability. It also corrects for thermal conductivity effects (see below) related to
non-combustible atmospheric impurities. A combustible gas monitor that uses
this type of sensor is shown in Figure 17-2.
In the MOS gas sensor (Figure 17-3), a change in the electrical conductivity
occurs when a combustible gas is adsorbed on the surface of a semiconductor.
This change in electrical conductivity is proportional to the concentration of the
combustible gas present and is translated into a combustible gas concentration.
Changing the surface temperature of the sensor by varying the power delivered
to its heater alters the sensitivity of the MOS sensor to a given compound. In
principle, this allows the MOS sensor to show some compound selectivity.

In the third type of instrument (Figure 17-4), the atmosphere to be measured for
combustible gas concentration

million (ppm) levels of toxic gases such carbon hydrogen sulfide.

In the catalytic combustible gas detector, heat is when a combustible gas or
vapor, in contact with the tor, is burned (oxidized). In simple versions of tors, the
detector element is a heated coil of platinum that forms one arm of a üheatstone
bridge circuit (j ure 17-1). The heat released by the burning causes a in the
electrical resistance of the detector fih proportional to the combustible gas
concern change in resistance produces an imbalance in the cuit that can be
measured electrically and is translated into a combustible gas concentration.
More recent versions of the sensors for catalytic combustioo devices have a
matched-pair of alumina coated filaments. The sensing filament forms one leg of
a üheatstone bridge and burns the combustible gas. The compensating filament
forms a second leg of the üheatstone bridge but does not burn the combustible
gas. In all other respects the two filaments behave similarly. This improved
catalytic combustible gas sensor allows for significantly improved zero and span
stability. It also corrects for thermal conductivity effects (see below) related to
non-combustible atmospheric impurities. A combustible gas
monitor that uses this type of sensor is shown in Figure 1"-1 In the MOS gas
sensor (Figure 17-3), a change in the electrical conductivity occurs when a
combustible gas is adsorbed on the surface of a semiconductor. This change in
electrical conductivity is proportional to the concentration of the combustible gas
present and is translated into a combustible gas concentration. Changing the
surface temperature of the sensor by varying the power delivered to its alters the
sensitivity of the MOS sensor to a given pound. In principle, this allows the MOS
sensor to some compound selectivity.
In the third type of instrument (Figure 17-4), the atmosphere to be measured for
combustible gas concentration passes over a heated filament that is sensitive to
the thermal conductivity changes in air created by the presence of combustible
gases.

Page 563

The sensor generally gets hotter (with lower thermal conductivity) in proportion to
the combustible gas concentration and its electrical resistance changes. A
üheat-stone bridge circuit converts the resulting sensor resistance change to a
voltage that is proportional to the combustible gas concentration.

Rather than having only a percent LEL range, the combustible gas monitor
shown in Figure 17-5 has been optimized to measure methane in the ppm,
percent LEL, and percent gas ranges. To produce the large signal necessary to
achieve ppm level sensitivity, and improve the response time, gas is pumped
through the instrument probe. In the ppm and percent LEL range, both the
sensing and compensating filaments are used. Above the LEL range, the sensing
filament is turned off and the compensating element is used as a thermal
conductivity detector. This type of instrument has found widespread use in the
utility industry to identify natural gas leaks while protecting worker safety.

Because the heat of combustion, the adsorptive properties of a combustible gas

on the surface of an MOS, and thermal conductivity are all compound-
dependent, instrument response for all these instruments is compound-
dependent. Similarly, the lower explosive limits of combustible gases are also
compound-dependent. Thus, a combustible gas meter is typically calibrated with
a particular compound (often pentane or hexane) such that the concentration of
other combustible gases present would be overestimated by an instrument
calibrated with methane. Instrument manufacturers often provide calibration
curves or tables for a variety of different combustibles, for use in correlating
meter readings to the concentration of nonmethane gases and vapors. Figure 17-
6 is an example of such a table.

All combustible gas meters that rely on a heated wire or filament²an ignition
source²have a flashback arrestor that prevents the combustion in the detector
from spreading to the atmosphere outside the instrument. This means that they
are intrinsically safe (that is, they can be operated safely in flammable or
explosive atmospheres). The manufacturer's instructions for operating a
combustible gas meter should be carefully reviewed before the device is used. In
general, combustible gas meters require a brief initial warmup period so that the
batteries can heat any components that operate at an elevated temperature.
Figure 17-3 A multigas monitor that uses a metal oxide semiconductor detector to
measure combustible gases. A detachable sensor head for remote sampling is one
feature of this instrument. (Courtesy ENMET Corporation.)

Figure 17-4 A multigas detector that can use a thermal conductivity probe for high
concentrations of combustible gases (0-99.9 percent by volume). (Courtesy GfG Gas
Electronics, Inc., 200 S. Hanley. St. Louis, MO 63105.)

Air is drawn through the sampling probe and into the detector by means of a
small sampling pump or a hand-operated squeeze bulb. In some cases, air
diffuses into the instrument without being actively drawn in. In most work areas,
the concentration of combustible gas or vapor fluctuates constantly and it is
necessary to observe the instrument carefully to determine average and peak
readings. Some instruments have built-in data-logging features that can store
and recall integrated average and peak measurements.

Page 564

Figure 17-5a. A Gasport@ combustible gas monitor.

Figure 17-5b.
Figure 17-5c
Figure 17-5d.

ZERO AuJUSTMENT

The zero adjustment must be made by taking the instrument to a location that
does not contain combustible gases or by passing air into it through an activated
carbon filter that removes all combustible vapors and gases (except methane).
Because methane is not removed by activated charcoal filters, extra caution is
required during zeroing if the presence of methane is suspected. In addition, the
charcoal filter should be changed periodically because it becomes inactivate by
moisture or hydrocarbon saturation.

INTERPRETATION OE METER REAuINÔS

The user of any instrument should be thoroughly familiar with the necessary
precautions. Users of combustible gas meters must be aware of interfering gases
and vapors that could create discrepancies in instrument response.

Page 565

Figure 17-6 A table of correction factors for the catalytic combustion sensor,
based on the gas used for calibration. (Based on a table courtesy of Industrial
Scientific Corp )
All instruments are subject, to some extent, to interferences from noncombustible
and nonexplosive gases. For example, the presence of argon, which has a lower
thermal conductivity than air, could create a false positive reading in combustion
and thermal conductivity detectors. As a precaution, the least-sensitive LEL scale
(generally 0-100 percent of the LEL) should be used first to determine whether an
explosive atmosphere exists and to prevent overloading of a more sensitive (0²10
percent of LEL) scale. The typical meter responses to methane gas are shown in
Figure 17-7 at the LEL, in the explosive range, and above the UEL.

If the indicator of the meter moves above the UEL and remains there, an
explosive concentration of gas or vapor is present. However, if the meter climbs
rapidly and then falls back to zero, there is either a concentration above the UEL
or a gas mixture that lacks sufficient oxygen to support combustion. The
instrument may read zero for several different reasons. Assuming that the
instrument is functioning properly, the absence of an instrument response can
mean either that there is little or no combustible gas in the space being tested
or that the concentration is significantly above the UEL and combustion cannot occur
because of insufficient oxygen.

Great care must be exercised to ensure that a reading above the UEL is not
misinterpreted as a true zero reading. Figure 17-8 is a reminder of the
importance of proper interpretation of the instrument readings, in this case in
evaluation of the atmosphere in a confined space. A very high concentration of
combustible gas can be identified by carefully watching the needle as the probe
is moved into and withdrawn from the space being tested.

Page 566

Figure 17-7 The relationship between meter reading and combustible gas concentration
*Courtesy MSA)

At some point during entry and withdrawal, the instrument will exceed the LEL if
a level above the LEL is actually present. These instruments should not be used
to measure the concentration of combustible gases in steam or inert
atmospheres because of the measurement uncertainties or interferences in
nonair atmospheres.

HIGH-FLASH-POINT SOLVENTS

Although it is relatively easy to operate a combustible gas indicator to detect a

flammable gas or vapor, these instruments have some limitations. They respond
only to combustible vapors drawn into the detector cell. If the vapor pressure of a
combustible liquid is relatively low at room temperature, a relatively low
concentration will be indicated. If a closed vessel holding a liquid contaminant is
later heated (by welding or cutting, for example) the vapor concentrations will
increase and the concentration of the substance in the atmosphere of the
container, which originally was quite low, may increase and become explosive.
Continuous monitoring may be recommended in this situation. ühen testing the
atmosphere in drying ovens or other places where the temperature is unusually
high, there may be some difficulty in measuring solvents (such as naphthas) that
have a relatively high boiling point because the vapors may condense in the
sampling line, thus giving a false indication of safety. In some instances,
condensation can be prevented by heating the sampling line and the instrument
to a temperature equal to or above that of the space to be tested.

Several types of combustible gas monitors have been designed to be calibrated

so that specific combustibles can be measured. One variation of the instrument
has adjustable calibration controls and can measure five different gases or
vapors in the 0-100 percent LEL range for each. Another type has a dual-scale
multiple-calibration curve in the 0-10 percent and 0-100 percent range of the
LEL.
CATALYST POISONINÔ
Because minute concentrations of silicone vapors²even 1 or 2 ppm²can
rapidly poison the catalytic activity of the platinum filament, a hot-wire
combustible gas indicator should not be used in areas where silicone vapors are
present.
INTERFERENCES
Interfering gases and vapors can seriously affect instrument response; an
experienced tester recognizes the indications of their presence. Instrument
manufacturers¶ instructions should be followed carefully because high
concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons (such as trichloroethylene) or acid
gases (such as sulfur dioxide) may cause depressed meter readings in
combustion-type meters where high concentrations of combustibles are present.
Trace amounts of these interferences may not affect the readings directly but can
corrode the detector elements. High-molecular-weight alcohols in the
atmosphere may burn out the filaments, rendering the instrument inoperative.
ühen such limitations are understood, the tester can obtain reliable and accurate
results.

Figure 17-8 A worker cautiously monitors a confined space in order to evaluate

its atmosphere. (Courtesy Draeger Safety, Inc.)
Figure 17-9 A multigas monitor that has an adjustable set point and audible and
visible alarms. (Courtesy Industrial Scientific Corp., Oakdale, Pa.)

OTHER FEATURES
Combustible gas monitors are available with audible and visual alarms. ühen the
concentration reaches the preset limit, an alarm light and a loud alarm are
activated, providing visible and audible warnings of a dangerous concentration.

Page 567

Figure 17-9 shows an instrument with a dual alarm. The audible alarm can be
switched off; in this case, the pilot light will blink until the unit is reset and the
combustible gas concentration falls below the set point. The manufacturer's
instructions should be consulted for further details on the operation of such
alarms.
Oxygen Monitors
Although oxygen does not have a specific occupational exposure level, its level
in workplace air must often be measured, particularly in enclosed areas where
combustion or other processes may use up the available oxygen. Excess oxygen
from oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen flame operation should also be monitored to
prevent a fire hazard. Air normally contains about 21 percent oxygen by volume.
Sixteen percent oxygen is considered the minimum to support life. In some
cases, however, air with less than 19.5 percent oxygen may be considered
deficient, such as at high altitudes where atmospheric pressures are lower.

In many locations, such as mines, manholes, tunnels, or other confined spaces,

the oxygen content can become low enough to be life-threatening. In such
situations, it is necessary to determine the oxygen content of the air. In addition,
it is necessary to take a sample to determine whether combustible gases are
present in dangerous concentrations. Direct-reading oxygen monitors are
small, lightweight, and easy to use. The instruments generally use a coulometric
cell to detect oxygen. A few instruments that rely on the paramagnetic property of
molecular oxygen are also available commercially.

COULOMETRIC DETECTORS
Coulometric detectors rely on the measurement of current flowing in an
electrolyte between two electrodes, maintained at a controlled voltage difference,
as a result of an oxidation-reduction reaction in the detector cell. The current flow
is translated into an airborne concentration of the contaminant undergoing the
oxidation or reduction. The most commonly used detector cell for oxygen is a
coulometric cell, which has a semipermeable membrane that selectively allows
oxygen to enter the cell. One of the electrodes is consumed during the flow of
electrons, thus limiting the lifetime of the cell. The cells are temperature-
compensated through the use of an external thermistor. Cells from different
manufacturers different response times, accuracies, and temperature and
relative humidity performance ranges.

Page 568

Figure 17-10. A direct-reading carbon monoxide monitor capable of data storage and
readout. (Courtesy Draeger Safety, Inc.)

POLAROÔRAPHIC uETECTORS

Polarographic detectors rely on two parameters: the ability of the compound of

interest to be chemically oxidized or reduced at an electrode at a given electrode
potential, and the rate-determining step of the discharge of ions at a
microelectrode that is determined by diffusion. Polarographic detectors are used
to measure oxygen and carbon monoxide in ambient air.
Carbon Monoxide Monitors
One of the most insidious toxic gas hazards in an industrial atmosphere is carbon
monoxide. Odorless, tasteless, and colorless, carbon monoxide can be deadly
even in small concentrations. Carbon monoxide can occur in many areas,
including gas and utility properties, garages, bus terminals, sewers, vaults, blast
furnaces, open-hearth furnaces, and mines. A number of instruments are
available for measuring carbon monoxide (Figure 17-10).

The most common instruments use a potentiometric or coulometric cell. The

resulting voltage or current is translated into a concentration, with temperature
compensation factored in. Samples are introduced to the detector cell through a
diffusion barrier. Potentiometer cells rely on a change in voltage difference
between two electrodes in the presence of a particular air contaminant. Typical
portable carbon monoxide detectors feature both visible and audible alarms that
alert the user when the danger level is reached. Battery-powered instruments
can measure carbon monoxide in the atmosphere in the range of 1-2,000 ppm by
volume.
Indoor Air Quality Monitors
Industrial hygienists increasingly need to assess building air quality and require
direct-reading recording instruments for measuring key parameters of indoor air
quality. Commercially available devices measure temperature, relative humidity,
carbon dioxide, and often several other parameters (chosen by the purchaser)
simultaneously, as indicators of the quality of the indoor environment (Figure 17-
11).
The carbon dioxide monitor and other toxic gas monitors used in these devices
are often of the types described in this section. The discussion of temperature
and relative humidity measurement is beyond the scope of this chapter, but
bothparameters can be measured with precision with probes are readily
available. (For more information, see Chapter 21, General Ventilation of
Nonindustrial Occupancies.)

Figure 17-11. An indoor environmental monitor tor meaans temperature, relative

humidity, carbon dioxide, andoneofie parameter. (Courtesy Metrosonics, Inc.)

Figure 17-12 A multigas monitor using a metal oxide semiconductor sensor for
combustible gases and electrochemical sensors for oxygen and toxic gases. (Courtesy
AIM Safety USA, Inc.)

Figure 17-13 An instrument for monitoring mercury vapor based on the conductivity of
a gold foil. (Courtesy Arizona Instrument Corporation

Page 569

Other Monitors Using Electrochemical or Metal Oxide Semiconductor uetectors

A number of instruments, usually containing multiple sensors, are available for
detection of a large number of different compounds (Figures 17-2, 17-3, 17-4, 17-
9, and 17-12).
These instruments are typically based on electrochemical cells, either
potentiometric (galvanic) or coulometric, described in the section on oxygen
and carbon monoxide monitoring. They almost always have combustible gas and
oxygen deficiency sensors, in addition to other toxic gas sensors. Sensors are
commercially available for H2S, .-
Ñ

Cl2, NO, NO2, H2, HCN, HCI, and NH3.
All of these sensors are affected by other compounds, which interfere with the
measurement of the compound of interest. However, sensor specificity for these
compounds can be enhanced by adding filters that remove potential
interferences, controlling the voltage in a coulometric cell to minimize unwanted
oxidation-reduction reactions, choosing an appropriate sensing electrode that
catalyzes only the oxidation or reduction of the chemical species of interest, or
introducing a semipermeable barrier into the cell to minimize the entry of
interfering gases. For example, one manufacturer of H2S sensors provides a list
of cross-sensitivities for its device, listing 11 compounds and 2 classes of
compounds (saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons) that may interfere. Among
these, only HCN, HC1, Cl2, and COCl2 give positive interferences; NO2 gives a
negative interference. The sensitivity of the sensor to HCN is half that for H2S,
and for the others 0.2 times or less that for H2S.
At present, multiple-gas monitors are available that can accommodate up to five
different detectors at a time. These instruments are typically configured to include
combustible gases and vapors, oxygen, and carbon monoxide, all of which are of
interest in confined spaces, but could include any compound. Two manufacturers
currently manufacture detector cells for 11 different compounds or combustible
gases and vapors. (See Carner et al, 1994.)
Mercury Vapor Monitors
Portable, battery-operated ultraviolet analyzers are available for mercury vapor.
The section on ultraviolet spectrophotometers has more information on the
principles of operation of such devices. In this instrument, the wavelengths of
ultraviolet light emitted from a mercury vapor lamp are absorbed by mercury
vapor in the ambient air drawn into the instrument. In a dual-beam instrument,
the ratio of the intensity of this absorption to that in a reference cell is translated
electronically into a concentration of mercury vapor in the air. The specificity of
absorption enables the instrument to detect well below 0.05 mg/m3.

Another type of mercury-specific direct-reading instrument (Figure 17-13) relies

on the change in electrical conductivity of a gold foil when it comes into contact
with mercury vapor to form an amalgam (a solid solution of another metal in
mercury).

Page 570

Air containing mercury vapor is drawn into the cell and amalgamates the gold.
The conductivity of the amalgam is different from that of the pure gold and the
change in conductivity is related to the concentration of mercury in the air
sampled during the fixed sampling periods of 1 or 10 seconds. Periodically, after
the conductivity changes are significant, the gold foil is heated by an external
power source and the amalgam is destroyed as the mercury vapor is driven off
by the high temperature. The foil, thus renewed, is ready for a new series of
measurements. An instrument based on the same measurement principle²the
change in electrical resistance when a gold foil reacts with the gas of interest²is
available for direct measurement of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as well.
Formaldehyde Vapor Monitor
Although there have been a number of instruments developed over the past 20
years that were specific for formaldehyde, few of them can measure
concentrations at the current TLV® ceiling level of 0.3 ppm (v/v). One instrument
that claims to measure down to 0.01 ppm of formaldehyde over a five-minute
sampling period is based on the principle of fluorescence. In a fluorescence
method, the intensity of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the molecules of
interest after they have been excited with monochromatic light is measured. This
intensity is related to the concentration of the molecules present and allows
essentially real-time measurements to be done.
uirect-Reading Colorimetric Tubes and £adges
Direct-reading colorimetric devices use the reaction of an airborne contaminant
with a color-producing agent to yield a stain length or color intensity, which can
be directly read to provide an instantaneous or time-weighted average value of
the concentration of that contaminant. The colorimetric detector tube and badge
are widely used by industrial hygienists and other health professionals. Their
simplicity of operation, low initial cost, and the availability of multiple types for the
detection of numerous contaminants make these popular devices for field use.
Nevertheless, like nearly all direct-reading instruments, these devices are limited
in applicability, specificity, and accuracy. The user must be familiar with these
critical limitations if proper judgments are to be made about appropriate use and
about the results.
Figure 17-14 Length-of-stain tubes intended for short sampling periods. (Courtesy
Draeger Safety, Inc.)

uETECTOR TU£ES
Colorimetric detector tubes provide a simple and economical method of
measuring the exposure of workers to toxic vapors. The tubes are generally not
specific for a single compound because nearly all have interferences. In
atmospheres that are well-characterized for such interferences, they can be
useful for estimating concentrations of certain airborne contaminants. The cost of
chemical indicator tubes is considerably less than the cost of a chemical analysis
of a sorbent tube in the laboratory. However, the sensitivity tubes, their lower
accuracy, the possible presence of interferences, and the potential lack of
appropriate tubes for determining anything more than instantaneous
concentrations are all limitations that must be considered when using these
devices.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
The hermetically sealed glass tubes contain an inert granular material
impregnated with an agent that develops a color when it reacts with the
contaminant (Figure 17-14).
Sometimes there is a section in the tube or a separate tube that first causes a
reaction to take place before the indicating section. For certain inert compounds,
a pyrolyzer that thermally decomposes the compound into a form detectable by
an indicator tube is available as an attachment to the hand pump. Chemical
indicator tubes can be charact e r i z e d by how the air reaches the active portion
of the tube: by active sampling using a hand pump (for short-term
measurements) or battery-operated pump (for longer-term measurements) or by
passive sampling relying on diffusion. Tubes can be categorized as short-term
measurement tubes or longer-term time-weighted average measurement tubes.

Page 571

Some brands of detector tubes are calibrated in milligrams per cubic meter.
Conversion from milligrams per cubic meter to parts per million at 77 F (25 C) and
760 mmHg (standard temperature and pressure) can be performed using
the following equation:
ppm = Milligrams per cubic meter x 24.45
Molecular weight (grams per mole)
ACTIVE SAMPLINÔ
In a test using an actively sampled tube, both ends of the indicator tube are
broken off and a volume of air is drawn through the tube, using a hand pump or
electrically operated pump (Figure 17-15).
Most such tubes have an increased sensitivity if larger volumes of air are drawn
through the tube. For tubes intended for multiple compound detection, a linear
scale may be printed on the tube and the relationship of that scale to
contaminant concentration is provided separately. The manufacturer prints a
calibration curve on the tube and also provides instructions for interpretation of
the stain length when multiples of the minimum volume of air (typically 50 or 100
mL) are drawn through the tube. Tubes used with hand pumps are usually
designed to determine average concentrations of an airborne contaminant over
periods of 0.5-10 min, depending on the total air volume drawn through the tube.
See the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) "Standard Practice
for Measuring the Concentration of Toxic Gases or Vapors Using Length-of-Stain
Dosimeters" (ASTM D 4599-86) for further information.
Tubes designed for use with a battery-operated pump have been developed for
determination of longer-term (1-8 h) time-weighted average concentrations. The
color development principle on which they are based is often identical to that for
short-term tubes. However, the readings on the tube are often given as ppm-
hours and the time-weighted average concentration of the contaminant is
determined by dividing the reading by the sampling time (in hours). A relatively
new development in the field of colorimetric tubes is a device that does the actual
reading of the stain length and displays the results digitally. This device has in it
10 capillary tubes mounted on a chip, each tube filled with a reagent that
develops a color when in contact with the contaminant of interest. A pump draws
a known quantity of air through a single capillary, and the optics of the instrument
read the length of the stain formed in the capillary. Ten measurements can be
made before the chip must be replaced. At this writing, chips are available for 12
different compounds or groups of compounds, three at more than one level.

Figure 17-15 Manual and automatic pumps for short sampling period tubes.
(Courtesy Draeger Safety, Inc.)

Flow Rate
Flow rates for length-of-stain devices must be maintained in accordance with  

manufacturer's operating instructions and the flow rates of the pumps used with
length-of-stain devices must be checked periodically. Proper flow rate ensures an
appropriate residence time of the air sample in the device and provides sufficient
time for the contaminant to react with the chemicals in the detector tube. To
obtain meaningful test results, the residence time must be the same as that used
to develop the color chart or length-of-stain chart supplied by the manufacturer.

Although one would be hard-pressed to call such devices instruments, there are
commercially available, direct-reading indicators that are worn underneath
chemically resistant gloves to give an indication of when breakthrough of any of a
group of compounds has taken place. The indicator contains a
microencapsulated (proprietary) detection indicator that changes color when in
contact with a significant quantity of the compound of interest. Current indicators
are available for the following groups of compounds: aromatic amines, aliphatic
amines, aromatic isocyanates, aliphatic iso-cyanates, acids/bases, hydrazines,
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, solvents (including ketones, glycol ethers,
and chlorinated hydrocarbons), and heavy metals.
PASSIVEMONITORS
Sampling for contaminants using some colorimetric tubes can also be performed
without using a pump to draw air into detector tube. These tubes are called
passive or diffusional monitors.

Page 572

The driving force moving air into the tube is the difference in contaminant
concentration between the ambient air and inside the tube at the point of reaction
(where it is effectively zero). Some passive sampling tubes can be used to
sample the atmosphere for several hours, whereas others are intended for only
short sampling periods. Passive colorimetric monitors generally are calibrated in
ppm-hours. The time-weighted average concentration during the period the tube
is exposed to the air equals the ppm-hours indicated on the tube divided by the
number of hours the tube was open. Although most passive tubes function on the
same chemical principle as actively pumped tubes, a few passive tubes are
calibrated from the closed end of the tube: The air contaminant diffuses into the
closed end of the tube and then creates the stain as it re-diffuses back toward
the open end, chemically modified.
One manufacturer of passively sampling chemical indicator tubes has shown that
wind velocities below 0.011-0.022 mph (0.5-1.0 cm/s) result in undersampling of
the contaminant, giving a lower reading than the true value. Therefore, these
devices should not be used as area samplers where there is little or no air
movement. Conversely, they recommend that the devices not be used in
situations in which the air velocity past the tube opening exceeds 5.6 mph (250
cm/s), lest the contaminant be oversampled, giving a concentration higher than
the true value.
INTERPRETINÔ THE RESULTS
It is important to recognize that some color stains fade or change with time. Thus,
readings of stain length should be made as promptly as possible or in
accordance with the manufacturer¶s recommendations. The ability to read color-
change detector tubes and badges depends on the color perception of the
observer and the lighting conditions. The exposed devices should be examined
in an area with daylight or incandescent illumination rather than fluorescent
lighting. Mercury vapor lamps should generally be avoided because the color
change may not be visible and the end of the color stain may be difficult to
perceive.
üith most length-of-stain tubes, the stain front may not be sharp, so the exact
length of stain cannot be readily determined. It could be helpful to obtain the
results of a calibration test performed on known concentrations before using the
tubes in the field. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has specified that such tubes must yield a concentration value within
25 percent of the true value, as determined by a reference method, at the
occupational exposure limit.
Obviously, performing reliable tests with indicating tubes requires careful use and
thorough knowledge of their limitations. Experience has shown that the following
measures help to minimize some errors:
>Test each batch of tubes with a known concentration of the air contaminant to
be measured.
>Read the length of stain in a well-lighted area.
>Comply with the manufacturer's expiration date and discard outdated tubes.
>Store detector tubes in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
>Refer to the manufacturer's data for a list of interfering materials.
SPECIFICITY
Most colorimetric detector tubes, both passive and active, are intended to
measure a specific compound (or group of compounds) such as hydrogen
sulfide, chlorine, mercury vapor, alcohols, or hydrocarbons. Because no device is
completely specific for the substances of interest, care must be taken to ensure
that interferences do not invalidate the sampling results. Specificity is one of the
primary considerations in selecting a detector system. In most cases, the
manufacturer has identified interfering substances and conditions and has
included this information in the instructions enclosed with the tubes.
Sometimes a preconditioning section is used in the detector tubes to remove
potential contaminants, convert the gas or vapor of interest to a more suitable
reacting compound, and react with the gas or vapor with the release of a new
gas or vapor that can be measured by the second section.

Chemical reactions that occur in the detector rubes temperature-dependent. The

tube's instructions give an acceptable temperature range in which it is usable.
Drastic differences in the temperature affect the volume of air going through the
detector tube, but the uncertainty produced by the effect of temperature on
volume is modest compared with other uncertainties in the measurement.
Interchanging tubes obtained from various manufacturers will lead to erroneous
results because the sampling rates of the various pumps are not the same, nor
are the reaction rates of the chemical reagents in the indicator tubes. Each
manufacturer produces, calibrates, and sells equipment, as an integral system;
tubes produced by one manufacturer and pumps produced by another should not
be mixed.
SHELF LIFE
The shelf life of detector tubes is a critical consideration because the tubes may
not be used very often and, therefore, may not used within the manufacturer¶s
expiration date. Often, tube life can be extended by storage under refrigeration,
but tubes should not be used beyond the expiration date unless the response of
the expired tubes is compared with that of tubes that have not yet expired or
tested with a calibration gas. Freezing temperatures should not adversely affect
a tube¶s shelf life; however, the tubes must be warmed to room temperature
before use. Detector tubes should be stored at temperatures below 86 F (30 C)
and never in direct sunlight
CERTIFICATION OF CHEMICAL uETECTOR TU£ES
Before September 1985, many chemical detector tubes were certified by
NIOSH. The NIOSH program was designed to ensure that commercial detector
tubes complied with established performance specifications.

Page 573

However, as a result of budget cuts, NIOSH eliminated the certification program

for detector tubes. A private organization, the Safety Equipment Institute (SEI) of
Arlington, Virginia, filled the void left by NIOSH's departure from the tube
certification program. The SEI now certifies detector tube systems through a
program similar to that established by the NIOSH, which involves product testing
and quality assurance audits conducted by designated, third-party independent
laboratories. In fact, the SEI program adheres to the same test standard
established by the NIOSH program: Title 42, Part 84 of the 

' 


(42 '

84). The SEI offers certification of manufacturers' product
models and grants the right to use the SEI certification mark if the testing
laboratory has determined that the product models submitted have been tested
according to the appropriate standard and the quality assurance auditor has
determined that the manufacturer has complied with SEI quality-assurance
requirements. The SEI certifies a manufacturer to produce a gas detector tube
unit if it meets the minimum requirements set forth in the regulations (basically
35 percent accuracy at one half the exposure limit and 25 percent at one to
five times the exposure limit). The quality of future production lots is secured by a
quality assurance plan, which the SEI approves as part of the certification
process. Adherence to the quality assurance plan is verified by periodic plant
inspections and by testing samples obtained from actual inventory.
Other Colorimetric uirect-Reading uevices
Both passive and active colorimetric indicator badges rely on the contaminant
gas or vapor reacting with an indicating reagent to yield a uniform color change in
the reactive portion of the badge. In some devices, the color changes as a
function of time as well as concentration, so the user must note the duration of
exposure and refer to a plot of color intensity versus time for a given
concentration of the contaminant. The color may be compared against a color
comparator, which provides a reference color intensity for a given number of ppm-
hours. Some badges have the color comparator built into the badge, while others
require a separate color-comparing card. Other badges simply show a color
change at a specified ppm-hour exposure that is identified on the card.
Knowledge of the exposure time, in the latter case, will provide an estimate of
time-weighted average concentration. In a passively sampled badge, the ambient
air diffuses up to the surface of the device and reacts to form the color. Passive-
sampling indicator badges are currently available for at least 28 different
compounds, including ammonia, carbon monoxide, glutaraldehyde, ozone,
phosgene, and toluene diisocyanate (TDI). In an actively sampled badge, air is
drawn though a chemically treated porous paper, with a sampling pump, for a
fixed time period and a color appears if the contaminant is present. A color
comparator is used to estimate the concentration of the contaminant. A relatively
smaller number of actively sampled colorimetric badges are commercially
available, for several isocyanates, in particular.

Page 574

COLORIMETRIC TAPE SAMPLERS

Another device that uses the color change resulting from a chemical reaction to
measure air contaminants is a colorimetric tape sampler. In modern devices, a
chemically treated paper tape is drawn at a constant rate over the sampling
orifice; the air contaminant drawn through the tape reacts with the chemical to
produce a stain. The intensity of color is directly related to the concentration of
the contaminant and is read optically and then displayed on a digital readout.
Chemically impregnated paper tape devices have been in use since the early
1950s. The first units were developed to detect hydrogen sulfide (H2S). A filter
paper was impregnated with a lead acetate solution that produced a dark stain
(lead sulfide) when exposed to H2S. The concentration of H2S was then
determined by measuring the transmission of light through the stained paper.
Light of equal intensity (from a common source through matched fiber optics) is
directed to both the top and bottom track and measured by a set of matched
photoelectric detectors mounted at an angle of 45 degrees. The difference in
reflected light is then measured. The system thereby compensates for slight tape
variations. This is illustrated in Figure 17-16, which schematically illustrates the
general principle of operation. This diagram also shows the capstan-driven
cassette, which moves the impregnated paper tape past the exposure orifice and
readout section of the optical block and gate assembly. The manufacturer of this
particular instrument markets 20 different impregnated tapes, for compounds
ranging from aliphatic amines/ammonia to sulfur dioxide.
Another type of direct-reading colorimetric monitor, used for monitoring TDI or
methylene diisocyanate (MDI), is shown in Figure 17-17. Field calibrations can
be accomplished at any time by use of a test strip provided with each monitor.

COLORIMETRIC TAPE SAMPLERS

Another device that uses the color change resulting from a chemical reaction to
measure air contaminants is a colori-metric tape sampler. In modern devices, a
chemically treated paper tape is drawn at a constant rate over the sampling ori-
fice; the air contaminant drawn through the tape reacts with the chemical to
produce a stain. The intensity of color is directly related to the concentration of
the contaminant and is read optically and then displayed on a digital readout.
Chemically impregnated paper tape devices have been in use since the early
1950s. The first units were developed to detect hydrogen sulfide (H2S). A filter
paper was impregnated with a lead acetate solution that produced a dark stain
(lead sulfide) when exposed to H2S. The concentration of H2S was then
determined by measuring the transmission of light through the stained paper.
Light of equal intensity (from a common source through matched fiber optics) is
directed to both the top and bottom track and measured by a set of matched
photoelectric detectors mounted at an angle of 45 degrees. The difference in
reflected light is then measured. The system thereby compensates for slight tape
variations. This is illustrated in Figure 17-16, which schematically illustrates the
general principle of operation. This diagram also shows the capstan-driven
cassette, which moves the impregnated paper tape past the exposure orifice and
readout section of the optical block and gate assembly. The manufacturer of this
particular instrument markets 20 different impregnated tapes, for compounds
ranging from aliphatic amines/ammonia to sulfur dioxide.
Another type of direct-reading colorimetric monitor, used for monitoring TDI or
methylene diisocyanate (MDI), is shown in Figure 17-17. Field calibrations can
be accomplished at any time by use of a test strip provided with each monitor.
The strip has calibrated stains that are equivalent to produced by known
concentrations of the contaminant.

Figure 17-17 A direct-reading, hand-held paper tape instrument for monitoring certain
isocyanates. (Courtesy GMD Systems, Inc.)
Figure 17-18 A portable colorimetric analyzer that configured to analyze 16 different
compounds. (C Instruments, Inc.)
COLORIMETRIC ANALYZER
One somewhat unusual direct-reading instrument is colorimetric analyzer that
takes advantage of the color-producing reactions of a number of airborne
contaminants with appropriate reagents (Figure 17²18). The air is drawn into a
trapping solution and mixed with the appropriate reagent, and then the colored
species produced is analyzed photometrically and a digital readout provided.
Each compound has a different reagent system associated with it, and the flow
pattern may vary depending on the nature of the compound. Such instruments
currently are capable of analyzing at least 16 different compounds.

MONITORS INTENuEu FOR A £ROAu RANÔE OF COMPOUNuS £iosensors

Although at this moment there are no direct-reading instruments based on
biosensors that are commercially available-there most certainly will be before
this edition of Fundamentals 
 
 
is revised. The industrial
hygienist should be alert to the possibilities they will offer These devices are
based on the principle of immunoaffinity; in which a molecule built into the sensor
will uniquely conjugate with a single, specific molecule and then be quantitated
by another technique. By extracting antibodies to a specific compound, and
immobilizing them on the sensor one should be able to refine this technique to
apply to a variety of molecules, particularly more complex ones.
An example of this is a fluorimetric affinity biosensor developed by Johns
Hopkins University. This device has shown itself capable of measuring 0.1 parts
per billion (ppb) (w/w) of aflatoxin in water in a period of less than two minutes.

Page 575

Air samples run through an impinger could be quantitated in nearly real time to
determine the aflatoxin concentration. The developers assert that this technique
can be extended to pesticides, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, toxins from
various bacteria, drugs of abuse, chemical and biological warfare agents, and
metabolites of chemical compounds found in the human body. Such a device
could make a dramatic impact on the industrial hygienist's ability to quantitate low
concentrations of some highly toxic agents.

Figure 17-19. A portable volatile organic compound monitor using a photoionization

detector. (Courtesy Photovac International, Inc.)
Figure 17-20. A portable hydrocarbon analyzer that uses a photoionization
detector. (Courtesy Sentex Systems, Inc.)

Nonspecific uetectors
A number of direct-reading instruments are not compound-specific or are specific
for whole classes of compounds. These are of value as leak detectors or in
atmospheres that are known to contain only a single contaminant. Nonspecific
instruments used for detection of airborne contaminants include devices that
contain flame ionization, photoionization, electron capture, and thermal
conductivity detectors. The first three types rely on ionization of the contaminant
molecules to produce a response. These detectors measure airborne
contaminants directly and can be used alone, but are often used in conjunction
with a gas chromatograph that separates multiple air contaminants.

FLAME IONIZATION uETECTORS

Flame ionization detectors are highly sensitive to compounds that ionize in the
presence of an oxyhydrogen flame. The ions are collected and the electric
current generated for the compound of interest (whose response factor has been
determined) can be translated into a concentration. Organic compounds that
have a large number of carbon²hydrogen bonds are detected with great
sensitivity with flame ionization detectors, but as the number of C-H bonds
decreases (for example, with chloroform [CHC13]), the sensitivity decreases.

PHOTOIONIZATION uETECTORS
Photoionization detectors are sensitive to compounds that are ionized by certain
wavelengths of ultraviolet light. The ions produced by the ultraviolet lamp in a
photoionization detector are collected and this current is translated electronically
into a signal that can be read on the instrument (Figures 17²19 and 17²20).
Aromatic hydrocarbons are particularly sensitively detected with a
photoionization detector. There are several different wavelengths of ultraviolet
lamp available for some direct-reading photoionization detectors, which can
introduce some selectivity into the detection. Stable air constituents such as
oxygen and nitrogen are not ionized by photoionization detectors. Most
hydrocarbons (except methane) cause a response on a photoionization detector.
Photoionization detectors respond to water vapor, so changes in absolute
humidity between where the instrument was calibrated and where it is used could
introduce errors into the measurement.

ELECTRON CAPTURE uETECTORS

An electron capture detector relies on the ability of the compound of interest to
capture primary and secondary electrons from a small radioactive source
(typically tritium, 3H, or 63 Ni) and thus attenuate a current flowing from the
radioactive source to a collector electrode.

Page 576

The electronegativity of the elements (the most electronegative elements are in

the upper-right portion of the periodic table) that make up the compound
determines the sensitivity of the electron capture detector to the compound.
Thus, halogen-containing compounds, as well as those containing nitrogen or
oxygen, are detected with high sensitivity by an electron capture detector.
Portable or transportable electron capture detectors are used to evaluate fume
hood performance through the release of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) at the face of
the hood. Sampling points outside the hood draw air samples into the electron
capture detector, which indicates the hood's capture efficiency by comparing the
external concentration of SF 6 with its internal concentration.

THERMAL CONuUCTIVITY uETECTORS

Thermal conductivity detectors rely on the change in the ability of contaminated
air to transmit or conduct thermal energy. Air with the contaminant is passed over
one leg of a üheatstone bridge in which the filaments are heated by a current
flowing through them. (See the section on combustible gas meters for more
details.) The change in thermal conductivity of the measurement leg versus the
reference leg causes a change in temperature in one leg, inducing an imbalance
in the bridge circuit and a resultant measurable electrical voltage. This can be
translated into a concentration for a known contaminant.

Spectrophotometers and Spectrometers

A number of direct-reading instruments are based on the characteristic
absorption of electromagnetic, ultraviolet, visible, or infrared radiation. Devices
used to measure many organic compounds and mercury vapor are based on this
principle.

Figure 17-21 A portable, direct-reading instrument with an infrared

spectrophotometer. (Courtesy The Foxboro Company.)

INFRAREu ANALYZERS
Many gases and vapors, both inorganic and organic, absorb certain
characteristic frequencies of infrared radiation. This property and the resultant
infrared spectrum can be used to identify and quantify compounds in the air that
absorb in the infrared region. This includes most compounds except the diatomic
molecules of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. An infrared source in the analyzer
emits the full frequency range of infrared radiation. The window material in the
cell may absorb certain frequencies, and thus limits the frequencies that can be
used. In a dispersive instrument, the radiation is separated into its component
wavelengths with a prism or grating and the desired wavelengths are directed
through the sample and onto a detector. In a nondispersive instrument, the
infrared radiation is passed through a filter, then through the air sample and onto
a detector.
In a double-beam instrument, the infrared energy passes through two cell paths
simultaneously. At the opposite end is a detector that measures the energy
transmitted through the two cells. One of the cells is the sample cell. The other is
a sealed comparison cell with a special mixture inside. If the gas in the sample
cell contains a gas that absorbs energy at the selected frequency, then the
detector will detect less energy coming through the sample cell than through the
comparison cell. The detector emits an electrical signal to alert the user to this
imbalance. The same would be true with a single-beam instrument, but the
infrared absorption background of uncontaminated air would not be subtracted
out of the signal.
One battery-operated portable instrument can generate an entire infrared
spectrum and has a preprogrammed library of compounds in its memory, so
that the instrument automatically determines the correct wavelength to monitor
for the compound of interest (Figure 17-21).

ühen a single contaminant is present, identification and measurement are

achieved easily. Lightweight instruments using filters are available for single
specific compound detection. ühen a number of absorbing contaminants are
present separation of the contaminants may not be possible, depending on the
differences in infrared absorption spectra among the compounds of interest. If
the spectra do not overlap significantly, analysis of multiple compounds in the
same sample, and thus compound specificity, is possible, especially with a
dispersive instrument with a much narrower bandwidth.

FOURIER-TRANSFORM ANu OPEN PATH INFRAREu SPECTROSCOPY

Fourier-transform and open path infrared analysis of workplace air in real time
have become realities for the industrial hygienist. Although no discussion of the
principles of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer, compared to a
prism or grating infrared instrument, will be made here, suffice it to say that an
FTIR spectrophotometer can do a complete scan of a wide range of infrared
wavelengths in a second or two and has a much higher resolution than a grating
infrared spectrophotometer.

Page 577

The characteristics allow this instrument to quantitate a large number of different

chemical compounds in a complex gas sample. This is a very specific
requirement that the industrial hygienist encounters occasionally. A direct reading
FTIR spectrophotometer is commercially available for doing monitoring of
complex gas mixtures. The instrument requires 115 V AC, and weighs about 17
kg, which makes it readily transportable. An external personal computer is
required for instrument readout, and for doing the data analysis and compound
identification required, which could add another 2-5 kg to the weight.

A relatively recent development is an open path infrared analyzer used for

airborne monitoring some distance away from the device (Figure 17-22). In these
instruments, there is no gas cell in which the contaminant is measured, but rather
the open air is the environment in which the measurement is made. The
transmitter and receiver of the infrared radiation may be built into one device,
with a remote mirror reflecting the signal back, or else the transmitter and
receiver of the infrared radiation may be separated by a considerable distance.
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chromatographs include flame ionization, photoionization, electron capture, argon ionization,
flame-photometric, and thermal conductivity detectors. All but the argon ionization and flame
photometric detectors are described in the section of this chapter on nonspecific detector s.

Argon ionization detectors rely on a somewhat more complicated energy transfer process to form
ions. Argon gas, used as a carrier gas for the gas chromatograph, is electroni cally excited by
decay of a radioactive material in the detec tor. This produces electrons that are accelerated to
excite the Ar atoms to a particular higher -energy state. Collisions between the contaminant and the
excited Ar atoms result in a transfer of energy from the Ar atom to the contaminant, resulting in
ionization of the latter. The ions formed from the contaminant are collected and the resulting signal
is translated into an instrument response.
Flame photometric detectors are based on the emission of certain wavelengths of light by an
element introduced into a flame. Flame p hotometric detectors are generally used to detect
compounds containing sulfur. Sulfur emits character istic wavelengths of light in the range of 300 -
423 nm when heated to high temperatures; this light, passed through an optical filter or prism,
generates a signal in a photosensitive detector. The intensity of the signal is related to the amount
of the element in the flame.

Quantitative analysis for a specific component requires separation of the component from other
compounds in the sample and identificati on and quantitation using a cali brated detector. The use
of retention time (the length of time required for a compound to pass through the chro matographic
column) is a common, though somewhat ambiguous, means of identification. If the possible
components of the atmosphere being analyzed are understood, then misidentification possibilities
are minimized. Calibration of the detector requires the introduction of known amounts of th e
c o m p o u n d in to th e d e te c to r a n d th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e re la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n th e a m o u n t in tro d u c e d a n d th e in stru m e n t re s p o n s e .

Portable gas chromatographs may involve sample injection directly from the air, thermal desorption
from a solid sorbent or preconcentration from an air sample followed by thermal desorption.
Column backflush capability also exists, as do instruments that are preprogrammed for a specific
group of compounds. Preprogrammed instruments recognize the retention time for a given
compound and apply a predetermined response factor to that compound, giving a direct reading of
airborne concentration. Instrument reliability, ease of operation, ease of calibration, and instrument
reliability are key considerations when defining the minimum technical skill required to operate the
device. Two types of portable gas chromatographs are shown in Figures 17 ²24 and 17²25.

Figure 17-24 A hand-held, preprogrammed gas chromatograph that uses a surface acoustic wave
detector. (Courtesy Electronic Sensor Technology.)

Portable Ôas Chromatographs/ Mass Spectrometers

In the past, gas chromatographs combined with a mass spectrometric detector have been powerful
laboratory tools for the identification and quantitation of airborne contaminants in multicomponent
mixtures. Now such a combination is available in a portable, batte ry-operated instrument that can
be taken into the field. The manufacturer indicates that the instrument has been designed for harsh
environments and rough handling, intended for field work associated with haz ardous waste site or
emergency response monitoring, among other things. Using a mass spectrometric detector in
comparison to other detectors that have been used for portable gas chromatographs is
advantageous, since the former has the abil ity to identify compounds in an unknown mixture by
matching the fragmentation pattern of the unknown peak with that of knowns stored in a portable
computer-based library.

Page 579

Figure 17-25 A field-portable HAPSITE® gas chromatograph -mass spectrometer. (Courtesy

INFICON.®)
Figure 17-26 A portable TDI monitor based on the principles of ion mobility spectrometry. (Courtesy
Graesby Environmental, Atlanta, Ga.)
Figure 17-27 A direct-reading aerosol monitor using near -infrared light scattering to detect particles.
(Courtesy MIE, Inc.)

Ion Mobility Spectrometer

A relatively new device available for air contaminant moni toring is the ion mobility spectrometer
(Figure 17-26).
In this device, ion-molecule reactions are initiated by the electrons emitted from a radioactive 63Ni
source. Using an electric field to separate out ions of a certain charge before they recombine, the
instrument injects these ions into a drift region, where they are separated by the time -of-flight
through that region and then migrate to a collector elec trode. The migration is related to the mass
and size of the species and the temperature and pressure. This type of instrument was developed
for rapid detection of toxic gases in combat situations, but is now used for the monitoring of other
gases in the workplace. The inst rument can be programmed for any number of compounds, but is
extensively used for toluene diisocyanate (TDI) monitoring because of the ceiling occupational
exposure limit for this compound and the rapid response of the ion mobility spectrometer.

Particulate Monitors
Several types of direct-reading monitors are used to measure airborne particulate concentrations.
More precisely, these devices are generally aerosol monitors in which the aerosol is a solid (dust),
liquid (mist), or condensed vapor from a high-temperature process such as combustion or welding
(fume). Most of these devices are based on the light -scattering properties of particulate matter, and
are sensitive to the size, shape, and refractive index of the particles (Figure 17 -27).

The light source could be monochromatic or polychro matic, using either visible or infrared
radiation, and the scat tered light detector could be a photomultiplier tube, photodiode, or infrared
detector. Most instruments have a pump that draws a sample into the sens ing volume, but there
are some in which convection is relied on to do that. The instrument must be calibrated with
particulates of a size and refractive index similar to those to be measured in the ambient air. If this
is not done, the results indicated on the instrument could easily be off by an order of magnitude or
more.

Another type of particulate monitoring device relies on the behavior of a piezoelectric crystal. The
frequency of the crystal's oscillations is changed by the amount of particulate ma tter deposited on
it when it carries an electrostatic charge (Figure 17 -28).

After the sampling period is complete, the concentration of dust is displayed and the crystal is
automatically cleaned and ready for the next cycle. The instrument measures parti cles ranging in
size from 0.01 to 3.5 um. (An inertial impactor in the device eliminates particles of larger size.)

CONuENSATION NUCLEI COUNTERS

This type of particulate monitor is highly sensitive and is used as a direct -reading instrument for the
evaluation of fit factors in air -purifying respirators. This device is based on the ability of small
concentrations of dust particles to serve as condensation nuclei, that is, solid centers on which
supersaturated vapors can condense to form droplets.

Page 580

Figure 17-28 A direct-reading particulate monitor using a piezoelectric crystal for detection. (Courtesy TSI
Incorporated, St. Paul, Minnesota.)
Figure 17-29 A calibration test kit for calibrating combustible gas and toxic gas sensors or instruments. (Courtesy
MSA.)
If particulate matter is drawn into a vapor that is supersaturated with ethanol, these condensation
nuclei will form and can be detected through light -scattering measurements. The technique is very
sensitive, and thus ambient concentrations of dust (and their reduction on the inside of a respirator
worn by a test subject) can serve as a measure of the fit factor of the respirator. This particulate
measurement technology has proven to be very useful in doing quantitative fit testing of r espirators
rather than using the older technology of gener ating a much higher concentration of aerosol
particles in a test chamber and putting the subject to be fit -tested in that chamber.

FI£ER MONITORS
Certain types of particle counters measure the lig ht scattering from a single particle at a time.
Taking advantage of the fact that the light scattering from fibers is different than that from
nonfibrous particulate matter, a manufacturer has developed an instrument that distinguishes, to
some extent, between these two types of airborne particulate matter and quantitates the fibrous
particles. This device seems to have some bias, as well as time-dependent responses, and poten -
tial users are cautioned to compare such instrument results with those obtained by traditional filter-
counting techniques using phase-contrast microscopy in order to validate any results.

Calibration
All instruments used for sampling and analysis of gases, vapors, or particulates must be calibrated
before use, and their limitations and possible sources of error must be fully understood. It is very
important to establish that an instru ment responds properly to the substance it is designed to
sample. This is generally carried out by performing calibration procedures with standard
concentrations of the substance of interest. In the case of particulate monitors, it may require a standard
particle size as well.

There are a number of commercially available static -type calibration kits for combustible and toxic
gases. Typically, they contain gases that can be used for both types of instru ments. These kits
generally contain one or more cylinders filled with a known concentration of a specified gas -air mix-
ture, a regulating valve, a pressure gauge for measuring the pressure in the container, and a hose
adapter that connects the cylinder to the instrument to be checked (Figure 17 -29).

Once the container kit is attached to the instrument, a sample of the gas -air mixture from the
container is permitted to flow into the device. The meter reading of the instru ment is then
compared with the known concentration of the sample to verify the proper response.

A somewhat more difficult way of calibrating gas or par ticulate detection instruments requires the
generation of the desired mixture by adding the desired contaminants in a known quantity to a
known quantity of air. The rate of air flow and the rate at which the contaminant is added to the
sample stream must be carefully controlled in order to pro duce a known dilution ratio. Dynamic
systems offer a continuous supply of contaminant, allow for rapid and predictable concentration
changes, and minimize the effect of wall losses as the test substance comes into equilibrium with
the interior surfaces of the system. A permanent record should be maintained of all calibration
procedures, data, and results. The information to be kept for this record includes instrument
identification, temperature, humidity, trial run results, and final results. It is important that the
operator thoroughly understand how to operate the instrument and know the instrument's intended
use and the calibration pro cedures recommended by the manufacturer.

Page 581

Performance Evaluations andInstrument Specifications

New direct-reading instruments come on the market with some frequency, and third-party
organizations exist which evaluate instruments with regard to their claimed perform ance
specifications and with regard to other instruments that are similar or identical in function. The
National Institute of Occupational Sa fety and Health (NIOSH), at Morgantown, üest Virginia, has
established a new Health Effects Research Laboratory that has among its goals to develop and
evaluate real-time personal and area direct -reading instruments for chemical, physical, and
biological agents. The reader should watch for relevant reports coming from this laboratory related
to the evaluation of direct -reading instrumentation. Knowledge of the performance specifications of
a particular instrument can be of value, but knowing that an instrum ent complies with one or more
of the existing standards is also of considerable value.

In the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Instrument Society
of America (ISA) have established a number of performance require ments for various direct-
reading instruments. The interested reader is directed to their üeb sites (e.g.,
http://www.ansi.org/public/std_info.html ) to find information on available standards. In Europe, b oth
the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the European Com mission for
Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) have established performance standards for direct -
reading instruments. Information about CENELEC standards can be obtained f rom their üeb site
(http://server.cenelec.be), while information about IEC standards can be obtained from their üeb
site (http://www.iec.ch).

Electromagnetic Susceptibility
In this era of increased telecommunications, users of direct -reading instruments must be on the
alert for instruments whose performance is influenced by cell phones, two -way radios, and other
forms of communication equipment, as well as by other electromagnetic field s. In past years, a
number of different instruments were shown to give erroneous responses during transmission or
reception of radiocommunications of various kinds in the vicinity, so -called electromagnetic
susceptibility. This could be more of a problem when the industrial hygienist is not directly reading
the instrument, but the instrument has a data -logging device. In the latter case, the correlation
between radiofrequency sig nals and anomalous instrument response might be less obvi ous.
Purchasers of new or unfamiliar equipment should always inquire about the instruments' resistance
to such electromagnetic fields. OSHAs Cincinnati Laboratory has generic electromagnetic
susceptibility specifications that can be requested by telephone at (513) 684 -3721.

SUMMARY
The ultimate goal of the hazard evaluation process is to determine the exact amount of vapor,
gaseous, or particulate contaminants present in the work environment. Proper oper ation of direct-
reading instruments used in hazard evaluation is ess ential to ensure that the information obtained
is accurate enough to provide a useful interpretation. Faulty opera tion of air-sampling instruments
can result in either high or low readings. Low readings could falsely indicate that no hazard is
present when dangerous conditions might exist; conversely, high instrument readings could lead to
the implementation of unnecessary control measures.

Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene ± Chapter 15 - 17

 posure Assessment Goals
‡ühat is the purpose of the assessment?
‡Demonstrate regulatory compliance
‡Characterize specific exposure sources
‡Evaluate control measure effectiveness
‡Accumulate epidemiological data
‡Protect against liability
‡Reassure workers
‡IAQ/comfort concerns
Representative Measurements
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‡TüA for the shift?
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 value
Systematic ( Determinate ) Error
Ú The answer is consistently ³off´ in one direction, either always higher or always lower than
the true value ( the data are  or Ã
)

Normal (Gaussian) Distribution

Some Useful ³Statistics´

Arithmetic Mean Standard Deviation Coefficient of Variation

Typical Causes of Systematic Error

Ú Unsuitable, malfunctioning, or improperly calibrated equipment
Ú Failure to follow proper procedures
Ú Blunders
Accuracy v. Precision
Ú Accuracy - how close, on average, the measured value is to the ³true´ value

Ú Precision - similarity of repeated measurements of the same (unchanging) quantity

The Target Shooting Analogy

Precision v Accuracy
Ú Measurements that are repeatable with nearly identical results are said to be precise
Ú easurements that provide results close to the ³true´ value are said to be accurate

Measurements can be
ery precise, but completely wrong!

Avoiding Errors
Systematic Error can be  through quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC)
programs and procedures

Random Error cannot be eliminated entirely, but can be  through training and experience
Eliminating Systematic Error: Method
Instrument or technique is appropriate for both the measurement and the measurement conditions
Ú Used within the range of environmental conditions (temperature, relative humidity, pressure)
for which it was designed and validated
Ú Not used under conditions where interferences may bias the results either positively or
negatively

Eliminating Systematic Error: Equipment

Steps are taken to ensure that the equipment operates properly
Ú Proper maintenance, storage, and handling
Ú Pre- and post-use function or calibration checks

Eliminating Systematic Error: Procedure

Proper operating procedures are followed
Ú Read, understand, and follow all instructions
Ú Field blanks for air samples

Avoiding Errors
Systematic Error can be  through quality assuran ce and quality control (QA/QC)
programs and procedures

Random Error cannot be eliminated entirely, but can be  through training and experience

Accounting for Random Error: Confidence Limits

Confidence limits are a statistical tool for acknowled ging the uncertainty in a measurement, as
caused by random error
Confidence limits reflect the   of the measurement, not the accuracy!

Normal *Ôaussian) uistribution

Confidence Limits
³Confidence limits´ reflect the range about a measurement within which the ³true´ value being
measured might be expected to fall
95 percent confidence limits are usually used
§onfidence limits may be two-sided (two-tailed) or one-sided (one-tailed)

OSHA¶s One-Tailed Confidence Limits

Before a citation may be issued based on an exposure measurement, the measurement must be
 shown to be above the PEL, i.e. the lower 95 percent confidence limit on the
measurement must be shown to be above the PEL
OSHA uses  confidence limits, so that there is 95 percent confidence that the ³true´ value
is above some lower confidence limit on the measurement

Compliance uetermination
OSHA Compliance Test Statistic
For compliance testing OSHA uses a 95% LCL test statistic, LCL test
OSHA¶s one-tailed LCL test is calculated as:

A violation is said to exist when LCL test> 1

One-Tailed Confidence Limits

Similarly, industry representatives would like to statistically demonstrate that the measured TüA
exposure is below the PEL, so that a one -tailed  confidence limit (UCL) and test statistic are
appropriate:

Example: methylene chloride

Ú A worker¶s 8-hr TüA methylene chloride exposure was measured to be 27 ppm, and the
PEL is 25 ppm. The sample was collected on a charcoal tube and analyzed by carbon
disulfide extraction with GC/FID analysis, for which the SAE is 0.11. üas a violation
shown?



    [  [  [    [ 



Example: methylene chloride

ühere to Find SAE Values
OSHA CPL 2-2.43A Chemical Information Manual (formerly)
OSHA Chemical Sampling Information searchable database web page:

http://www.osha-slc.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/toc/
toc_chemsamp.html

Methylene Chloride
MEDIA: Charcoal Tube (350/350/350 mg sections, 20/40 mesh)
ANL SOLVENT: Carbon Disulfide
ALT SOLVENT: (99:1) Carbon Disulfide/Dimethylformamide
MAX V: 10 Liters MAX F: 0.05 L/min (TüA)
MIN T: 5 minutes MAX F: 0.05 L/min (Ceiling or STEL)
MIN T: 5 minutes MAX F: 0.05 L/min (Peak)
ANL 1: Gas Chromatography; GC/FID
REF: 2 (OSHA 59)
SAE: 0.11
CLASS: Fully Validated

Full Period Consecutive Sampling

ühen back-to-back samples are collected over the exposure period, the LCL test is:
The UCLtest is similarly calculated

Example: Full Period Consecutive Samples

Sample Duration (min)
120
90

 

60
 [  

60




60
90
Sample Result (ppm)
80
125
135
130
120
80

If the PEL is 100 ppm and the SAE is 0 2, is an overexposure shown?

Example: Full Period Consecutive Samples

No violation is shown *barely)

Compound Random Errors

ühen several measured values are used together in a calculation, the combined or 
effect of the random errors from each measure must be considered

Confidence Limits on Mixtures

Overexposure to mixtures of gases or vapors with ³additive´ health e ffects is commonly tested by:

If m> 1 then an exposure exists. 9
 






 

  

 
!=)
 

Confidence Limits on Mixtures

It can be shown that the compound random error in this determination is:

So that if
m> (1 + m ) an exposure is shown to exist

OSHA Compliance Test Statistic ± the one you need to know

For compliance testing OSHA uses a 95% LCL test statistic, LCL test
OSHA¶s one-tailed LCL test is calculated as:

A violation is said to exist when LCL test> 1

Summary

All measurements are subject to error

Systematic error may be eliminated through effective QA/QC procedures
Random error may be minimized through training and practice
Residual uncertainty in measurements may be acknowledge d by establishing confidence limits on
the data

Ôas & Vapor Measurement

Direct-reading instruments
Sorption
Bulk sampling
uirect-Reading Instruments

Infrared spectrometers
Ultraviolet photometers
Chemiluminescence meters
Ionization detectors
Combustible gas detectors
Electrochemical sensors
Colorimetric detectors

IR Spectrometers

Ú Nearly all molecules absorb IR radiation

Ú Molecules absorb at multiple wavelengths, but with one or more dominant ³peaks´
Ú The IR absorption spectrum is unique for each chemical, and can be used to identify
unknowns
Ú But, multiple chemicals may absorb IR radiation at the same wavelengths, so mixtures may
cause interferences
Ú Simple IR instruments use one IR wavelength and one measurement pathlength
Ú More advanced instruments determine absorption at several wavelengths simultaneously
Ú An IR that uses a filter to exclude all IR light except the wavelength of interest is a 
  IR (NDIR)
~ CO, CO2
~ MIRAN uses variable filter to select wavelength
Ú A spectometer that uses gratings or prisms to separate the IR into its component
wavelengths to obtain a complete spectrum is a  
IR.
Ú Beer/Lambert Law:
where )
= absorbance, è
olar absorptivity, Ã = pathlength, and c= gas concentration
The amount of IR absorption is directly proportional to the mass concentration over the length of
the path traveled by the beam

Strengths
Ú Direct readings for a wide variety of gases and vapors
Limitations
Ú Relatively expensive
Ú Somewhat bulky, and can be quite heavy
Ú Subject to interferences
Ú Optics can be damaged by corrosives or rough handling
Ú Does not perform personal monitoring for compliance purposes ± only instantaneous
readings
UV Photometers
Operation is similar to IR spectrometers, except that absorption of UV light is measured
Ú Beer/Lambert Law applies
Typically used for detection of Hg vapor, SO 2, O3, NO, and NO2
Mostly replaced with other technologies (e.g., Jerome gold -film analyzer for Hg)

Electrochemical Sensors - Hg
UV absorption mercury vapor meter instruments have generally been replaced by gold -film
instruments
Mercury reacts with the gold film reversibly to change its electrical resistance; the film can be
regenerated by ³burning off´ the mercury

Chemiluminescence Meters
Measure the light emitted when a contaminant reacts with a specific reagent
Primarily used in air pollution work for O 3 and NOx
Highly sensitive, but bulky and difficult to use in the field
Not frequently used in IH work

Flame Ionization uetectors *FIu)

Gas sample is pyrolized in a hydrogen flame to produce carbon ions
Resulting signal indicates the amount of carbon present (³carbon counter´)
Calibrated against a specific gas; all other readings are in ³equivalents´ units
Ú e.g., calibrated to methane, so for all other gases other than methane, estimates only
Strengths
Ú Highly sensitive for many organic compounds
Limitations
Ú Expensive
Ú Non-specific
Ú Somewhat bulky, heavy, and difficult to use
Ú Some compounds can cause negative interferences (chlorine, vapor phase sulfur)
Ú Flame can ³blow out´

Photoionization uetectors *PIu)

Gas sample is ionized by photons emitted from a UV lamp
Lamp energy in electron volts (eV) must be above the Ionization Potential (IP) for the molecule
Calibrated against a specific gas (usually isobutylene) - all other readings are in ³equivalents´ units
Calibration factors can be used if the measured gas is known

Strengths
Ú Compact, lightweight, relatively inexpensive, and require little power
Ú Non-destructive (sample is not burned)
 Ú Do not respond to common ambient gases (O3, CO, CO2, methane, water vapor)
Limitations
Ú Non-specific
Ú üill only detect compounds for which IP < lamp power
Ú May have problems with high humidity, particles, and hot or corrosive atmospheres (due to
fogging and optical interferences)

Combustible Ôas Indicators

Measure the heat of combustion of combustible gases and vapors
Use either heated wire combustion (measure the change in resistance as the wire heats) or
catalytic combustion (temperature change)
Primarily used for confined space entry
Read-out is in percent of Lower Explosive Limit (% LEL) and calibrated against methane (readings
are % LEL as ³methane equivalents´)
Usually packaged as multi-gas instruments (combustible gas and oxygen at least)
Strengths
Ú Compact, lightweight, rugged, inexpensive, require little power
Limitations
Ú Qualitative, non-specific (measures all combustible gasses as a whole)
Ú The indicated LEL is for the calibration gas only
Ú Heated wire versions can ³peg´ above UEL, so must be observed as it is introduced into the
test atmosphere

Electrochemical Sensors
Gas-specific electrochemical cell sensors contain an electrolyte solution in which the target gas
dissolves
The dissolved gas then reacts with a gold or platinum electrode to form hydroxyl (OH -) ions and
electrons, which are detected by a second lead or zinc ³counting´ electrode to produce a current
Choice of electrode and electrolyte solution provide good specificity
Also called ³fuel cell´ sensors

Electrochemical Sensors - MOS

Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) sensors are replacing some fuel cell sensors
MOS sensors utilize a metal oxide-coated semiconductor that changes conductivity when the oxide
reacts with contaminants
Primarily used for combustible gases

Strengths
Ú Compact, lightweight, relatively inexpensive, and requ ire little power
Ú Good chemical specificity (except MOS sensors)
Ú Excellent for use in personal monitors and alarms
Limitations
Ú Some positive interferences are possible
Ú Fuel Cell sensors expire when the counting electrode surface area is completely oxidized
Ú MOS sensors are non-specific and difficult to calibrate

Colorimetry ± uetector Tubes

Chemical reactions between the contaminant and a reagent produce a characteristic color change
Although some instruments use reagent-impregnated filter tape and a spectr ometer, the most
common application is in colorimetric or ³detector´ tubes
Glass tubes are filled with a reagent -coated granular substrate
The reagent is selected to be as specific as possible for the chosen contaminant
As air is pulled through the tube wi th a pump, contaminant reacts with fresh reagent and the color
change progresses along the tube
 Ú some are diffusive, requiring no pump
The tube is usually calibrated with a ppm scale

Strengths
Ú Compact, lightweight, inexpensive (a few dollars per tube), hand pump requires no power
Limitations
Ú Interferences from similarly-reacting chemicals
Ú Each chemical requires a different tube
Ú Reagents expire ± tubes have a ³shelf life´
Ú Poor precision - + 25 % is considered acceptable ± good for screening measurements only

Limitation of all these Sampling uevices?

DOES NOT DETERMINE TüA EXPOSURE!

Sorbent Sampling
Contaminant is stripped from the air and concentrated on or in a sorbent
Material is desorbed with heat or solvent and analyzed in the laboratory
Sample results are by definition the TüA concentration over the sample duration

Absorption vs Adsorption
Absorption ( with a b ) refers to the dissolving of sampled gas or vapor in a liquid
Adsorption (with a d ) refers to the adherence of sampled gas or vap or molecules on the surface of
a sorbent without physical or chemical change of the sorbent

Absorption Sampling
Ú Absorption is useful for gases and vapors that are highly soluble (hydroxides, acids)
Ú Liquid impingers are commonly used to bubble sampled air through the solvent (typically
water)
Ú Mists as well as gases and vapors may be captured in impingers
Liquid Impingers
Adsorption Sampling
Sorbent tubes utilize solid sorbents with high surface area and high affinity for organic chemicals
Ú Activated carbon (³charcoal´)
Ú Silica gel
Ú Porous polymers
Sorbed material is recovered from the sorbent in the laboratory by thermal desorption or solvent
extraction
Sorbents can be regenerated and reused

Charcoal Tubes
The activated carbon is usually produce d from coconut shells, petroleum, or wood
Ú Extremely high specific surface area for adsorption (high area to mass ratio)
Ú Strengths
Ú Extremely high specific surface area for adsorption (high area to mass ratio)
Ú Good for a wide variety of à organic compounds
Ú Can sorb multiple materials on the same tube
Limitations
Ú Not good for highly volatile low -molecular weight compounds (e.g. methane) or reactive
materials
Ú üater vapor competes for sorption area

Silica Ôel Tubes

Silica gel has a high affinity for adsorbing organic compounds
Also has an extremely high affinity for water vapor (often used as a drying agent)

Strengths
Ú High affinity for many organics
Ú Can sorb multiple materials on the same tube
Limitations
Ú Not good at all in high humidity env ironments
Passive £adges
Single charcoal sorbent wafer
No pump needed - collects contaminants by diffusion.
They meet or exceed OSHA accuracy requirements of 25% at 95% confidence level for many
work contaminants.
May be affected by humidity so must record and provide RH measurement to lab

Chapter 18
Methods of Control
Page585

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Page 586

Figure 18-1. To determine the extent of exposure, locate the contaminant source, its path to the employee,
and the employee's work pattern and use of protective equipment

 

 




 
 
  
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METHODS OF CONTROL
The methods of control of health hazards in the work environment are divided into the following
categories:
^ Engineering controls, which remove or reduce the haz ard either by initial engineering design
specifications or by applying methods of substitution, isolation, or ventilation.
#F
Administrative controls that minimize employees' exposures by scheduling reduced work times in
contaminant areas, good work practices, and employee training. Appropriate training includes
hazard recognition and work practices specific to the employees job that can help reduce exposures.
>- Personal protective equipment, which employees wear to protect them from their environment.
Personal protective equipment can be used in conjunction with engi neering controls and other
methods of control.

Engineering controls are to be used as the first line of defense against workplace hazards wherever
feasible. Such built-in protection, inherent in the design of a process, is preferable to a method that
depends on continual human implementation or intervention. The federal regula tions, and their
interpretation by the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission, mandate the use of
engineering controls to the extent feasible, and if these are not sufficient to achieve acceptable limits of
exposure, the use of personal protectiv e equipment and other corrective measures may be considered.
Engineering controls include ventilation to minimize dis persion of airborne contaminants, isolation of a
hazardous operation or substance by means of barriers, and substitution of a material, equipment, or
process to provide control of a hazard. Although administrative control measures can limit the duration
of individual exposures, they are not generally favored by employers because they are difficult to
implement and maintain. For similar reaso ns, control of health hazards by using respirators and
protective clothing is usually consid ered secondary to the use of engineering control methods.
Page 587

ENÔINEERINÔ CONTROLS AT uESIÔN STAÔE

THE best time to introduce engineering controls is when a facility is in the design phase. At that
time, control measures can be integrated more readily into the design than after
The facility has been built or the processes are on -line.

The systematic layout of the physical building, processes, and systems sho uld comply with
occupational safety and health standards. ühat is planned must be reconciled with what is
permissible by law or advised by consensus standards. In any particular situation, jurisdiction and
applicability of standards may become complex. ühen more than one agency or standard is
involved, the more stringent standard can be assumed to be controlling. Consideration should be
given to specifying design criteria that comply with proposed standards that may take effect after
the facility goes on-line.

It is becoming increasingly common for facility and design engineers to consult with the industrial
hygienist at the design phase of a new facility or process. Including industrial hygiene control
measures at this point can be less costly than adding them later in the construction process.
During the design phase, the proposed facility layout must be characterized with respect to
construction type, proposed activities in all areas, and possible health hazards. The influence of
one area on another and o ne work activity on another
must be assessed. At this point, ergonomic concerns must be identified and corrected with proper
workstation design (see Chapter 13).
In terms of the building structure, it is important that the design specifications contemplate the
control of moisture to minimize the likelihood of microbial growth. Microbial organisms can
adversely affect indoor air quality and cause toxic or allergic responses among building
occupants. Proper design of the building envelope and control of indoo r relative humidity and the
accumulation of condensation on HVAC equipment components will limit the availability of
moisture necessary for the growth of microorganisms (ACGIH, 9 "
)


 
1999). It is also important to evaluate the finished materials within a facility for their
propensity to generate hazardous air contaminants. For example, the installation of new carpets,
flooring materials, adhesives, and paints can generate volatile organic com pounds in
concentrations that could result in respiratory and eye irritation in the building occupants.
ühen air contaminants are created; generated, or released in concentrations that can injure the
health of workers, ventilation is the usual method of providing protection. How ever, other methods
of protection should be investigated; one example is automatic operations.

Ideally, operations should be conducted in entirely closed systems, but not all processes lend
themselves to this approach. ühen closed systems are used, raw material s can be brought to the
processing site in sealed containers and their contents emptied 
storage tanks or containers,
minimizing employee contact with the material being processed.

All systems and components should be designed so that airborne contaminants are kept below
their acceptable Threshold Limit Values®(TLVs). Do not permit leaking of toxic chemicals from
process equipment, such as pumps, piping, and containers, to the working environment to cause a
condition in which the TLVs are routinely exceeded in any location where employees may be
present. In industrial settings, isolate process equipment and vent to a scrubber, absorber,
incinerator, or particle collector, as applicable. If feasible, remotely control the process from a
protected control room.
Some work operations, if conducted separately, do not present a serious hazard, but when
combined with other job operations can become hazardous in certain situations. Two types of
interrelationships can exist.
The first concerns accumulation, as can arise when additional welding stations are provided in a
building of fixed general ventilation or when additional noise sources are added to an already
noisy work area.
The second type of interrelationship concerns many activ ities going on in  
same area.
Activities that by themselves are safe can become hazardous in certain circumstances. For
example, vapor degreasing with chlorinated solvents, even when the airborne concentration of the
vapors is within permissible limits, may create major hazards when the activity is near work areas
where ultraviolet (UV) radiation (from weld ing arcs, bright sunlight, or molten metal) exists. The
decomposition of these solvents caused by the UV radiation can produce phosgene gas -a potent
and toxic eye and lung irritant. Merely maintaining the concentration of solvent vapor below the
TLV is not satisfactory. The most positive control is to prevent the chlorinated solvent vapors from
entering the welding area in any detectable concentrations. If vapors can not be reduced to a
minimum, the UV field should be reduced to a minimum by shielding the welding arc.
The problem of considering safety and health with activ ity and workstation relationships
becomes difficult when more than three or four activities must be considered, as in laying out
workstations for new or relocated manufacturing operations where 20 or more activities might
require consideration. Decisions should be made to arrive at either an opti mum arrangement or a
preferred compromise.
Design
Occupational health hazards can best be minimized by workplace design that controls
contaminants as much as possible. This requires close cooperation between the industrial
hygienist and the design engineer and architect. The ideal situation would have the pri nciples of
health hazard protection so thoroughly ingrained in the design professionals that the health and
safety professional need only be a passive reviewer. However, the design team needs the help of
the health and safety professional during the desig n process to make sure that a system can be
set up that does not pose safety or health hazards to the operator or facility occupants.

Page 588
Figure 18-2. A simple process flowsheet showing the stepwise introduction of raw material and the product of each step. The
extent of physical or chemical hazards that can occur at any step in the operation should be determined

Production processes in chemical plants should be designed so that hazardous materials are not
released into the environment. It is impo rtant to keep the materials and the by -products and wastes
within the closed system.

To maintain that integrity, a chemical process flow sheet should be reviewed from an overall
material balance point or view (Figure 18 ²2).

The material that becomes airborne and gets into the work environment to cause problems can be
an insignificant fraction of the total amount of material that is circulated through the system, so
much so that in a material balance, the quantity of material that is released into the work place that
causes the hazard can be insignificant when compared with the total amount present.

Design factors that should be addressed include the following:

> To what degree is it possible to remove hazardous
residues from a piece of equipment before it is opened?
> To what extent can a system be designed to be relatively
maintenance-free?
> Can the system be designed so that the entire operation
can be conducted as a closed system?
> Can the process be conducted automatically without
worker involvement?
> Can the system be cleaned automatically without worker
involvement?
A design engineer should have extensive knowledge not only of the main aspects of the process
being created but also of the finer details, such as health hazard controls and safety d evices.
Design engineers are usually more familiar with the safety hazards because the effects of their
being overlooked
are much more obvious that those occurring when health hazards are overlooked.
The same importance should be assigned to minimize conta minant dispersion in other workplace
settings such as mixed-use office buildings. The architect and engineer on the design team should
address the following factors:
#Has the building been designed to effectively control moisture and prevent microbial growth on
construction materials and in the HVAC system?
>Are there any activities taking place in the building that use or generate hazardous materials?
>Is the fresh air intake located away from any contami nant source or air pathway for these
contaminant sources?
>Has the HVAC system been designed to deliver an appropriate volume of air to each occupied
space in accordance with the standards of the American Society o f Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)?
>Is local exhaust ventilation required in any special -use areas, such as printing operations, photo
developing, welding, or solvent degreasing?
> Are any special filters required to clean incoming outside air or recirculated air?
>If tobacco smoking is permitted in the building, is there a separate room with a dedicated HVAC
system planned? (See Chapter 21, General Ventilation of Nonindustrial Occupancies.)

ühen health professionals are in volved early in the design process, it is possible to plan the
development of sampling and analytical methods to yield exposure data concurrent with
development of the engineering design.

Page 589

Contaminant monitoring systems can be included as part o f the engineering design. Elaborate
automated leak-detection systems designed into the process can yield valuable information for
evaluating health hazards in the operating unit (Figure 18 -3).

Similarly, contaminant monitoring systems can be installed in the ventilation system to alert building
engineers of high levels of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide, which serve as a general indicator of
degrading air quality.
Neglect of the health professional -engineer-architect interaction in facility design can lead to major
management problems. ühat could have been an easy solution in the design phase can become an
extremely difficult problem later. Changes that might have been readily accomplished during the design
phase must now be done as a matter of equipme nt change and compromise. üorse yet, it may be
necessary to shut down production or evacuate employees to correct a haz ard that was overlooked.
Consequently, management should consider that for certain processes and materials, the initial
design of facilities to minimize the health hazards may be a significant and necessary part of the
investment.

Figure 18-3. This multipoint ambient air monitor is capable of continually

measuring up to five gases in as many as 24 remote locations.
(Courtesy MSA.)

Maintenance Considerations
It is important to look not only at planned operations but I also at the fine details of what is not
supposed to be happening. These untoward events may best be described in two general classes.
First, there may be releases of contaminants into the work (environment that are relatively continuous,
such as flange leaks, exhaust hoods that are not completely effective, pump seals that have weakened,
diffusion that occurs along valve stems, or noise emission from leaks in ill-fitting acoustic lagging on a
machine.

This general class of airborne contami nants or fugitive emissions may have begun as a low -level
background that initially was not high enough to be of seri ous concern. Coupled with this is another kind
of episodic exposure. As equipment becomes worn and starts to leak, the general level of background
emissions may eventually result in significant worker exposures. Much of this leakage can be dealt with
by continuous, careful, intensive maintenance; however, much of it might have been avoided in the
initial design. The degree to which any possibility of leakage is engi neered or designed out of a system
depends to a great extent on how much these potential leaks have been anticipated.

The second class of emissions of airborne contaminants arises when a closed system or control
process becomes momentarily open or uncontrolled. For instance, the lagging has to be removed from
the compressor in order to perform some adjustments, or perhaps sa mples have to be collected or filters
replaced. These situations are common in chemical industries. A filter change operation may occur as
infrequently as once every six months; however, when problems occur it may have to be done four times
a shift. The system has to be designed so that it is possible to clean and purge the filter container so that
an employee can perform needed maintenance without hazard.

From time to time, the system as a whole must be shut down for cleaning and purging and afterward
opened for maintenance. Under these circumstances, most exposures tend to be brief, but exposure
levels can be quite high and may be detected only by closely maintained industrial hygiene
surveillance on a day-to-day basis.

Knowledge of the hazards that are present and the potential for the exposure that may exist in an
operation gives an indus trial hygienist an ideal starring point from which to develop the surveillance
program. All too often this step is omitted and the industrial hygienist becomes aware of an engineering proj -
ect only in the advanced stage of development. üaiting to make changes in the design when the system
is about to go to construction can dramatically increase cost.

uesign Specifications
The design specifications are the drawings and documents that enable the engineers and architects to
precisely define the building, systems, and processes. The industrial hygien ist or safety professional
should have a clear understanding of where in these specifications health hazards may occur as a result
of the process, building materials, or system design.

REVIEü
Before a new operation or process is begun, engineering reviews that go over the whole process should
be done to ensure that nothing was forgotten and everything will pro ceed as planned. Although these
reviews are very detailed and time-consuming, it is worthwhile for an industrial hygienist and safety
professional to be involved. Sometimes, last -minute changes in the process or equipm ent are made
that can significantly increase or decrease the health hazard.

Page 590
Figure 18-4. Loading or unloading of tank trucks can release airborne contaminants

STARTUP
The industrial hygiene surveillance begins when a process is put into operation or a facility is brought
on- line and should continue for as long as the operation continues.
ühen a facility is brought on -line, it is recommended that the ventilation system be operated for 48
hours prior to occupancy to purge construction-related contaminants (ASHRAE, 1995). Air balancing
reports for the ventilation system should be reviewed before the building is occupied and processes
involving hazardous materials commence. Problems in handling and operating procedures that were
not anticipated during the design stage will become appar ent when the facility is operational. Prompt
correction of these problems is much easier during the early setup phase when procedures and people
are still somewhat flexible.

SAMPLE TAKING
In many industrial operations, such as steel mills and petro chemical facilities, taking product samples is a
common procedure. The design engineer and the industrial hygienist can choose between a product
sampling system that does not provide much control and a system that provides almost total control.
Each of these choices probably has some cost increment associated with it. The choice should be based
on assessment of the severity of the potential health hazard.

LOADING OPERATIONS
One of the most serious problems in the field of health haz ard control is the loading and unloading of
tank cars, tank trucks, and barges. Putting a liquid into a space previously occupied by air or vapor
quickly saturates that air with vapor. It may become necessary to go to vented syste ms, enclosed
systems, and automatic loading systems that include vapor recovery so that the vapor that is pushed
out of the tank will be recovered (Figure 18 ²4).

Episodic exposures are difficult to control from an engi neering point of view. Also, for these infrequent
emergency or nonroutine events, personal protection can be the appropriate solution. However,
design engineers should recognize that these exposure events will happen, that product samples
must be taken, that equipment must be maintained, and that filters must be changed. The indus trial
hygienist working with the designer must consider how these operations can be conducted so that
the worker need not be overexposed.

Hazardous Materials
Some materials must be handled carefully because of their toxicity, flammability, reactivity, or corrosivity.
The processes and practices to be used must be consistent with the stan dards applicable to materials
with these characteristics.

Stringent controls regulating mutua l proximities, ventilation, sources of ignition, and design are imposed
on general industry by federal codes. ühen potentially photochemi cally reactive solvents are involved,
process controls and discharges to the atmosphere are subject to regulation by air-quality regulatory
authorities.

Compressed gas and equipment for its use in industry are extensively referenced in the Compressed
Gas Associations standards. Methods of marking, hydrostatic testing of cylin ders and vessels, labeling,
metering, safety devices, and pipework and outlet and inlet valve -connecting are thoroughly described
in pamphlets issued by the association.
Standards for the design and use of air receivers are prom ulgated based on the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Codes. The provision and use of compressed gases in indus trial settings must be
carefully undertaken; otherwise, cata strophic situations may develop.

Page 591

INuUSTRIAL HYÔIENE CONTROL

METHOuS
Industrial hygiene control methods for reducing or elimi nating environmental hazards or stressors
include the following:
> Substitution of a less hazardous material for one that is harmful to health
>Change or alteration of a process to minimize worker exposure
>Isolation or enclosure of a process or wor k operation to reduce the number of employees exposed,
or isolation or enclosure of a worker in a control booth or area
>üet work methods to reduce generation of dust and avoid dry sweeping of dust
>Local exhaust ventilation at the point of generation or dispersion of contaminants
>General or dilution ventilation to provide circulation of fresh air without drafts or to control
temperature, humidity, or radiant heat load
>Personal protective devices, such as special clothing or eye and respiratory prot ection
>Good housekeeping and maintenance, including cleanli ness of the workplace and adequate
hygiene and eating facilities
>Administrative controls, including adjusting work schedules or rotating job assignments so that no
employee receives an overexposure
>Special control methods for specific hazards, such as shielding, monitoring devices, and
continuous sampling with preset alarms
>Employee training and education that is specific to the hazards and includes work methods that help
reduce contaminant exposure
>Emergency response training and education
> üaste treatment and disposal

A generalized diagram of these methods is shown in Figur e 18-1. Each of these industrial hygiene
control methods will be discussed in turn.

PRINCIPLES OF ENÔINEERINÔ CONTROLS Substitution: Changing the Material

An often effective industrial hygiene method of control is the substitution of nontoxic or less toxic
materials for highly toxic ones. However, an industrial hygienist must exercise extreme caution when
substituting one chemical for
another, to ensure that some previously unforeseen hazard does not occur along with the
substitution. Examples of this include fire hazards, synergistic interactions betw een chemical
exposures, or previously unknown toxicity problems attributed to the ³nontoxic´ substitute chemical.
The classic examples of substitution as an industrial hygiene control measure include replacement of
white lead in paint pig ments by zinc, barium, or titanium oxides; the use of phos phorus sesequisulfide
instead of white phosphorus in match-making; shotblasting instead of sandblasting; and substitution
of calcium silicates and mineral wool for asbestos as an insulating material. Recently, new bi smuth-
containing alloys have replaced lead in the making of brass and bronze alloys. This substitution not only
minimizes health concerns due to employee exposures to lead, it reduces the overall cost of OSHA
and EPA compliance.

As technology advanced and more toxicity information became available, the substitutions of
degreasing solvents progressed from carbon tetrachloride to chlorinated hydrocarbons such as
perchloroethylene and trichioroethylene. ühen studies revealed the possible carcinogenicity of
chlorinated solvents, these solvents were replaced with fluorinated hydrocarbons. Because the fluorinated
hydrocarbon solvents have been identified as ozone depleters, hydrochlorofluoro -carbons are likely
interim candidates for industrial degreas ing. ühen substituting solvents, it is always advisable to
experiment on a small scale before making the new solvent part of the operation or process. Detergent -
and-water cleaning solutions or a steam-cleaning process should be consid ered for use in place of
organic solvents.

Synthetic materials rather than sandstone can be used as grinding wheels and as nonsilica parting
compounds in foundry molding operations. Removing beryllium phos phors from formulations for
fluorescent lamps eliminated a serious pulmonary hazard to the workers making such lamps.

A change in the physical condition of raw materials received by a facility for further processing may
eliminate health hazards. Pelletized or briquette forms of materials are less dusty and can drastically
reduce atmospheric dust contamination in some processes.

However, there are instances when substitution of some toxic materials may be impossible or
impractical, as in the manufacture of pesticides, drugs, or solvents, and processes producing ionizing
radiation.

Substituting less hazardous materials or process equipment may be the least expensive and most
positive method of controlling many occupational health hazards and can often result in substantial
savings. Exposure control by substitution is becoming more important from an environmen tal health
and community air pollution perspective as well. Process materials should be selected only after review of
their smog production and ozone depletion characteristics.

Substitution: Changing the Process

A change in process offers an ideal chance to concomitantly improve working conditions. Most changes
are made to improve quality or reduce the cost of production. However, in some cases, a process can
be modified to reduce the dis persion of dust or fume and thus markedly reduce the hazard. For
example, in the automotive industry, the amount of lead dust created by grinding solder seams with
small, high-speed rotary sanding disks was greatly reduced by changing to low-speed, oscillating-type
sanders.
Page 592

More recently, lead solder was replaced with tin solder and silicone materials.

Brush-painting or dipping instead of spray -painting can minimize the concentration of airborne
contaminants. Other examples of process changes are employing arc weld ing to replace riveting, using
vapor degreasing in tanks with adequate ventilation controls to replace hand washing of parts in open
containers, using steam cleaning of parts instead of vapor degreasing, using airless paint -spraying
techniques to minimize over-spray as replacements for compressed-air spraying, and employing machine
application of lead oxide to battery grids, which reduces lead exposure to operators making storage
batteries.

Using automatic electrostatic paint -spraying instead of manual compressed-air paint-spraying and
using mechanical continuous hopper-charging instead of manual batch -charging are additional
examples of a change in process to control health hazards.

Figure 18-5. Noise can be abated by enclosing an operation (top), and ad ding vibration isolators
reduces sound transmission even more (bottom).

Isolation
Potentially hazardous operations should be isolated to mini mize exposure to employees. The isolation
can be a physical barrier, such as acoustic panels used to minimize noise transmission from a whining
blower or a screaming ripsaw (Figure 18-5).

The isolation can be in terms of time, such as providing remote control semiautomatic equipment so
that an operator does not have to stay near the noisy machine constantly; or the worker may be isolated
or enclosed in a soundproof control booth with a clean source of air supplied to the booth.

Isolation is particularly useful for jobs requiring relatively few workers and when control by other
methods is difficult or not feasible. The hazardous job can be isolated from the rest of the work
operations, thus eliminating exposures for the majority of workers. Additionally, the workers actually at
workstations where contaminants are released should be pro tected by installing venti lation systems,
which probably would not be satisfactory if the workstation were not iso lated (Figure 18-6).

Exposure to employees may likewise be minimized by iso lating hazardous materials in place. Exposure
,to asbestos-containing materials and lead -based paint can be abated in some instances by sealing these
materials in airtight enclosures.

It may not be feasible to enclose and exhaust all opera tions. Abrasive blasting operations, such as
those found in shipbuilding and construction, are examples. The sandblast ing should be done in a
specified location, which is as far away as is practical from other employees. Another way to isolate the
sandblasting is to do it when the least number of other employees would be exposed.
In some foundries, the shakeout operation may be per formed during the swing shift after employees
on the regular shift have gone for the day. The few shakeout workers can be provided with suitable
respirators for the short time dur ing which they are exposed to airborne dust.

Other work that can be scheduled to minimize the num ber of workers exposed to a hazard includes
blasting in mines or quarries, which can be done at the end of or between shifts; and maintenance
procedures, such as cleaning tanks and replacing filters on weekends when few work ers are present. In
offices, remodeling work and metal maintenance should be performed during off hours when building
occupants will not be exposed to construction dust and vapors from paints, adhesives, cleaning
solvents, and finishes.

Page 593

Figure 18-6 Air inlets and exhaust are arranged to sweep contaminated air away from the worker's
breathing zone in this enclosed sandblast area. Downdraft aver ages 80 fpm over the entire floor area. Air
should exhaust downward (as shown) or on two sides of the room at the floor line. (Courtesy Connecticut
State Department of Health.)

In some operations, other methods of control cannot be relied on to maintain contaminants at

desired levels, so these operations (such as asbestos and lead remediation projects) should be
isolated. üithout the use of proper isolation tech niques such as enclosures under negative
pressure, remediat ion projects may generate contaminants in large quantities that disperse
throughout a work area or building to expose all workers to a hazard, although only a few of them
are actually engaged in the operation.

Equipment isolation can be the easiest method of preventing hazardous physical contact.
Insulating a hot water line may n ot be economical from a strictly heat conservation standpoint but
may be necessary if that line is not sufficiently isolated from people.

ühen very toxic materials are to be processed, automa ton can be used to allow handling of
equipment from a remote location. Robotic techniques can reproduce many industrial procedures,
thus eliminating worker exposures. The work area can be viewed by remote -control television
cameras or mirrors. The degree of isolation required depends on the toxicity of the contaminant ,
the amount released, and work patterns around the process. Moving a process to another area is
often sufficient. In other cases, a control room supplied with fresh air may be needed to isolate the
process from employees monitoring the operation.

Many modern chemical facilities have centralized control rooms with automatic sampling and
analysis, remote readout of various sensors, and on -line computer processing of the data and
operation of the process. Some operations require complete enclosure and remote control so that
nobody is exposed, as in many processes involving nuclear radiation (Figure 18 -7).

Total enclosure can be accomplished by mechanization or automation to ensure that workers do

not come into contact with toxic materials. The crane operator s in a large foundry or in a bulk
material storage building can be provided with a completely enclosed cab ventilated with filtered air
under positive pressure to keep out contaminants. The same prin ciple can be applied to heavy
equipment operators in mines, coal yards, metalscrap recycling facilities, and soil remediation
projects.

Page 594

Figure 18-7 Some operations require complete enclosure. Here, a technician works with aluminum
powder, used in atomic reactor fuel elements, at a glove box. He is wearing a film badge and air sampler on
his lapel.

In automatic stone-crushing, grinding, and conveying processes, only periodic or emergency attendance
is required by an operator; therefore, small, well -ventilated rooms, supplied with filtered air and
strategically located within a large workroom, can be occupied by the workers during the major part of
the workshift.

Automated plating tanks, paint -dipping operations, and similar processes can be located in separate
rooms. ühen continuous supervision of such operations by a worker is not necessary, general
ventilation may be adequate to prevent buildup of air contamination in the workroom. If necessary, an
exposed-worker can be given a respirator for protection -during the brief periods of exposure.

Segregating a hazardous operation or locating one or more such operations together in a Separate
enclosure or building not only sharply reduces the number of work ers exposed but greatly simplifies
the necessary control procedures.

Enclosing the process or equipment is a desirable method of control, because the enclosure prevents or
minimizes the escape of contaminants into the workroom atmosphere. Enclosure should be one of the
first control measures attempted, after substitution has been considered. Addi tional precautions
must be taken when cleaning enclosed equipment or during start -up or shutdown to avoid exposure to
high concentrations of the contaminant.

Enclosed equipment is usually tightly sealed and is opened only during cleaning or filling operations.
Examples of such equipment include gloveboxes (Figure 18 ²7), airless-blast or shotblast machines for
cleaning castings, and abra sive blasting cabinets.

In the chemical industry, the isolation of hazardous processes in closed systems is a widespread
practice. This explains why the initial manufacture of toxic substances is often less hazardous than their
subsequent use under less well-controlled conditions at other locations. In other indus tries, complete
enclosure is often the best solution to severe dust or fume hazards, such as those from sandblasting or
metal-spraying operations.

All equipment, whether enclosed or automated, requires maintenance and repair, dur ing which control
measures may have to be removed. In such circumstances, safety proce dures must be specified,
including confined space entry and lockout/tagout procedures (Grund, 1995), to work on such
maintenance operations. These nonroutine maintenance , repair, and cleaning operations can pose
the greatest exposure risks to employees and should be carefully reviewed by health and safety
professionals.

Page 595

Isolation can also be provided by appropriate use of dis tance and time, for example, with r espect to
radiation and noise exposure. Both radiation and noise exposures decrease ith an increase in the
distance from the source and a decrease in the exposure time.
Ventilation

Ventilation is a method of controlling the work environment by strategically supplying (adding) or

exhausting (removing) air Ventilation is used to dilute the concentration of con taminants to acceptable
levels, to remove contaminants at their source, and to heat or cool the work environment. Ven tilation
can also serve to control humidity, odor, and other [ environmental conditions for worker comfort. (See
Chapters 19, Local Exhaust Ventilation of Industrial Occupancies, Chapter 20, General Ventilation of
Industrial Occupancies, and Chapter 21, General Ventilation o f Nonindustrial Occupancies, for more
information.)

Ôeneral Ventilation
General ventilation systems supply and exhaust large vol umes of air from work spaces. They are used
for temperature and humidity control or to dilute the concentration of an air contaminant below
hazardous levels. This system uses natu ral convection through open doors or windows, roof ventila tors,
and chimneys, or air movement produced by mechanical fans or blowers. Exhaust fans mounted in
roofs, walls, or windows constitute general ve ntilation.

üith the exception of comfort control, general ventila tion should be used only in situations meeting the
following [criteria:
>ühen small quantities of air contaminants are being released into the work environment at fairly
uniform rates
>ühen there is sufficient distance between the worker and the contaminant source to allow sufficient air
movement to dilute the contaminant to safe levels
>ühen only contaminants of low "toxicity are being used
>ühen there is no need to collect or filter the contaminants before the exhaust air is discharged into
the community environment
>ühen there is no possibility of corrosion or other dam age to equipment from the diluted
contaminants in the work environment air
The major disadvantage of general, or dilution, ventilation is that employee exposures can be very
difficult to control near the source of the contaminant where sufficient dilution has not yet occurred. For
this reason local exhaust ventilation is most often the proper method to control exposu re to toxic
contaminants.

ühen air is exhausted from a work area, consideration must be given to providing makeup, or
replacement, air, especially during winter months. Makeup air volumes should
be equivalent to the air being removed; it should be clean and humidified and the temperature
regulated as required for comfort.

Care should be taken in selecting the makeup air intake locations so that toxic gases and vapors from
discharge stacks, emergency vents, or operations outside of the build ing that generate hazardous
contaminants are not brought back into work areas. ühen exhaust stacks and air supply inlets are not
separated adequately, the exhaust air may be directed into the air inlet and recirculated to work areas.
Inadvertent recirculation of exhaust air contaminants is a common problem, which ideally should be
addressed in the design phase. It is not uncommon to find the air supply intake for a facility located
adjacent to a loading dock or alley where gasoline and diesel engine vehicles idle. This ca n result in
contamination of the "fresh" air supply and will almost certainly cause exposure or odor problems, or
both.
Because equipment for moving, filtering, and tempering air is expensive, some engineers attempt to save
money by recirculating some exhaust air into the supply system. Adequate monitoring of the recirculated
air is necessary to prevent buildup of harmful contaminants. Recirculation of exhaust air may be
forbidden in certain locations, such as smoking lounges. Check state and federal regula tions and
American Socierty of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air -Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards.

Design of the general ventilation system in a nonindus trial or office environment must take into account
conditions that affect worker comfort, such as temperature and humidity, odor level, the space provided
per occupant, and concentrations of tobacco smoke. Construction practices, construction materials,
and heightened public awareness have made indoor air quality an important ventilation design issue.
ASHRAE Consensus Standard 62-1999 should be referred to for design parameters. (See Chapter 21,
General Ventilation of Nonindustrial Occupancies.)

General ventilation should not be used where there are major localized sources of air contamination
(especially highly toxic dusts and fumes); local exhaust ventilation is more effective and economical in
such cases. More information on general ventilation is presented in Chapter 20, Gen eral Ventilation of
Industrial Occupancies.

Local Exhaust Ventilatio n

Local exhaust ventilation is considered the classic method of control. Local exhaust systems capture or
contain contaminants at their source before they escape into the work area environment. A typical
system consists of one or more hoods, ducts, an air cleaner if needed, and a fan (Figure 18-8).
Local exhaust systems remove air contaminants rather than just dilute them, but removal of the
contaminant is not always 100 percent effective. This method should be used when the contaminant
cannot be controlled by substitution, changing the process, isolation, or enclosure. Although a
process has been isolated, it still may require a local exhaust system.

Page 596

Figure 18-8 A typical local exhaust ventilation system con sists of hoods, ducts, air cleaner, fan, and stack.
(Courtesy American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.)

Figure 18-9. The fumes arising from leadmelting operations are controlled by locallateral -slot exhaust
ventilation. (Courtesy FordMotor Co.)

A major advantage of local exhaust ventilation systems is that they require less airflow than dilution
ventilation systems. The total airflow is important for plants that are heated or cooled, because heating
and air-conditioning costs are a significant operating expense. Also, local exhaust sys tems can be used to
conserve or reclaim reusable materials.

Two main principles govern the proper use of local exhaust ventilation to control airborne hazards.
First, the process or equipment is enclosed as much as possible; and second, air is withdrawn at a rate
sufficient to ensure that the direction of airflow is into the hood and that the airflow rate will entrain the
contaminant into the airstream and thus draw it into the hood (Figure 18 ²9).

The proper design of exhaust ventilation systems depends on many factors, such as the temperature of
the process, the physical state of the contaminant (dust, fume, smoke, mist, gas, or vapor), the manner
in which it is generated, the velocity and direction with which it is released to the atmos phere, and its
toxicity (Figure 18²10).

Local exhaust systems can be difficult to design. The hoods or pickup points must be properly shaped
and located to capture air contaminants, and the fan and ducts must be designed to draw the correct
amount of air through each hood. Hood selection is based on the characteristics of the contaminants
and how they are dispersed. The hood should be located so that the contaminant is moved away from
the operator's breathing zone . The use and selection of an air cleaner are dependent on the
contaminant, its concentration, and air pollution standards. (See Chapter 19, Local Exhaust Ventilation of
Industrial Occupancies, for more details).

The low-volume, high-velocity exhaust system uses small volumes of air at relatively high velocities to control
dust. Control is achieved by exhausting the air directly at the point of dust generation using close -fitting hoods.
Capture velocities are relatively high, but the exhaust volume is low .

Page 597
For flexibility, small-diameter, lightweight plastic hoses are used with portable tools, resulting in very high
duct velocities. This method allows the application of local exhaust ventilation to portable tools, which
otherwise require relatively large air volumes and large ductwork when controlled by conventional exhaust
methods.

Portable local exhaust ventilation systems can be useful for tildes where dust- or fume-generating
operations are not stationary. These machines capture contaminated air, filter particulate matter, and
exhaust cleaned air into the work area. They can be a cost-effective solution for welding stations and
enclosed areas where renovation and construction are being performed.

After the local exhaust-ventilation system is installed and set in operation, its performance should be
checked to see that it meets the engineering specifications ²correct rates of airflow and duct
velocities. Its performance should be recheck ed periodically as a maintenance measure.
Full details on the design and operation of local exhaust ventilation s ystems are given in Chapter 19,
Local Exhaust Ventilation of Industrial Occupancies.

AuMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS
Engineering controls are to be used as the first line of defense ag ainst workplace hazards. Some
circumstances require administrative controls, such as in cases when engineering controls are not
technologically feasible, or during the instal lation of engineering controls. Administrative control o f
occupational hazards, such as work period reduction, job rotation, appropriate work practices, proper
maintenance, and personal hygiene, depends on constant employee imple mentation or intervention,
which makes them a less desirable form of control.
However, administrative controls are often useful in sup plementing engineering controls to achieve
acceptable exposure levels. The majority of the major OSHA health standards require administrative
control measures including hygienic change rooms, regula ted areas, and specific work and hygiene
practices.
Reduction of üork Periods
Reduction of work periods is another method of control in limited areas where engineering control
methods at the source are not practical. Heat stress can be managed by fol lowing a work-rest regimen
that prevents excessive fatigue and reduces heart rate. For example, in the job forge, foundry, and
construction industries, especially in hot weather, frequent rest periods are used to minimize the
effects of exposures to high temperatures, thereby lessening the danger of heat exhaustion or
heatstroke.

For workers who must labor in a compressed -air environment, schedules of maximum length of workshift
and length of decompression time have been prep ared. The higher the pressure, the shorter is the
workshift and the longer the decompression time period.

However, job rotation, when used as a way to reduce employee exposure to toxic chemicals or harmful
physical agents, must be used with care. Rotation , although it may keep exposure below recommended
limits, exposes more workers to the hazard.

üet Methods
Airborne dust hazards can often be minimized or greatly reduced by applying water or other suitable
liquid. üetting of floors before sweeping to keep down the dispersion of harmful dust is advisable when
better methods, such as vacuum cleaning, cannot be used.
üetting down is one of the simplest methods of dust con trol. Its effectiveness, however, depends on
proper wetting of the dust. This may require the addition of a wetting agent (surfactant) to the water
and proper disposal of the wetted dust before it dries out and is redispersed.
Significant reductions in airborne dust concentrations have been achieved by the use of water forced
through the drill bits used in rock drilling operations. Many foundries successfully use water under high
pressure for cleaning castings in place of sandblasting. Airborne dust concentrations can be kept down
if molding sand is kept moist, molds with cooled castings can be moistened before shakeout, and the
floors are wetted intermittently.

Page 598

High-pressure water washing, used in a contained space or enclosure and with proper work pract ices,
can effectively reduce airborne dusts and asbestos in the demolition and construction industry. In some
instances it may be necessary to blanket the dust source completely. The particles must be thoroughly
wetted by means of high-pressure sprays, wetting agents, deluge sprays, or other procedures while in
the containment.

Batch charging of materials that are slightly moistened or that are packaged in paper bags rather than in
a dry bulk state may eliminate or reduce the need for dust control in storage bins and batch mixers.

Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene is an important control measure. The worker should be able to wash exposed skin
promptly to remove accidental splashes of toxic or irritant materials. If workers are to minimize contact
with harmful chemical agents, they must have easy access to hand -washing facilities (Figure 18-11).

Inconveniently located washbasins invite such undesir able practices as washing at workstations, with
solvents, mineral oils, or industrial detergents^ none of which is appropriate or intended for skin
cleansing.

Many workplace hand cleansers are available as plain soap powders, abrasive soap powders, abrasive
soap cakes, liquids, cream soaps, and waterless hand cleaners (Figure 18 ²12).

Powdered soaps provide a feeling of removing soils because of stimulation of the nerve endings in the skin by
the abrasives. üaterless cleaners have become very popular because they remove most soils, such as
greases, grimes, tars, and paint, with relative ease. Be aware, however , that some waterless hand cleaners
have solvent bases. Soaps may also contribute to industrial dermatitis. Sensitive persons may require pH -
neutral soaps or moisturizing agents. Antibacterial soaps are necessary in workplaces where infectious
agents may be present.

The provision of washing facilities, emergency showers, and eyewash fountains is required in areas
where hazardous or extremely toxic materials are handled. These should be located in an area
convenient to employee workstations in case of accidental exposures. The common practice of
removing particulates from clothing or disposable coveralls using compressed air should be forbidden.
This practice causes the material to become airborne and increases the risk of employee exposure.

ühen designated or suspected carcinogens are involved, stringent regulation of work areas and
activities must be undertaken. The OSHA carcinogen regulations state that the employer must set
aside a regulated area where only the particular carcinogen may be produced or handled. Only
authorized and specially trained personnel with proper per sonal protection may be allowed to enter that
area.

The eating, storage, or drinking of foods and liquids in areas where toxic materials are used should be
forbidden.

Figure 18-11. To minimize worker contact with harmful chemical agents, hand -washing facilities
must be conveniently located.

Page 599

All entrances to the regulated area where biohazards or suspected carcinogens are handled mus t be
properly posted to inform employees of hazards and regular and emergency required. Set aside special
areas for employees to change clo thing and protective equipment.

Many of the major OSHA health standards, such as lead, and coke oven emissions, requ ire
hygienic change rooms and showers.

Housekeeping and Maintenance

Good housekeeping plays a key role in the control of occupational health hazards. Good housekeeping
is always important, but where there are toxic materials, it is of paramount important , and often
mandated by OSHA regulation. Remove dust on overhead ledges and on the floor before it become
airborne by traffic, vibration, and random air currents.

Immediate cleanup of any spills of toxic materials is a very BI control measure. A regular cleanup
schedule using vacuum cleaners is an effective method of removing dirt and dust from the work area.
Never use compressed air to remove 16om rafters and ledges.
Good housekeeping is essential where solvents are stored, and used. Immediately remed y leaking
containers or spigots by transferring the solvent to sound containers or by repairing t he spigots. Clean
up spills promptly. Deposit all solvent --soaked rags or absorbents in airtight metal receptacles and
remove daily to a safe location for prop er disposal.

Maintenance Provisions
If the thermostat on a vapor degreaser fails or is accidentally broken, excessive concentrations of
trichioroethylene might quickly build up in the work area unless the equipment is shut down immediately
and the necessary repairs made. Abnormal operating conditions can be detected by continu ously
monitoring airborne contaminants with instrumenta tion that triggers an alarm when concentrations
exceed an established level. The workers or supervisors can then take steps to reduce airborne
levels.

A key objective should be 
provide for periodic shut down of equipment for maintenance. Provisions
should be made for cleaning the equipment and piping systems by flushing them with water, steam, or
a neutralizing agent (depending on the conditions involved) to render them non -hazardous before
dismantling. Safety considerations, such as the control of hazardous energy (lockout/tagout) and con -
fined space entry, should be evaluated prior to conducting the maintenance work.

Before any equipment is disassembled, it is essential that it be checked for the presence of toxic or
hazardous materials. In cases in which this is not possible, employees involved in the disassembling
operation should wear proper protective clothing an d respirators, if needed. Contaminated
equipment, tools, and protective clothing must be decontaminated before they are removed from the
work area.

Operations and maintenance programs for hazardous materials or agents such as lead, asbestos,
bioaerosols, and noise are important tools in the prevention of employee exposures. These programs
are designed to identify and con trol hazardous conditions by means of periodic inspection, contaminant
monitoring, and hazard abatement.

SPECIAL CONTROL METHOuS

Many of the general methods mentioned previously (eithet alone or in combination) can be used for the
control of most occupational health hazards. A few special methods, how ever, deserve particular
mention.

Shielding
This is one of the better control measures used to reduce or eliminate exposures to physical stresses
such as heat, and ionizing, and nonionizing radiation. Lead and concrete are two materials commonly
used to shield employees from high -energy ionizing radiation sources, such as particle generators and
radioisotopes. Specialized shielding can also be used for protection from electric and magnetic fields (see
Chapter 11, Nonionizing Radiation).

Shielding can also be used to protect employees against exposure to radiant heat sources. Furnaces
can be shielded with shiny reflective aluminum panels. Nonreflective metal is not effective because it
may act as a "black body," which absorbs and then reradiates the heat.

Page 600

üASTE uISPOSAL
Industrial hygiene controls include the proper disposal of wastes. Management and disposal of
hazardous waste is regulated by the complex requirements of several governmental agencies (see
Chapter 28, Government Regulations). To develop an appropriate waste management plan, employers
must first make the following determinations:
> Are potentially regulated waste materials generated at this site?
> Are the wastes hazardous, special, infectious, or radioac tive by regulatory definition? Have they been
tested to determine hazardous characteristics?
#Can wastes be treated and rendered innocuous prior to disposal?
>Can wastes be recycled as part of the process?
>Given the quantities of waste generated, is the company
a small-quantity or large-quantity generator?
> Is the company a waste generator, transporter, or treat ment/storage/disposal facility?

These determinations will provide much of the information necessary to choose treatment and disposal
alternatives. These decisions are particularly onerous, as generators of hazardous waste are perpetually
responsible for on-site and off-site damages to the environment and worker and community health. This is
often referred to as cradle -to-grave responsibility.

Disposal of hazardous materials must be done by highly trained individuals under strict supervision.
Procedures should be established in accordance with the EPA's Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA) and other applicable regulations for the safe disposal of hazardous chemicals, toxic residues,
and other contaminated waste, as well as con tainers of chemicals that are no longer needed and
containers whose labels have been lost or obliterated.

A competent chemist can determine the best way to neu tralize or detoxify small amounts of chemicals
that are no longer needed. In some instances it may be appropriate to perform experimental
investigations to determine a means of neutralizing and rendering waste products harmless before full-
scale disposal operations are begun. There are a number of methods by which some dangerous
chemicals can be rendered safe for disposal.

A number of facilities are available for off -site disposal of hazardous materials. All of them can be
expensive and none of them provides a universal means of disposal for all haz ardous materials.
Landfills, incinerators, and chemical treat ment facilities are the most commonly used disposal options for
hazardous waste. Before a disposal facility is chosen, a determination should be mad e that the facility is
competently managed, is in regulatory compliance, and has signif icant financial resources.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

ühen it is not feasible to render the work environment free of occupational health hazards, it may be
necessary to protect the worker from the environment with personal protec tive equipment. The use of
personal protective equipment should be considered a last resort, when engineering or administrative
controls are not possible or when they are not sufficient to achieve acceptable limits of exposure.
Personal protective equipment may be appropriate during short expo sures to hazardous contaminants,
such as during nonroutine equipment maintenance or emergency responses to spills. The primary
disadvantage of personal protective devices is that they do not eliminate the hazard from the workplace,
and thus their failure results in immediate exposure to the hazard. A protective device may become
ineffective without the wearer's knowledge, resulting in serious har m. The integrity and fit of a personal
protective device is vital to its effectiveness.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that employers perform a
workplace hazard assessment to determine if the use of personal protective equipment is warranted
and to determine the proper selec tion of protective devices (29 '

1910.132). Successful use of any
personal protective equipment requires that a pro gram be established and administered. The purpose
of the program is to ensure tha t personal protective equipment is properly chosen, used, and
maintained to protect workers. Employee training and record keeping as required by regula tion must be
part of this program.

Respiratory Protective uevices

Respiratory protective devices are normally restricted for use in intermittent exposures or for operations
that are not feasible to control by other methods. Respiratory protection should not be considered a
substitute for engineering control methods.

Respiratory protection devices offer emergency or short -term protection. Respirators are a primary
protective device for normal operations only when no other method of con trol is possible (Figure 18 ²
13).

Respirators should be used when it is necessary to e nter a highly contaminated atmosphere for rescue or
emergency repair work; as a means of escape from a suddenly highly con taminated atmosphere; for short -
term maintenance or repair of equipment located in a contaminated atmosphere; and for normal
operation in conjunction with other control measures when the containment is so toxic that other control
measures, such as ventilation, cannot be relied upon safely.

An approved respirator must be selected for the particular hazard and environment in which it is to be
used (Figure 18-14).

The type of air contaminant, its expected maximum con centration, the possibility of oxygen deficiency,
the useful life of the respirator, the escape routes available, and other factors must all be considered in
selecting the proper type of respirator for emergency use or for standby purposes. ühen these factors
are not known with certainty, the device pro viding the greatest factor of safety must be used.

Page 601

Figure 18-13 This operator is provided with clean, respirable air.

There are two general types of respiratory protective devices; air-purified respirators, which remove
the contaminant from the breathing air by filtering or chemical absorption,
and air-supplied respirators, which provide clean air from an outside source or from a tank. Full
details of types of respirators certified by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) should be obtained from the manufacturer. Only NIOSH-certified respirators should be used
(42 '

84). (See Chapter 22, Respiratory Protection, for more details.)

Half-mask cartridge respirators cover the mouth and nose. Full -facepiece respirators also protect the
eyes. For dust protection, there are a large number of respirators that have met the requirements
established by NIOSH, which call for high efficiency and low resistance to breathing. Respirators have
been certified for protection against metal fumes, mists, and pesticide application.

Air-line respirators may be preferred by workers to chemical cartridg e or mechanical filter respirators
because they are cooler and offer no resistance to breathing; however, they required a proper
source of Grade D breathing air (ANSI/Compressed Gas Association Commodity Specification for
Air, G²7.1²1989) and a suitable compressor located outside of the contaminated atmosphere.

Self-contained breathing apparatuses, which are mostly used for emergency and rescue work, have
face masks attached by hoses to compressed air cylinders. Such apparatuses, tuses enable a worker
to enter a contaminated or oxygen -deficient atmosphere, up to certain limits specified in the respirator
certifications.

Selection of the proper type of respiratory protective equipment should be based on the following
factors:
#Identification of the substance or substances for which respiratory protection is necessary and the
activities of the workers
> Determination of the hazards of each substance and its significant physical and chemical
properties, particularly the presence or absence of oil p articles
> Determination of the maximum levels of air contamina tion expected, probability of oxygen
deficiency, and the condition of exposure
> Determination of the period of time for which respira tory protection must be worn
> Determination of the ca pabilities, physical characteristics, and limitations essential to the safe use of
the respiratory protective device
> Identification of facilities needed for maintenance
> Determination of the location of the hazardous work area in relation to the nea rest area with
respirable-quality air
> Occupational exposure limit for substance
>- Respirator assigned protection factors

Because wearing a respirator often becomes uncomfort able after extended periods, the worker must
fully realize the need for prote ction or he or she will not wear it. To obtain the worker's cooperation,
the following factors are important:

Page 602

> Prescribe respiratory protective equipment only after every effort has been made to eliminate the
hazard.
>Explain the situation ful ly to the worker.
>Instruct the worker in the proper use and limitations of the respirator.
>Fit the respirator carefully according to OSHA guidelines.
>- Provide for maintenance and cleanliness, including ster ilization before reissue.

A respirator program is required by OSHA whenever res pirators are used. The OSHA requirements for a
respiratory protection program are contained in the 

' 

 

( 

at 29
'

1910.134. Certain OSHA standards (such as asbestos and lead standards) have other specific
regulations on respirator use. Check the 

' 


for this information. (See Chapter
22, Respiratory Protection, for more details.)
Protective Clothing
Chemical-protective clothing is worn as a barrier to a chemical, physical, or biological hazard that may
cause injury if it contacts or is absorbed by the skin. Applications of chemical protective clothing include
the following:
>Emergency response
> Hazardous waste site cleanup and disposal
> Asbestos removal
> Agricultural application of pesticides
A broad range of chemical-protective clothing is available to protect the body. Gloves, gauntlets, boots,
aprons, and coveralls are available in a number of materials, each designed for protection against
specific hazards. Choosing the most appropriate chemical -protective clothing depends on the hazards
present and the tasks to be performed. Pro tective clothing is manufactured from different materials
that protect against acids, alkalis, solvents, oils, and other chemical and physical agents. The selection
should take into account the performance of the protective clothing in expo sure reduction, the physical
limitations created by using pro tective clothing, and site -specific factors. Physical and psychological
stress, impaired mobility and vision, and heat stress influence or limit the selection of protective clothing.

The factors that should influence selection of protective clothing are as follows:
>Clothing design
>Material chemical resistance
>Physical properties
>Ease of decontamination
>Cost
>Chemical-protective clothing standards

Chemical-protective clothing is manufactured in a variety of styles and configurations to protect specific

parts of the body or the entire body. Selection of the proper equipment should include design
considerations such as clothing con figuration and construction, sizes, ease of putting on and taking off,
accommodation of other selected ensemble equipment, comfort, and restriction of mobility.
The effectiveness of protective clothing against chemical exposure depends on how well the material resists
permeation, degradation, and penetration. Permeation is the pro cess by which a chemical moves through
a protective clothing material on a molecular level. Degradation occurs when chemical con tact causes
deterioration of the physical properties of the pro tective clothing material and causes, for example,
discoloration, swelling, or loss of physical strength. Penetration is the direct flow of a chemical through
closures, seams, pinholes, or other imperfections in the protective clothing material.

No material protects against all chemicals and combina tions of chemicals, and no material currently
available is an effective barrier to prolonged chemical contact. Protective clothing material
recommendations for chemicals based on an evaluation of chemical resistance test data is available in
å
.
(

 
 
  (Mansdorf, 1997) and from vendors. Many vendors
and manufacturers supply charts with permeation and degradation test data and material
recommendations. Protective garments constructed of rubber, neoprene, nitrile, polyvinyl chloride, and
other synthetic fibers and coatings are available. It is important to select the material that protects
most effectively against the specific hazard in question (acids, alkalis, oils, fibers, etc.).

Page 603
For mixtures of chemicals, materials having broadest chemical resistance should be worn.

Chemical-protective materials offer wide ranges of physical qualities in terms of strength, resistance to
physical hazards, and operation/effectiveness in extreme environmental conditions. The following
parameters should be considered: physical strength; tear, puncture, cut, and abrasion resistance ;
flexibility to perform needed tasks; flame resistance; and integrity and flexibility under hot and cold
extremes.

The difficulty involved in decontaminating protective clothing and the endurance of the material
may dictate whether disposable or reusable clothing is selected. The relative cost of replacement and
decontamination depend on the garment and the hazard. Limited -use/disposable chemical-protective
clothing can be provided to minimize employee exposure to hazardous chemicals and at a
reasonable cost. These types of garments are not designe d to provide high levels of protection and
should be used appropriately.

Body protection clothing, ranging from aprons to limited -use/disposable coveralls to totally
encapsulating chemical-protective suits, are constructed of a flexible plastic or rubber sheet, coated
plastic, or laminate. In contrast, totally encapsulating c hemical-protective suits (TECP) are designed
to prevent chemical exposure to the wearer.

For intermittent protection against radiant heat, reflective aluminum clothing is available. These
garments need special care to preserve their essential shiny surface. Air -cooled jackets and suits are
available to minimize the risk of heat -related illnesses. For protection against ionizing radiation, garments
constructed of lead-bearing materials are available.

OSHA requires that employers provide, and require employees to use, appropriate hand protection
when there is risk of absorption of harmful substances; chemical or thermal burns; extreme
temperatures; or severe cuts, lacerations, abrasions or punctures (29 '

1910.138).
Gloves are the most common form of chemical-protective clothing. Gloves should be selected for a
specific job according to the guidelines above. Manufacturers provide a large selection of gloves made
of butyl rubber, natural rubber, neo 
nitrile rubber, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl chloride, Teflo n,
Viton, and other construction materials. The material that has the highest level of protection should be
used. A thicker glove will increase the level of protection but will result in loss of dexterity.
Impregnated gloves protect against and abrasions but are not liquid -proof, and they are therefore not
chemical resistant. Cotton or leather gloves are useful for protecting the hands against friction and dust.

More information on the subject of protection against skin hazards and the use of barrier creams is
presented in Chapter 3, The Skin and Occupational Dermatoses. Also consult applicable OSHA
regulations and ANSI standa rds.

Eye and Face Protection

Eye and face protection includes safety glasses, chemical goggles and face shields. The correct
type of protector is chosen based on the hazard (such as corrosive liquids and vapors, foreign bodies,
or ultraviolet radiation). Goggles fit snugly to the face, preventing chemical exposure in the event of a
splash, and, depending on the style, may prohibit vapor exposure. Face shields are designed only to
prevent direct splash exposures to the face and not to provide complete eye protection. Eye protection
from exposure to ultraviolet radiation, such as that produced in welding operations, is accom plished with
filter lenses of the correct shade mounted in the welding helmet.
Many chemicals in the workplace can cause significant ey e damage and facial scarring from direct
chemical contact. It is important that the protective device be worn at all times when the hazard is
present. (Refer to Chapter 5, The Eyes, for further information. Also consult applicable OSHA reg -
ulations and ANSI standards.)

Hearing Protection
Personal hearing protectors, such as earplugs or earmuffs, can provide adequate protection against
noise-induced hearing impairment. The wearer is afforded effective protection only if the hearing
protectors are properly selected, fitted, and worn. Like other types of personal protective equipment,
these devices should be used as an exposure control alterna tive when noise exposures cannot feasibly
be reduced below the OSHA permissible limit. ühen the noise level is 85 dBA or higher and the
employee has suffered a significant thresh' old shift, hearing protection must be used.

There are primarily two forms of hearing protectors: insert types, which seal against the ear canal
walls, and earmuffs, which seal against the head around the ear. Choice of the proper hearing
protection should take into account the physiological and anatomical characteristics of the wearer, the
noise exposure dose, the work activity, and environmen tal conditions (for example, dusty atmosphere).
Refer to Chapter 9. Industrial Noise, for more information on hear ing conservation.

EuUCATION ANu TRAININÔ

Proper training and education are critical to supplement engineering controls and ensure the success of
exposure controls in the workplace. It is important that all employees be provided the health and safety
information and instruction needed to minimize their occupational health risk and that of their
coworkers.

In a typical manufacturing plant, the primary responsi bility for safe operation and control rests with the line
organization of the operations department. This generally would include a first-line supervisor, a shift
supervisor, and a facility area manager, all people familiar with every aspect of the day -to-day operation of
the facility and the manufacturing process and readily available when critical decisions must be made.

The education of supervisors usually is process and equip ment oriented. The aim of the safety and health
professional should be to teach them about the safety and health hazards that may be found in their
work areas.

Page 604

The supervisors should be told when and under what circumstances to request aid in solving the
problems those hazards pose. Supervisors should be knowledgeabl e and well informed about
hazardous processes, operations, and materials for which they are responsible.
Short courses on industrial hygiene can be an easy way to transmit a lot of valuable information with a
small expenditure of time. Industrial hygiene short courses for managers should identify health
hazards in broad areas. The courses should also consider the cost -benefit relationships of con trolling
health hazards in the work environment.
The worker must know the proper operating procedures that make engineering controls effective. If the
worker performs an operation away from an exhaust hood, the purpose of the control measure will be
defeated and the work area may become contaminated. üorkers can be alerted to safe operating
procedures through booklets, instruction signs, labels, safety meetings, and other educational devices.
The safety and health professional, by persuading a worker to position the exhaust hood properly or
to change the manner of weighing a toxic materi al or of handling a scoop or shovel, can do much to
minimize unnecessary exposure to air contaminants. For normal facility operations, a prescribed health
hazard evaluation routine should be set up. This should include monitoring the exposures of the
personnel involved. It can be accomplished by keeping a record of the exposures to chemical and
physical agents in work areas.

In addition to the normal operating instructions that each employee is given when starting a new job,
employees assigned to areas where exposures to toxic chemicals can occur must, by law, be given a
special indoctrination program.

Also be sure to give employees training in how to respond to emergencies. Information on when 


respond is also critical. Many deaths have occurred when untrained workers rushed in to save fallen co-
workers and were overcome themselves.

In order to minimize operator error, employees should be supplied with a detailed instruction manual
outlining procedures for all foreseeable situations.

Health hazards affect the workers who are exposed and work directly with materials, process
equipment, and processes. These employees should know about the effects of exposure to the materials
and energies they work with so that controls can be installed before those problems become severe. A
properly informed worker can often anticipate and take steps to control health hazards before they
become serious. Once the hazard is known, the supervisor or facility engineers can issue work orders
to eliminate the problem.

üorkers should be given reasons for wearing respirators, protective clothing, and goggles. They also
should be informed of the necessity of good housekeeping and mainte nance. Because new materials are
constantly being marketed and new processes being developed, reeducation and follow -up instruction
must also be part of an effective industrial hygiene control program.

Over 100 specific OSHA standards contain training requirements. Some of these standards make it
the employers responsibility to limit certain job assignments to employees who have had special
training that defines them as certified, competent, or qualified with respect to a partic ular hazard.

OSHA has developed Voluntary Training Guidelines to assist e mployers in determining training needs
as well as developing and conducting the training. OSHA encourages employers to follow the model
provided in the Voluntary Training Guidelines. The model can be used to develop training programs for
a variety of hazards and to assist in compliance with training requirements in specific standards. The
guidelines are as follows:
Ú Determine whether training is needed.
Ú Identify training needs.
Ú Identify goals and objectives.
Ú Develop learning activities.
Ú Conduct the training.
Ú Evaluate program effectiveness.
Ú Improve the program effectiveness.

Specific training requirements are set forth by OSHA for general industry in the Hazard
Communication, Process Safety Management, Asbestos, Lead, and Bloodborne Pathogens
Standards, among others. For example, the Hazard Communication Standard requires a training
program that covers the following types of information:
 Ú Requirements of the standard
Ú Identification of operations in the workplace where haz ardous materials are present
Ú Methods and observationsijused to detect the presence of
Ú hazardous materials in the work area
Ú Physical and health hazards of those materials
Ú Hazards associated with chemicals in unlabeled pipes
Ú Hazards of nonroutine tasks
Ú Measures that employees can take to prote ct themselves
Ú from these hazards
Ú Explanation of the hazardous materials labeling system
Ú Explanation of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)
Ú Details on the availability and locations of Hazardous
Ú Material Inventory, MSDSs, and other printed Hazard Communication Program materials

There are also training requirements in the OSHA con struction industry standards such as
occupational health and environmental controls, personal protective and life -saving equipment, among
others.

The future of state and federal training requirements, led by California's Illness and Injury Prevention Act
(Senate Bill 198), focuses on preventing rather than reacting to hazards Under California's regulation,
employers must identify the person responsible for implementing a üritten Injury and Illness Prevention
Program and provide training in health and safety matters to all employees.

Page 605

This approach is intended to improve efforts to prevent workplace hazards by identifying and evaluating
hazards during periodic scheduled inspections.

HEALTH SURVEILLANCE
Health surveillance, although not an occupational exposure control, can be used to prevent health
impairments by means of periodic evaluations. A health surveillance program includes
preplacement, periodic, special purpose, and hazard -oriented examinations.

Medical surveillance is mandated by specific OSHA, MSHA, and Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) regulations. Over 30 OSHA standards and proposed standards contain medical surveillance
requirements. Among these are the asbestos, lead, formaldehyde, and hazardous waste operations
standards.

Hazard-oriented medical surveillance monitors biological indicators of absorption of chemical agents

based on analysis of the agent or its metabolite in blood, urine, or expired air.

Inorganic lead absorption is measured by blood lead levels, and c arbon monoxide absorption is
indicated by carboxyhemoglobin levels in blood or carbon monoxide in exhaled air. Refer to Chapter 25,
The Occupational Medicine Physician, a complete discussion of health surveillance.
SUMMARY
Control of occupational exposures to injurious materials or conditions may be accomplished by means
of one or more of the following methods:
Ú Proper design engineering
Ú Substitution of less toxic materials or changes or process
Ú Isolation or enclosure of the source or the employee
Ú Local exhaust ventilation at the point of generation or dissemination of the air contaminant
Ú General ventilation or dilution with uncontarninated air
Ú Maintenance and housekeeping
Ú Personal protective equipment
 Ú Employee information and training
Ú Proper waste disposal practices

One or a combination of these methods may be necessary prevent excessive exposures to hazardous
materials or physical agents.
Education of workers and periodi c workplace inspections are paramount in the prevention of injury and
illness. If engineering and administrative controls and the use of personal protective equipment are to
be effective in minimizing occupational health risk, workers must be properly trai ned.

Management is responsible for furnishing the facilities and p roducts required to keep the workplace
healthful and safe. The worker also has responsibilities in a health hazard control program, including
the following: to wear protective equipment if it is required, to use the local exhaust ventilation system
properly, and to observe all company rules relat ing to cleanup and disposal of harmful materials.

Chapter 19

Page 607

Local Exhaust Ventilation

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INTRODUCTION
Ventilation is an important method for reducing employee exposures to airborne contaminants.
However, ventilation is only one way to reduce exposures and may not be as economical or effective as
other control techniques, such as reducing emissions into the work area by sealing equipment to
prevent contaminant release or substituting less toxic or volatile chemicals.
There are two major types of industrial ventilat ion:
>:
 
reduce the concentration of contaminants released into the workroom by mixing
with air flowing through the room. Either natural or mechani cally induced air movement can be used to
dilute contaminants.
>5
 

+5Î,
 
capture or contain contaminants at their source before they
escape into the workroom environment. The main advantage of local exhaust systems is that they
remove contaminants rather than just dilute them. Even with LEV some airborne con taminants may still
be in the workroom air due to uncon trolled sources or less than 100% collection efficiency at the hoods.

Page 608
A second major advantage of local exhaust that these systems require less airflow than dilution
ventilation systems in the same applications. The total flow is especially important for plants that
are heated cooled since heating and air conditioning costs are important operating expense.

LOCAL EXHAUST SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A typical local exhaust system consists of the following elements (Figure 19-1):
>2any point where air is drawn into the ventilation system to capture or control
contaminants. Some hood;are designed to fit around existing machinery while oth ers are located
next to the contaminant source. Even a plain d uct opening is called a "hood" if that is where air
enters the system. Different hoods work in different ways: some reach out and capture
contaminants; others catch contaminants thrown into the hood; still others contain contaminants
released inside the hood and prevent them from escaping into the workroom. Some hood
designs feature a long, narrow slot to distribute the air flow along the length of an open surface
tank, welding bench, or laboratory hood.
>:²the network of piping that connects the hoods and other system components.
>'²the air-moving device that provides the energy to draw air and contaminants into the
exhaust system and through the ducts and other components. It functions by inducing a negative
pressure or suction in the ducts lead ing to the hoods and positive pressure in the system after the
fan. The fan converts electrical power into pressure and increased air velocity.
>)
 ²a device to remove airborne materials that may be needed before the exhaust air is
discharged into the community environment. Air cleaners to remove both solid (particulate) and
gaseous contaminants are available.

Although not formally part of an LEV system, the arrangement for supplying makeup air to the
work area that is being ventilated is also very important. An insufficient quantity of makeup air may
cause poor fan operation, inef ficient combustion in furnaces, drafts, and problems with slamming
doors in the work area.

An LEV system is usually planned to fit existing machin ery or industrial processes. A hood shape
and location are chosen based upon the source of contamination. The airflow volume into each
hood is then determined from reference sources such as the ACGIH  
Î
$

(ACGIH, 1998). Next, the need for an air cleaner is determined, and, if needed, a type and size are
selected. üith this information the duct layout can be determined and the duct diameters
calculated. Finally, the fan type and size needed to draw the required amount of air while
overcoming friction and other resistance can be determined. After installation the system is tested
to assure that it is meeting design criteria. System design is beyond the scope of this chapter;
however the references listed at the end of Chapter 20 describe how to design LEV s ystems
(McDermott, 2000; ACGIH, 1998).
Hoods
The hood is the most important part of an LEV system. No local exhaust system will work properly
unless enough of the contaminants are retained or captured by the hoods to reduce the
concentration in the workroom air below acceptable limits. Both the design and location of the
hoods as critical in determining whether a system will work. A poor hood design may prevent the
ventilation system from performing adequately.
Hood selection is an area where the he alth and safety professional can make a significant
contribution since the keys to good hood selection include the following: a knowledge of hood and
airflow principles, an understanding of the plant processes, and a familiarity with employee work
patterns around each process. In many plants, the health and safety staff has the best overall
understanding of these three areas. Fortunately, once the fundamentals of hood selectionare
understood, there is a ready reference source for specific hood designs. The ACGIH $

contains almost 150 design plates showing layout, design parameters, and airflow
recommendations for different hoods (ACGIH, 1998)

Figure 19-1. Typical Local Exhaust Ventilation system.

Figure 19-2. Capturing hood for welding fumes. (Source : From American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGI

HOOu TYPES )
Three different types of hoods are used in local ventilation systems: capturing hoods,
enclosures, and receiving hoods. Each works according to one of the following principl es to control
contaminants:

Page 609

 
²Hoods that "reach out" to capture contaminants in the workroom air (Figure 19 -
2). Airflow into the hood is calculated to generate sufficient capture velocity in the air space in front
of the hood. The needed capture velocity depends on the amount and motion of contaminants and
contaminated air (Table 19²A). This type of hood is widely used since it can be placed alongside
the contaminant source rather than sur rounding it as with an enclosure. The prim ary disadvantage
is that large air volumes may be needed 
generate an adequate capture velocity at the
contaminant source.

Other disadvantages are that crossdrafts in the workroom can severely degrade the capture
efficiency of the hood, and the "reach" of most capturing hoods is limited to about 2 ft from the
hood opening.
 ²Hoods that surround the contaminant source as much as possible. Contaminants are
kept inside the enclosure by air flowing in through openings in the enclosure (Figure 19 -3).
Laboratory hoods and paint spray booths are typical examples of this hood type. The quantity of air
required for contaminant control is calculated by multiplying the inward air velocity needed
toprevent escape by the areas of the openings into the enclosure.

Page 610
Table 19-A. Range of Capture Velocities
Figure 19-3. Designdetails for an enclosurefrom the ACGIH Manual.

The more complete the enclosure, the less airflow is needed for control. Employees generally do
notwork inside enclosures while contaminants are beinggenerated, although they may reach into
the enclosure aslong as they do not breathe contaminated air. Due to lowexhaust rates,
enclosures are often the most economicalhoods to install if the open area of the enclosure is
notlarge. Inward face velocities of 100 -150 ft/min are typical. Good room conditions are critical for
proper enclosure performance, including s ufficient replacement air,supply outlets located and
designed to avoid drafts, andprotection against disruptive air currents from opendoors and foot
traffic near the hoods.

Page 611

:> Receiving Hoods--Some processes "throw" a stream ofcontaminants In a specific direction. For
example, a furnace may emit a hot stream of gases that rises above theunit. A grinder throws a
stream of material tangentiallytrom the point of contact between the grinding wheeland workpiece.
The ideal hood for this type of process isone that is positioned so it catches the
contaminantsthrown at it (Figure 19-4). A major limitation to the useof receiving hoods is that
gases, vapors, and the verysmall particles that can be inhaled and retained in thehuman
respiratory system do not travel very far in airunless carried by moving air. This means that
receivinghoods are not very useful for health protection ventilation systems unless the process
emits quantities of hot airor air with sufficient velocity to carry the respirable contaminant s into the
hood.

In addition to these three major hood classifications, two special hood types are used in LEV
systems:
}
.
2.
capturing hoods and enclosures fea ture a narrow "slot" to distribute the
inward airflow across the entire hood. By definition, a slot is at least five times as long as it
is high. A typical example is a long, open surface tank that has limited space for a hood yet
has a need for good air distribution over its entire length (Figure 19 ²5). Similarly, a
laboratory hood has slots along the back panel to develop more uniform air veloc ity through
the hood opening. One disadvantage of a slot hood is that it creates more energy loss than
a hood without a slot. This is due to the turbulence and high air velocity through the na rrow
slot. Extra suction is needed to move the air through the slot, which requires a larger fan
than for a comparable system with no slot.
It is important to realize that a high slot velocity does not significantly increase the reach of the
hood. The purpose of the slot is solely to distribute the inward velocity along the length of the
slot. As a rule-of-thumb, a slot velocity of 2,000 ft/min often gives good air distribution without
excessive pressure loss.



)
canopy hood (Figure 19 -6) generally can be used only as a receiving hood over
hot processes tocollect the gases and vapors rising into the hood. However, a canopy cannot be
used when workers must lean,over the tank or process because workers will breathe
thecontaminated air as the contaminants rise.

Canopies for unheated processes must be designed as capturing hoods. However, the large
airflow volumes needed todevelop adequate velocities below the canopy plus the twofoot limitation
on capture distance often make these hoods impractical. The solution is another type of capturing
hood,such as a side draft or slot hood, or an enclosure.

uucts
Ducts carry air between the hoods, air cleaner, fan, and dis charge stack. Common duct materials for
LEV systems include galvanized steel, aluminum, stainless steel, plastics, and wire-wrapped fabric
flexible duct. Stainless steel and spe cialty plastics are used where protection against corrosion is needed.
üire-wrapped flexible fabric ducts are often not rec ommended for LEV systems carrying particulates
because of their tendency to accumulate settled material and sag unless rigidly supported, and because
of the difficulty in cleaning out settled material.

Selecting duct diameters for a system is often a trade -off between initial and operating cost. Smaller
diameter ducts are less expensive to fabricate and install than larger diame ter ducts. However, the
resulting higher duct velocities in smaller diameter ducts increase pressure losses, thus requir ing a
larger fan with higher power consumption. Systems carrying particulates generally need to
maintain a certain minimum transport velocity to avoid material settling in the ducts. For common
dusts, this velocity is often 3,000-4,000 ft/min. For more dense materials, larger particles, or sticky
materials, the minimum velocity needed is higher. Although systems handling vapors and gases have
no minimum duct velocity criteria, as a rule -of-thumb, duct velocities of 2,000²3,000 ft/min usually
result in a good balance between initial duct construction cost and fan operating cost. Hood design
diagrams in the ACGIH $
usually specify duct velocity criteria for the system.

Air movement is always accompanied by friction where the air meets the duct surface. As a result,
the air velocity close to the duct wall is low while at the center of the duct the velocity is higher than
the overall average value. Figure 19²7 depicts a very simplified view of the duct velocity pro file; any
disturbances to smooth airflow such as elbows, branch duct entries, or air cleaners cause an uneven
distribution that gradually returns to the typical profile illustrated in the figure.
In addition to friction, turbulence occurs in the ducts due to changes in air velocity and direction.
Some loss will occur at every hood, elbow, duct enlargement, or duct junction. Since the fan must
be large enough to move the required quantity of air while overcoming the friction and turbulent
losses, it is important to avoid duct features that cause unnecessary pressure drop. These include
narrow ducts, small radius elbows, and perpendicular junctions where two ducts join.
Another duct consideration is the duct segment just before the fen. The fen can do the gre atest
amount of work on incoming air only if the airflow into the fen is straight and uniform. Spinning or
nonuniform flow patterns reduce the fens air volume and/or static pressure output. Major reasons
for poor flow patterns are elbows, dampers, duct jun ctions, or other flow disturbances near the fan.
For an e system, installing flow straighteners in the inlet duct can help to restore straight flow into
the fan

Page 612
Figure 19-4 Metal polishing belt ²design details for a receiving hood from the ACÔIH Manual. *Source:
From American Conference of Ôovernmental Industrial Hygienists *ACÔIH ®) Industrial Ventilation: A
Manual of ecommended ’ractice, 23rd ed Copyright 1998, Cincinnati Reprinted with
permission )

The ACGIH $

guidelines for other duct design parameters, such as pressure loss factors,
provisions for clean-out ports, and duct wall thickness.
EXHAUST STACKS
Every LEV  
should have at least a short, straight duct or exhaust stack attached to the fan outlet.
This helps to change high, uneven velocity patterns at the fan outlet into a uniform flow and results in
a phenomenon called static   

This permits the fan to be more efficient in moving air
through the system.
The proper stack height, location, and discharge velocity are important in minimizing reentry of
exhausted contaminants into the building and in avoiding problems when the contaminants reach
ground level.

Page 613

Figure 19-5 Slot hood to distribute airflow along an open surface tank. (Source: From American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®).

Airflow patterns around buildings are complex, consisting of several discrete air turbul ence and
recirculating zones. Generally, the air layers near the roof tend to wash across  
roof or circulate
so they hit the downwind side of the building or the ground. The exhaust plume should be discharged
above these layers so will not contaminate intakes, and where sufficient dilution occurs before the plume
reaches the ground or adjacent buildings. A high stack discharge velocity (3,000 ft/mm higher) helps to
disperse contaminants since the air jet action can increase the effe ctive stack height except under
severewind conditions.

Page 614

Figure 19-6. Canopy hoods are usually used over hot processes since the contaminants rise into the
hood. (Source: From American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH ®).

üind direction and velocity are other important factors.If there is a prevailing wind direction at the
site, it shouldhelp to locate the stack on the downwind side of the roof.However, the location of the
stack and air intakes shouldrecognize that wind will often blow from other than the prevailing
direction. A very low wind speed allows the plume to rise due to the discharge velocity and any
thermal head.

Page 615

Aswind velocity increases, the first effect will be to decreaseplume rise and the resulting dilution.
Still higher winds willincrease turbulence, which increases the dilution. Unfortunately, the
occurrence of some reentry usually cannot beruled out, so in very sensitive situations, air cleaners
on thedischarged air or relocation of air intakes m ay be needed toeliminate problems.

Figure 19-7. Velocity distribution in a duct. The average ductvelocity is less than the centerline
velocity.
Figure 19-8. Common types of centrifugal fans.

Fans
! 
fan generates the suction in the system that draws contaminated air into the hoods and
through the ducts. A variety of different fans are available, but they all fall into one of two main
classes: centrifugal fans or axial flow fans. Centrifugal fans move air by centrifugal action. Blades
on a rotating fan wheel throw air outward from the center inlet at a higher velocity or pressure than
air entering the fan. üith axial fans, the air travels parallel to the fan shaft and leaves the fan in the
same direction as it entered. A screw or pro peller action produces airflow.

In LEV systems, centrifugal fans are more widely used than axial fans because they are usually
quieter, less expensive to install and operate, and generate higher pressures than axial flow fans
of the same airflow capacity. Centrifugal fans can be divided into three categories depending on
the shape and setting of the fan wheel blades (Figure 19 ²8):

}

Ã

(Figure 19-8a) have flat blades that extend straight out from the center
hub. They are used for dust systems since their flat blades minimize the buildup of dust on
the blades. These fans also have large openings between blades and are therefore less
likely to clog. They can be built with thick blades to withstand erosion and impact damage
from airborne solids. Their major disad vantage is that they are the least efficient fan for local
exhaust systems. Their heavy construction adds to their cost.
}
Forward-curved blade fans (Figure 19-8b) are useful when large volumes of air must be
moved against m o d e r a t e pressures with low noise levels. These fans have many cup-
shaped blades that accelerate the air and discharge it at a higher velocity than the fan
wheel tip is moving.
}
Backward-inclined/backward -curved blade fans have bladesthat are inclined backward from
the direction of fan wheelrotation (figure 19 -8c). The blades are of uniform thickness. If they
are straight (flat), the fan is called a backward -inclined blade fan; if the blades are curved
back, thefan is called a backward -curved blade fan. Since these fansare more efficient than
the forward-curved fan, they areoften used for handling large volumes of air containinglittle
dust. Airfoil fans are a modification of the backward -curved blade fan. The blades of airfoil
fans areshaped like the cross section of an airplane wing. This 'shape reduces noise and
allows the fan to function smoothly without pulsing airflow through its entire operating range.

Fans perform at their maximum efficiency only when theairflow into the fan is sm ooth. Any design
feature in the systern that causes turbulence or spinning air motion at the fan inlet will reduce the
fan's ability to move air and generatepressure.The most common cause of inlet problems is a
ductelbow too close to the fan inlet. Elbows should be at least five duct diameters from the fan inlet
unless turning vanes in the elbow or another method is used to straighten the airflow.

An elbow too close to the fan outlet will also decrease per formance because of the high velocity,
turbulent flow at the outlet. Elbows should be at least five duct diameters, and preferably 10
diameters, away from the fan outlet.

Air-Cleaning uevices

The purpose of this section is to give a broad overview of the types of air cleaners that are
available. An important step in system design the determination of whether an air cleaner needed
to reduce the amount of contaminants discharged to the environment. Local regulations usually are
the major factor is this decision.
The ideal air cleaner for a specific applic ation would have these features: low initial and operating
cost, high efficiency for the contaminants, no decline in operating efficiency or an y service
interruptions between scheduled cleaning and maintenance cycles, and provisions for normal
maintenance and cleaning without hazardous employee exposures.

The types of devices to consider depend primarily on the physical state of the contaminants (i.e.,
whether they are particulates or gases/vapors). For most situations, no single device is highly efficient
for both small particulates and for gases/vapors. Scrubbing devices are widely used to collect some
particles and gases or vapors in a single unit, but these combination units are generally not highly
efficient for fine particles.
PARTICULATE REMOVAL
Typical air cleaners for particulates include the following:
>' 
trap particulates as the exhaust gas flows through a porous medium. Filters may be made of
woven or felted (pressed) fabric, paper, or woven metal, depending on the application. They are available
in a variety of configurations, such as mats, cartridges, bags, and envelopes. Filters have the general
advantage of being able to han dle varying exhaust gas flow rates and particle loadings.
Filter devices fall into two major categories: disposable filters that often use inexpensive materials and are
available in different configurations, and reusable filter ele ments in a housing that is equipped with a
cleaning mechanism for periodic removal of trapped material. Selection of disposable or reusable filters is
based on the expense of replacing the elements versus the added initial cost of the filter-cleaning mechanism.
>‡  
  
charge particles by means of an electric field that is strong enough to produce
ions that adhere to the particles. The charged particles are then collected with a weaker electric field that
causes the particles to migrate toward and adhere to the electrode with the opposite charge, Precipitators find
greatest use in systems where gas volume is large and high collection effi ciency for small particles is needed.
> -Cyclones impart a circular motion to the exhaust gas that causes particulates to move to the outer part of
theairstream where they impact the cyclone walls. Since airvelocity is lower at the wall, the particulates drop
downthe wall into a collection hopper at the bottom. Cyclonesmay also be operated as wet collectors if a water
spray isinstalled to wet the particles at the inlet. This increasesthe effective size of small particles, thus increasing
collection efficiency.

}
=
 ÃÃ 
contact particles with water or another liquid and then collect the droplets. To
collect extremely fine particles, it is nece ssary to generate small droplet, moving at high
speed. Scrubbers can remove particles as small as 0.2 urn; however, the energy required to
generate small droplets and cause adequate contact rises exponen tially as the particle size
decreases. Scrubbers that utilize absorption or chemical reaction as a collection mecha nism
are also widely used for gas and vapor removal.
}
The "baghouse" (Figure 19 -9) is a typical example of a particulate air cleaner. It consists of
tubular fabric filters arranged in a housin g along with the cleaning mechanism, which can be
an automatic or manual shaking 
a means of blowing air back through the bags from
the clean side, or another method of dislodging the accumulated dust cake. Chunks of the
cake that arc dislodged during the cleaning cycle should be large enough 
 
 
are
not reentrained in the exhaust gas stream, or the section being cleaned should be isolated
from the remainder 
 
à 
during its cleaning cycle. Baghouses can collect prac -
tically all particles greater than 1 åm in diameter as well as a large percentage of submicron
particles.

Figure 19-9. Typical baghouse air cleaner.

GAS AND VAPOR REMOVAL

Major removal techniques for gases and vapors are absorp tion, adsorption, and oxidation:

Page 617

)Ã 
is a diffusion process in which molecules are transferred from the exhaust gas to a
liquid. The diffusion occurs because there is a gradient between the contami nant concentration in
the exhaust gas and the liquid phase. This causes the contaminant to move from the higher level
in the gas phase to the lower concentration in the liquid. The laws of mass transfer govern absorp -
tion. Mass transfer occurs at the interface between the gas or vapor molecule and the liquid and is
enhanced by the following factors:
>high interfacial area between the exhaust gas and the liquid
> turbulent contact between the two phases
> high solubility of the gas or vapor in the liquid phase
#higher temperature, which affects solubility

For easily absorbed contaminants, a spray chamber or another simple device may work. However,
for materials low solubility or where a chemical reaction occurs between the contaminant and liquid
prior to absorption, a packed bed (Figure 19 ²10) is often used to maximize contact. Reactive
scrubbing is a special case of gas/vapor scrub bing. In reactive scrubbing, the contaminant reacts
with the liquid to form a compound that is retained in the liquid.
>) 
is the process in which a gas or vapor adheres to the surface of a porous solid
material. It occurs when the contaminant condenses into very small liquid droplets at an ambient
temperature higher than its boiling point. This principle is well -known to industrial hygienists
through use of activated carbon sampling dev ices. Since no chemical reaction is involved,
adsorption is reversible. The contaminant can be recovered, if warranted, from the adsorbent by
heating, steam flushing, air stripping, vac uum treating, or any other method that vaporizes the con -
densed material. Removing the adsorbate regenerates the adsorbent for further use. In addition to
activated carbon, popular adsorbents include silica gel and molecular sieves.
>- 

Ã
devices can be used when the air contaminants are combustible. They
oxidize (burn) the contaminants under a variety of operating conditions.

Page 618

Many are designed for gases and vapors; often these do not work well when the airstream contains
particulates. They are very useful for processes that release extremely odorous organic vapors and
fumes. The major expense associated with combustion systems is the auxiliary fuel needed to heat
incoming exhaust gas and assure complete combustion. Some devices use a catalyst that causes the
contaminant to oxidize at a lower temperature than normal in order to save fuel. Since most LEV
systems exhaust room air with very low levels of contaminants, combustion is often not cost-effective.
Combustion devices find more application with process vents or sim ilar sources where the contaminant
concentration is relatively high.

Makeup Air
$

is air that enters the workroom to replace air exhausted through the ventilation system.
A room or plant with insufficient makeup air is said to be "air bound" or "air starved." A ventilat ion
system will not work properly if there is not enough air in the room to exhaust. This means that if
the ambient static pressure within the room becomes slightly negative, the fan may not work
properly against this additional resistance.

Makeup air should be supplied through a planned system rather than through random infiltration.
The system should have the following features:

> The supply rate should exceed the exhaust rate by about 10%. This slight positive pressure in
the building helps to keep out drafts and dust. The exception is a situation where no dust or
airborne chemicals should travel from the workroom to adjacent offices or other areas. Then a
slight negative pressure inside the workroom is preferred.
>The air should flow from cleaner a reas of the plant through areas where contaminants may be
present and finally to the exhaust system. Flow should also be from normal temperature areas to
high heat process areas. The makeup air supply system can be designed to provide some cooling
in the summer in hot process areas.
> Makeup air should be introduced into the "occupied zone" of the plant, generally 8 -10 ft from the
floor. This gives the workers the benefit of breathing fresh air and, if the air is tempered (heated or
cooled) maximizes the comfort provided by the makeup air.
>The air should be heated in winter to a temperature of about 65 F
> Makeup air inlets outside the building must be located so that no contaminated air from nearby
exhaust stacks or chimneys is drawn into the makeup air system.

AIRFLOü ANu PRESSURE PRINCIPLES

This section describes the principles that govern LEV system operation. The information is useful in
understanding how the components described above function, and how to test and upgrade an
installed system. The principles fall into two broad categories: airflow and pressure.

Airflow Principles

The basic airflow concept in ventilation systems is called the "equation of continuity," which
expresses mass balance as air flows through different parts of the system. The equation of
continuity is expressed as follows:

Q=VxA

where Q = airflow, ft3 / min

v = air velocity, ftl min
A = area of airflow, ft2

At each point in a closed system (no additional air entering the duct):

Q = Vi X Ai = V2 X A2
where 1,2 = two locations within the closed system

These equations have several important applications, including the following:

>- The volumetric airflow (Q) through an opening (doorway, laboratory hood face) or in a duct can
be readily determined using Equation (1) by measuring the average air velocity through the duct or
opening and the area of the duct or opening.
> After Q. is calculated or measured at one location in an LEV system, the velocity at other
locations can be calculated from the Q and cross -sectional area at the new location, using
Equation (2). This calculation is valid as long as no additional air enters the system through
another hood. The calculation is useful to assure that adequate duct velocity is maintained at
different parts of the system as duct diameter changes or to select the stack diameter to give a
high discharge velocity for dispersion.

Another useful set of equations describes the relationship between volumetric airflow (Q) into a
hood and the capture velocity generated out in front of the hood. These are shown in Figure 19 -11
for different capture hood types. The equations can either be used to calcu late the Q needed to
generate the required capture velocity at X distance in front of the hood or to determine the
velocity that will be generated by a given value of Q.
It important to note that these equations refer only to the centerline velocity, whic h is the air
velocity along a line extending out from the center of the hood or duct, and do not describe the
velocity distribution across the hood opening. Also, any distance ±
may be substituted into the
equations to give an answer, but in practice a cap turing hood can only reach out about two feet to
draw in contaminants.

Page 619

Figure 19-11. Equations for calculating air flow (Q) for common hood types.

For example, the centerline velocity outside a freely hanging plain ho

D (see Figure 19-11) is found by using the following equation:

Q = Vx (10X 2 + A)

where V x = air velocity at X distance, ft/min

Q = airflow into hood, ft3/min

A = area of hood face, ft2

x = distance outward from hood along hood axis(i.e., centerline), ft

Figure 19-12 (left diagram) shows the velocity contours in front of this hood type. The contours
show that the velocity drops off significantly on either side of the centerline. One reason for this is
that the hood draws air from behind the hood outside the contamination zone.

The plain hood can be easily improved by adding a flange or collar to reduce the air drawn from
behind the hood as shown in Figure 19 -12 (right diagram). This decreases the airflow requirement
needed to develop the same V x by about 25% for a flanged hood compared to a plain hood and
changes the previous equation to the following:
Page 620

Figure 19-12 Velocity profile in front of a plain hood (left) and flanged hood (right). The flange
reduces the quantity of air drawn from behind the hood so there is more inward air velocity along
the centerline.

å34G;α+-±Ñ
H
),

Example: A 4 in. x 8 in. (area = 32 in. 2 or 0.22 ft 2) flanged suspended hood is drawing 500 ft 3/min
of air. ühat is the velocity 6 in. (0.5 ft) in front of the hood?
Answer:
å34G;α+/4±Ñ
H
),

500 ft 3 /rnin = 0.75 Î [10(0.52) + 0.22] = 0.75 Î [10(0.25) + 0.22]

500 ft3/min = 0.75 K [2.50 + 0.22] = 0.75 V; [2.72]
500 ft 3/min
Î
3 = 245 ft/min
(0.75) (2.72)
ühen considering airflow into hoods, there may be a ten dency to assume that heavier-than-air
vapors will tend to settle to the workroom floor and can be collected by a hood located there. In
reality, for the small amounts of vapor in contaminated air (1,000 ppm means 1,000 parts of
contaminants plus 999,000 parts of air), t he resulting density of the mixture is so close to that of air
that random air currents disperse the materials throughout the room. The exception to this rule is
that a sizable leak of a dense gas or vapor (such as a compressed gas that chills by expansion as
it escapes) will form a plume that moves along the ground. In this situation, a floor -level hood might
be advantageous, but general room concentrations may still be significant.

Pressure Concepts
Air moves because there is a difference in pressure be tween two points. In an exhaust system, the
fan develops negative pressure (suction) that extends back through the ducts to each hood. There
the suction starts room air moving into the hoods and through the system. On the discharge side of
the fan, positive pressure pushes the air through any remaining ducts and out the stack.

In ventilation work, pressure is expressed in units of "inches of water gauge." This represents the
height of a water column (e.g., the weight of water) that the pressure will sup port. It is equivalent to
more common pressure units, such as "pounds per square inch," but is more convenient to use
since typical pressures in an LEV system are small. For example, an LEV system may have a
maximum static pressure of 5 inches of water, which is equivalent to only 0.2 psi.

Pressure can be measured directly in inches of water using a U -tube manometer (Figure 19²13).
The pressure value is between the water level in each leg of the tube

Page 621

Mechanical pressure gauges and electronic t ransducer units calibrated in inches of water are also
commonly used.

Figure 19-13. Static pressure in "inches ofwater" is measured with a water manometer.

Two Types of Pressure

A local exhaust system has two types of pressure, static pressure and velocity pressure.

#.
  
(either negative or positive) pulls inward on the ducts before the fan and
pushes outward on the ducts after the fan. Static pressure in a ventilation system acts to
collapse the walls 
 
ducts on the suction side (inlet) of the fan and to burst the ducts on the
discharge ride. It acts equally at all locations in the duct (center as well as at the walls). The
easiest way 
measure it is by using a water manometer to read the bursting force on the duct
walls (Figure 19-13), although the same reading will be obtained at any point across the duct at
that location. Static pressure can be viewed as potential energy in the system that is available to
start air moving and keep it moving by overcoming friction a nd turbulent losses.
#Î
  
is due to air moving through the system, which represents kinetic energy.
Velocity pressure is exerted by air in motion and has a positive sign in the direction of airflow.
Velocity pressure is determined by measuring the average velocity at the point, and using the
following equation:

or

where VP = velocity pressure, inches of water

v = velocity, ft/ min

3
The equations for velocity pressure assume standard air density, which is 0.075 lb/ft ' Density is affected by the moisture
content and temperature of the 
as well as altitude above sea level. Density corrections are needed to velocity pressure
readings 

of the following three conditions occur: (1) moisture exceeds about 0.2 pounds of water per pound of air;
(2) air temperature is outside the 40 F to 100 F range; or (3) attitude exceeds +1,000 ft relative to sea level. The density
correction for temperature and atmospheric pressure can be calculated using the following equation:

3
where Density actual = actual air density, Ib/ft

t = temperature, ?F

Bar. press. = Barometric pressure, inches of mercury

For density corrections due to elevated moisture, see theACGIH Ventilation Manual
üith nonstandard air, the velocity pressure equationbecomes:

The sum of velocity pressure and static pressure at any point in the system equals the total pressure.
The concept of total pressure is not very important in most LEV work, but illustrates that static
pressure can be changed into veloci ty pressure and vice versa without an overall loss of pressure (or
energy) from the system.
The concept of pressure governs most aspects of ventilation system operation. For example, room air
has almost no velocity so its velocity pressure is zero. The LEV system draws that air into a hood and
accelerates it up to the duct velocity.

Page 622

At that point the air has a velocity pressure value corresponding to that duct velocity according to
Equation (5). For this to occur, the system must give up the same amount of static pressure
(i.e., the static pressure is converted into velocity pressure).

Example: ühat is the acceleration loss to accelerate room air up to 2,500 ft/min duct velocity?
Answer:

Î
= 0 38 inches of water

This means that accelerating room air to 2,500 ft/min duct velocity will cause a loss of 0.38
inches of water suction from the system.

HOOu ENTRY LOSS

In addition to the acceleration loss that occurs at the hood, there is additional loss because
turbulence occurs as the air enters the hood and duct. This turbulent loss is called 



and is separate from acceleration loss.
The energy lost due to turbulence at the hood, expressed in units of "equivalent number of
velocity pressures lost," is called the 



+',
and has been measured
experimentally for many hood shapes (Figure 19 -14). For a typical hood, the hood entry loss
occurs as the air enters the duct at the hood, so the coeffi cient is referred to as Fd. For hoods
with a long, narrow slot to distribute airflow, a loss also occurs at the slot; the coefficient for this
loss is called Fs. Most slot hoods have a total hood entry loss made up of separate slot and duct
entry components.

A hood shape that does not cause much turbulence has a lower entry loss coefficient than a
hood with close clearances, sharp corners, or other features t hat produce a lot of turbulence. For
example, as shown in Figure 19 ²14, a plain duct opening has a hood entry loss coefficient of
about 93 percent of the duct velocity pressure while a smooth, bell -shaped entry reduces the
turbulence so that the loss coeff icient is just 4 percent of the duct velocity pressure. A narrow
slot hood causes such severe turbulence that the slot entry loss coefficient is almost twice the
slot velocity pressure.
To calculate the hood entry loss in units of inches of water, multipl y the hood entry loss
coefficient (F) by the duct or slot velocity pressure. For a hood without a slot, the equation is as
follows:

For a slot hood, the total entry loss is the sum of the h e value plus the additional entry loss at the
slot, calculated by the following equation:
he(slo[ hood) = (F d)(VP d) + (F s)(VP s)
-where

h e = hood entry loss, inches of water I

h e (slot hood) = total hood entry loss for slot hood,including both loss at slot and as air enters
duct, inches of water

F d = duct entry loss coefficient for hood

Fs = slot entry loss coefficient for slot hood

VP d = duct velocity pressure, inches of water

VP s = slot velocity pressure, inches of water

The hood design information in Figures 19 -2 to 19-6 illustrates the hood entry loss associated
with these hood configurations. Specific points include the following:

> Figure 19²2 (welding hood) shows the two advantages of using a flanged or cone versus a
plain opening:
#
üith a flange or cone, the hood entry loss is 0.25VP d compared to 0.93VPd for a plain
opening.
#The required airflow (Q) is lower with the flange or cone compared to the plain opening since
less of the air is drawn from behind the hood.
> Figure 19²4 (metal polishing belt) also shows how steps to reduce turbulence will reduce
hood entry loss. The term 
 
to the connection between the hood and duct. üith a
tapered take-off (shown in the diagram), there is a transition section between the hood and duct
to smooth out airflow patterns, resulting in a hood entry of 0.45VP d . üith a straight take-off (not
shown), there is no transition, resulting in more turbulence and a higher hood entry loss of
0.65VP d .
>Figure 19-5 (dip tank) shows the higher overall loss from a slotted hood. There is a loss of
1.78VPS as the air moves through the slot into the plenum chamber. Then there is a loss of
0.25VPd as the air enters the duct. The total loss is the sum of these two components. Note that
the ACGIH $
uses for the total loss rather than he(slothood) as in Equation (10).
The hood entry loss coefficients for many different hood shapes can be found in the ACGIH
Î
$

HOOu STATIC PRESSURE

For a hood to operate properly, the fan must generate enough suction or static pressure in the
duct near the hood to overcome both the acceleration loss and the hood entry loss while drawing
the correct amount of air into the hood. This amount of suction i s called the 

  

and is easily measured using a water manometer (Figure 19 -15).

For a hood without a slot, hood static pressure is calcu lated using the following equation:

Page 623

SP h = Acceleration Loss + Hood Entry Loss

= (1.0 x duct velocity pressure) + (F d x duct velocity pressure
= 1.0 VP d + F d VP d
where SP h = hood static pressure (for a hood without a slot), inches of water
F d = entry loss coefficient for hood

VP d = duct velocity pressure, inches of water

For a slot hood, the loss caused by the slot must be added in

SP h(slot)= (1.0 + Fd) VPd + Fs VPs

where SPh(s!ot) = hood static pressure for slot hood, inches of water

F s = slot entry loss coefficient

VPs = slot velocity pressure, inches of water

Hood static pressure is important for the following two reasons:

#?
During system design, the SPj, can be calculated and rep resents the suction that is needed at the hood in
order for the hood to function properly. Then the fan can be selected to move the required Q. while
generating sufficient static pressure so the required SP h will be available at each hood. As a corollary, in an
existing system if the fan cannot generate the required SP h , at a hood, then the hood will never
function properly.
>- Once a ventilation system is installed and operating properly, the hood static pressure can be
measured and recorded. Periodic readings can be compared to the orig inal value to determine if the
suction available at the hood is still adequate to draw the required amount of air for proper hood
operation.
Example: The barrel-filling hood in Figure 19 -1 has a hood entry loss coefficient (F d) of 0.25.
Measurements show that the hood static pressure is 1.8 inches of water in the 4 -inch diameter circular
duct (area = 0.087 ft 2) at the hood. Estimate the airflow into this hood .

Figure 19-14. Hood Entry Loss coefficients (F*) for common hood types. For the grinding hood a "tapered take-off" means that there
is a transition section between the hood and duct to smooth airflow, while a straight take-off (not shown) has no transition piece

Page 624

Answer: A summary of the data is as follows:

Fd = 0.25

SPh = 1.8 in. of water

Duct Diameter = 4 in. (area = 0.087 ft2)

From Equation (I 1);

SPh = (1.0 + Fd) VPd

1.8 in. H20 = (1.0 + 0.25) VP d

Solving for VP d:

VP d = 1.44 in. of water

From Equation (9):

V= 4,005 ôvvp

v = 4,005 ô1.44 = 4,806 ft/min .

From Equation (l):

Q = VxA

Q = 4,806 ft/min x 0.087 fe2

Q = 418 ft3/min

Pressure Loss in the uucts

Air flowing through the ductwork meets resistance in the form 
friction and turbulence. Straight
duct lengths result in friction loss, while elbows, junctions, air cleaners, and other features cause
turbulence losses. These losses can be expressed a* pressure drop since they represent
pressure lost from the system that the fan must generate to make the system work properly.

Because 
these losses, the following static pressure profile exists in an LEV system:

> Before the fan, thegreatest suction value occurs at thefan inlet. Moving from the fan toward the
hoods, thesuction decreases because it is used to overcome frictionand turbulence losses until,
at the hood, just enoughstatic pressure remains to overcome the acceleration andhood entry
loss.

> After the fan, the greatest value of positive static pressure is at the fan outlet. The positive
static pressure is used toovercome friction loss in any ducts and the stack as wellas turbulence
losses in any elbows. At the stack discharge,any remaining st atic pressure is used to discharge
the airat a higher velocity to aid contaminant dispersion.

Fan Pressure
As described throughout this chapter, the fan generates pres sure that causes the air to move
through the system. In order to characterize fan perfo rmance, both the volumetric airflow (Q) and
the pressure that the fan generates must be specified.
For LEV systems, this fan pressure is called 

  
(FSP). It is calculated from an
equation used by fan manufacturers as part of a standard te st of fan performance:
FSP = |SPinkt| + ISPoudetl - VPinfet

where FSP = fan static pressure, inches of water

SP = static pressure, inches of water
VP = velocity pressure, inches of water
inlet, outlet = fan inlet and outlet

FSP represents the net pressure that the fan adds to the system. The following points should be
noted:
>The SP inlet value is the total suction that the fan must generate to first accelerate room air up
to duct velocity and then overcome all pressure los ses before the fan.
> The SP outet value is the positive pressure required at the fan outlet to overcome the friction and
other losses after the fan and finally discharge the air from the stack.
>The VP inlet value is subtracted because it represents the energy in the moving air reaching the
fan that was included in the SP inlet value as the acceleration loss at the hood.

Fan Laws uescribe Fan Performance The following three equations, called 


describe
the relationship of volumetric airflow, fan static pressure, and brake horsepower to rotating
speed for a specific fan:
>Changes in volumetric airflow (ft 3 /min) vary directly with changes in fan speed. For example,
for a given fan doubling the speed will double the volume output.
where R = fan rotating speed, rev/min

Q = airflow, ft3/ min

Page 625

>‡ Changes in static pressure vary directly with the square of changes in fan speed.

where FSP = fan static pressure, inches of water

> Changes in brake horsepower vary directly with the cube of changes in fan s = (peed. 9 

 
is the energy required to operate the fan, but does not include any drive loss
between the fan and motor.

where BHP = brake horsepower

Since all three of these fan laws act together, any change in fan speed to increase volume
output also increases fan static pressure and brake horsepower.
This can be important since a common method ofincreasing Q in an existing system is to
increase the fan rotating speed. This will increase volumetric airflow, but the brake horsepower,
which represents electrical power consumption, increases as the third power of increases in fan
rotating speed. For example, doubling the fan speed requires eight times more electric al power
to run the fan (i.e., 2 3 = 8).
This could make increasing the fan speed a poor economic decision compared to replacing the
existing fan with a larger model better suited for the application.

Fan manufacturers specify a maximum safe rotating speed for each fan to prevent mechanical
failure. This speed cannot be exceeded when attempting to increase airflow in an LEV system.

Example: A fan is moving 4,000 ft 3/min of air. A tachometer reading shows the rotating speed to
be 1,650 rev/min. Measurement of electrical consumption shows that the con sumption is
equivalent to 2.23 brake horsepower. Calculate the effect on rotating speed and horsepower of
increasing the airflow to 5,000 ft 3/min.

Answer: Since rotating speed and volume output are pro portional, use Equation (14) to find the
new rotating speed:
QL_RL
Q2 R2
where R = fan rotating speed, rev/min
Q = airflow, ft 3/min
4,000 1,650
5,000 R2
Calculate the new brake horsepower using Equation (l6):

where BHP = brake horsepower

ühether or not the best solution lies in increasing the fan speed to achieve the desired
performance is usually based on an economic evaluation. The cost of the added electrical power
can be calculated over the projected life of the fan. For small increases in fan speed, the existing
fan motor may be adequate but the fan manufacturer's literature will show whether a higher
horsepower motor is needed. Also check the fan specifications to see whet her the existing fan is
safe at the required rotating speed.
LEV PERFORMANCE EVALUATION ANu IMPROVEMENT
This section describes typical tests used to evaluate LEV sys tem performance and, where
applicable, simple steps to diag nose and resolve problems.

Smoke Tube Tests

Smoke tubes are glass tubes containing a chemical that pro duces a chemical fume (smoke) as
room air is blown through the tube with a hand -operated bulb. They are useful for the following
tests:

> evaluating the capture range of hoods

> identifying drafts and other factors that can interfere with hood performance
> demonstrating the capture distance of hoods to workers so they can position the hood or work
item properly

Velocity Measurements
Several devices are available when a quantit ative measurement of velocity is required. The main
categories include:
#
.

 
contains a vane or paddle that moves according to the velocity of the
air passing through the instrument. The paddle is connected mechanically to a meter t hat
displays the velocity.
>!  
 
on the principle that the resist ance of a heated wire changes with
temperature variations. Air moving over the heated wire element changes its temperature
depending on the air velocity.

Page 626

The anemometer is calibrated directly in feet per minute. Very high mois ture levels may cause
inaccurate readings if the moisture affects the change of resistance in the heated element.
>



has a propeller-like velocity sensor connected either to a
mechanical or electronic readout unit. This type of device comes in a variety of sizes; the smaller
ones have a thin probe while larger units have a propeller that is several inches in diameter.
>Ã

that determine the velocity p ressure inside a duct and are connected to a
liquid manometer or pressure sensor that displays output in either inches of water velocity
pressure or directly in velocity. (A pitot tube is a special probe-like device that accurately
measures static and total pressures inside a duct. The difference between total and static
pressures equals velocity pressure.) Typical applications for the first three devices are measur ing
capture velocity outside of capturing hoods, face velocity for enclosures, and slot velocities
(Figure 19²16).
DUCT VELOCITY TRAVERSE
A traverse involves measuring the velocity at a number of points across the duct area since
velocity distribution is not uniform within the duct. Typically, a pitot tube is used for the traverse,
but any velometer with a narrow probe sensor may also be used. The measurement points are
selected to divide the duct into enough zones of equal area according to the following guidelines:

> For round ducts two traverses at right angles should be made. For ducts 6 in. in diameter or
smaller, make two 6-point traverses. For ducts 6 to 48 in., make at least two 10 -point traverses.
Above 48 in. or for smaller ducts where large velocity variations are suspected, make two 20 -
point traverses. The locations of the measuring points are selected to divide the duct into equal
annular areas (Figure 19 -17); they are not equidistant points along the duct diameter.

}
For rectangular ducts, the cross section is divided into equal areas and a reading is taken
at the center of each area. For accurate duct measurements, at least 16 readings should
be taken, but the distance between measuring points should not exceed 6 in. Similarly, for
large openings, such as laboratory hoods or paint spray booths, a series of velocity
readings should be taken and averaged to estimate the average air velocity into the
enclosure.

Regardless of duct shape, the best place to perform a tra verse is at least 7.5 duct diameters
downstream from any major disturbance to smooth airflow, such as dampers or el bows

Figure 19-16. Typical applications for a velometer. (Source: From American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®).  
Î"
)
$



 
23rd ed.
Copyright 1998, Cincinnati. Reprinted with permis sion.]

Page 627

Figure 19-17. Measuring locations for a 10 -point velocity traverse in a round duct. These points
divide the duct into equal area annular rings

More specific guidelines for evaluating the validity of velocity traverse results are contained in
the ACGIH Î
$
Static Pressure Measurements
Periodic static pressure tests at the hoods and other locations in the LEV system are an
excellent way to evaluate performance and diagnose problems. Since static pressure represents
the potential energy available to move air in the system, changes in static pressure over time
can indicate situations that degrade system performance. The greatest valu e of static pressure
tests is from comparing current results to earlier readings. The LEV system should be balanced
and hood velocities measured to assure adequate performance before instituting a static
pressure test program.
To measure static pressure in a duct, a small diameter hole (1/16 to 1/8 in.) is drilled through the
duct wall. It is important that no burrs around the drilled hole protrude into the flowing airstream;
these can be removed by inserting a thin rod with a 90 -degree bend into the hole and rotating it
to smooth the edges. The holes should be at least 7.5 duct diameters downstream from any
disturbance, such as anelbow, damper, or branch duct entry. If this is not possible, then four
holes should be drilled 90 degrees apart around the duct and the measured static pressure
values averaged. The end of a rubber tube attached to a U -tube manometer or other pressure
sensor is pressed against the duct over the hole; the static pressure is read as inches of water
(Figure /0/7,
ühile a short length of metal tubing can be brazed onto the duct around the hole
for the static pressure tube connection, simply holding the end of the rubber tubing against the
duct will give an accurate reading. The hole does not have to be capped between tests if it is
small enough. Permanent installation of a manometer or other pressure gauge is used for LEV
systems where continuous measurements are needed .

HOOu STATIC PRESSURE

The principle of measuring hood static pressure is illustrated in Figure 19 -15. The ideal location
is about one duct diameter from the throat of a hood with a tapered transition into the duct, and
about three duct diameters for plain openings or flanged hoods. This location will avoid
measuring hood static pressure within the turbulent zone in the duct near the hood.

In setting up a hood static pressure test program, deter mine the airflow into hoods using
velometer readings or a velocity traverse across the ducts. Adjust airflow to each hood until it
meets design criteria, and then measure and record hood static pressure along with volumetric
airflow (Q). If subsequent hood static pressure readings show a decrease at a hood, the change
in flow rate can be calculated using the following equation:

where Q = current volumetric airflow rate, ft 3/min

Qo = original volumetric airflow rate, ft3 / min
SPh = current hood static pressure, inches of water
SPh(o) = original hood static pressure, inches of water

This technique is valid for all hood designs, including slot hoods.

Example: The hood static pressure at the conveyor belt dis charge hood (i.e., the upper hood) in
Figure 19-1 was 1.15 in. of water with airflow of 1,050 ft 3/min. Recent tests show the hood static
pressure is now 0.87 in. of water. ühat is the current airflow into the hood?
Answer:

Page 628

Q= 1050 ft 3/min = 1050 ft 3/min = 914 ft3/min

The decline in airflow could be caused by a loose fan belt, plugged duct, or other problem.

Figure 19-18 LEV system problems diagnosed by comparing static pressure reading with
earlier tests *Source: Mcuer -mott, 2000 )
OTHER STATIC PRESSURE TEST LOCATIONS
Static pressure tests at various other system locations are also valuable in measuring system
performance and diagnosing malfunctions. Typical locations (in addition to hoods) to measure
static pressure are at entries into main ducts, on each side of air cleaners, on each side of the fan,
and at several points along long ducts. Initial and periodic static pres sure readings should be
recorded on a data sheet. Usually differences between readings at the same location that exceed
10 percent should be investigated to determine the reason for the change.
Here is an example of how static pressure tests can help diagnose ventilation system problems. A
ventilation system (Figure 19-18) consists of six hoods and branch ducts, a main duct, an air
cleaner, and a fan. Over several years thefollowing problems were identified:

> The hood static pressures are low in all hoods (Figure 19 -18a). Further tests show that static
pressure on the hood side of the air cleaner is low, while it is higher than usual between the air
cleaner and fan. These readings indicate that the air cleaner is causing too much resistance and
should be cleaned to restore proper performance.
> The static pressure readings on both sides of the air cleaner are higher than usual (Figure 19 -
18b) while the hood static pressure readings for all hoods are low. This indicates that the main
duct is partially plugged just before the air cleaner.
>The hood static pressure readings are low (Figure ; 19-18c) as is the static pressure on both sides
of the air cleaner. This indicates that the fan is not working properly, the discharge stack is
plugged, or there is a loose duct joint between the air cleaner and fan.
> All static pressure readings are normal except the value at one hood, which is too low (Figure
19²18d). This indicates that the branch duct is plugged between the test point and the main duct.
>All static pressure readings are near normal except one hood static pressure reading, which is
increased (Figure 19² 18e).

Page 629
This means that a blockage exists between the hood opening and the hood static pressure test
point.
>All static pressure readings are near normal except the hood static pressure readings in two
adjacent hoods, which are decreased (Figure 19 ² 18f). This indicates that the main duct is
plugged near the two hoods with lower hood static pressure values.
All of these difficulties were quickly solved once the source of trouble was recognized. Note that
where a blockage caused a higher static pressure reading on the fan side of the block age, this
occurred because the blockage prevented the suction (static pressure) from being converted into
velocity pressure. Static pressure tests in a system that once operated prop erty can help to
identify the following fan problems:
#loose fan belt or another drive problem
> material deposited on blades (especially with forward -inclined blade fan) or blade
erosion/corrosion
#centrifugal fan motor wired incorrectly and thereforerotating backward. (Larger fan motors are
wired in a three-phase configuration, and if the electrical supply wires are connected to the wrong
terminals, the motor rotates in the wrong direction. The result is that the fan will be excessively
noisy and will move less air than expected. However, an axial flow fan rotating backward will move
air in the wrong direction.)

SUMMARY
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) systems are an important technique for controlling employee
exposures to airborne contaminants. A sound understanding of system compo nents and the
airflow and pressure principles that govern sys tem operation will help the safety and industrial
hygiene practitioner apply LEV properly.
Chapter 20

Page 631

uilution Ventilation of Industrial of üorkplaces


Ã

C
$: 



! 
 
 Ã
 
 

 






 Ã 


 
 
 
 


 

 

 





( 


 


&






 

 

Ñ/
( 
Î
ë 
= 

INTROuUCTION
As described in Chapter 19, Local Exhaust Ventilation, 
 

and 


are both used to con trol the concentration of air contaminants in the workplace.

Dilution occurs when contaminants released into the work room mix with air flowing through the
room (Figure 20-1). Either natural or mechanically induced air movement can be used to dilute
contaminants. Dilution ventilation is some times called  
ventilation. However, the overall
heating, ventilating, and air cond itioning (HVAC) system in a building is often referred to as the
general ventilation system, To avoid confusion, the term 
is used for contaminant control
systems in this chapter.
It is important to realize that with dilution ventilation the conta minants actually disperse into the
workroom air and then are gradually removed. The dilution airflow is not capa ble of generating air
currents that "sweep" the conta minants directly from the source to the wall or roof mounted
exhaust fan. Some of the dilution air passes through the zone of con taminant release and dilutes
the contaminants to a lower concentration. The dilution continues as the material moves farther
from the process until the contaminated, air is removed by the exhaust fan. Depend ing on the
location of the air inlet and exhaust fan, and the total airflow through the room, a considerable time
period may elapse after the process stops before all contaminants are remo ved from the room.

Page 632 - Figure 20-1. Dilution ventilation gradually removes contaminants dispersed in the
workroom air.

Dilution ventilation is used in situations meeting these criteria:

> Small quantities of contaminants released into the work room at fairly uniform rates.
> Sufficient distance from the source to the w orker (or source of ignition for fire/explosion hazards)
to the contaminant source to allow for dilution to safe levels.
> Contaminants of relatively low toxicity or fire hazard so that no major problems will result from
unanticipated minor employee expo sure or concentration exceedances.
> No air-cleaning device needed to collect contaminants before the exhaust air is discharged into
the community environment.
> No corrosion or other problems from the diluted con taminants in the workroom air.

The major disadvantage of dilution ventilation is that the inherent uncertainties that exist in many
of the design parameters require that large safety factors be applied to assure that exposures are
controlled. This is described in detail later in this chapter, b ut the uncertainties often result in large
volumes of air being needed, and may make dilution ventilation less cost -effective than local
exhaust ventilation or another exposure control technique.

Dilution ventilation can also be used to control hot tem peratures from industrial operations or other
sources. Heat can be a health hazard in extreme exposures, and so the proper design of dilution
systems to control this hazard is important. Heat load occurs both from the radiant heat and
convective heat emitted by hot sources (called Ã
,
and from the heat released to the
room from condensing steam or water vapor (called 
heat). A thorough explanation of the
data needed to calculate the required airflow to control heat exposures is beyond the scope of this
chapter; refer to the ACGIH $
1998).

uILUTION VENTILATION SYSTEMS Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation is air movement within a work area due to wind, temperature differences
between the exterior and interior of a building, or other factors where no mechanical air mover is
used
Even moderate winds can move large volumes of air through open doors or windows. For
example, a 15 mph wind blowing directly at a window with an open area of 36 ft 2 can move 25,000
ft 3 /min or more through the window if the air can freely escape from the building through a
doorway or other large opening. Unfortunately the wind speed and direc tion are usually not
reliable, and so unless production can be scheduled to coincide with favorable winds, this would
not be an adequate exposure control technique. In many regions this large dilution air volume
must be heated in winter. This is an important cost factor tha t can over-ride the apparent savings
of a system with no mechanical air mover.

Air movement due to temperature differences may be more useful than motion caused by wind.
Hot processes heat the surrounding air and the rising column of warm air will carry c ontaminants
upward to roof vents. As long as a worker does not have to lean over the heated process and
breathe the rising contaminated air, this type of natural ven tilation may be adequate. A good
supply of replacement air for the building is needed, esp ecially during winter when doors and
windows may be closed to minimize drafts.

Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical systems range from simple wall-mounted propeller fans or roof -mounted mechanical
ventilators to complex designs with engineered supply and exhaust systems. Propeller fans can
provide a constant, reliable flow of air, but a major characteristic is that they are efficient air movers
only as long as an adequate supply of replacement or makeup air can 
enter the area being
exhausted (as described in Chapter 19, Local Exhaust Ventilation). Thus even a simple dilution
system may require a complex make-up air system with separate air supply fans and ducts. This
increases the dilution fan effectiveness bu t the total installed and operating costs can approach
the cost of a local exhaust system.

uILUTION SYSTEM uESIÔN CONSIuERATIONS Safety Factors

The equations for calculating the dilution airflow rate required for either health protection or
fire/explosion prevention are straightforward, but there are some limitations tha t must be
understood. The equations are based on the concep tthat the contaminant is released at a certain
rate (ft3/min), andso the ventilation system must move the correct airflo w (ft3/min) to dilute this
generated rate of contaminant to a n acceptable level.

Page 633

Figure 20-2. K is a safety factor that adjusts the calculated dilution airflow for various situations
including nonideal air distribution in the workplace. (Source: From American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists

In order to apply these equations prudently, it is important to understand two factors:

> The "theoretical" equations assume that complete mixing occurs in the room. This means that al l
of the dilution air helps to dilute the contaminant to acceptable levels before anyone breathes the
air (or, for fire/explosion prevention, before the vapors reach a source of ignition). Complete mixing
rarely occurs in real world situations.
> These equations will yield the airflow needed to keep the airborne level precisely at the "target
concentration" used in the dilution equations. If the OSHA  Ã
  
5
or ACGIH
!  
5
Î
+!5Î,
is selected as the target concentration, the "theoretical" equations will
yield the required airflow to keep airbornelevels exactly at that level. An adequate safety factor
should be applied to keep concentrations well below the acceptable exposure level.

The dilution equations discussed below adju st for these considerations. The airflow equations for
systems designed to protect heath (as contrasted with fire/explosion prevention) contain a š

 that increases the theoretical quantity needed to dilute the contaminants. The equations for
fire/explosion prevention use a .


that performs the equivalent func tion. In both cases it is
the designer's responsibility to choose the appropriate value to account for these factors:
}
The design and layout of the exhaust fan and any air supply system (in relation to the work
operation) that impacts how much of the airflow a ctually works to dilute the con taminants
before workers breathe the air or the contaminated air reaches a source of ignition *figure
20²2).

Page 634

>Any significant unknown information or parameters about a new process or operation that
could impact the amount of contaminant released or whether the release is constant or irregular.
> Any additional "safety factor" needed to account for circum stances such as nonroutine work
patterns that could bring workers closer than expected to the contaminant source, or other
conditions where an added safety factor is warranted. Even if the appropriate considerations are
applied when choosing the K factor, there is still a risk that changes in the chemicals used or
reductions in the allowable exposure limits for the original chemicals will render the system
unacceptable. For example, if the Threshold Limit Value® for a chemical were reduced by 50
percent, the calculated dilution airflow woul d have to be doubled to maintain the same ratio of
actual concentration to TLV®. There is less risk of this occurring with local exhaust ventilation
(LEV) because the design assumption for LEV systems is to prevent contaminant escape to the
work environment rather than diluting them to acceptable levels once they are released.

uilution Ventilation System Layout

Dilution systems work best when the air inlet and exhaust fan are located so that as much air as
possible flows through the zone of contaminant rel ease. Only the air that passes through the area
where contaminants are released is available for immediate dilution of contaminants to safe levels.
For the dilution air to be effective at all, it must dilute the contaminants before they reach an
employees breathing zone. As illustrated in Figure 20 ²2, system layout has a direct impact on the
K factor used in the dilution equations.

The air inlet and exhaust fans should be arranged so that air movement is from cleaner to dirtier
areas. Locate the processes or locate the fan so that the units that release contaminants are as
close as possible to the fan. Also eliminate or provide sepa rate exhaust for areas where
contaminants may accumulate and defeat the dilution effect of the airflow from the overall system.

CALCULATINÔ uILUTION AIRFLOü FOR HEALTH PROTECTION

ühen a chemical is first released at a constant rate into a ven tilated workroom, there is a gradual
concentration buildup until a steady -state condition is reached. At this concentration, the emission
rate and removal rate are in equilibrium so the concentration remains about constant. After
chemical release stops, there is a gradual purging of the workplace air until the concentration
reaches zero (Figure 20-3).

uilution Ventilation for Health: Steady-State

The amount of dilution airflow required depends on the physical properties of the contaminant
(molecular weight and specific, gravity [compared to water]), rate of contaminant release, the
target airborne concentration, and the overall safety factor (K) as described above.
The equation for calculating the steady -state dilution airflow rate for toxic or irritating contaminants
is:
Q = 403 x sp gr x ü x K x 1,000,000
MxL

where Q = dilution airflow, ft 3/min

sp gr = specific gravity of liquid (water = 1.0)
ü = amount of liquid used (evaporated), pints/minute
M = molecular weight of contaminant
L = target airborne concentration of contaminant to be maintained in the work environment (usually
based on OSHA standards or TLV list with an appropria te safety factor), ppm
K = dimensionless safety factor to increase the calculated airflow rate over the minimum, in order
to take nonideal conditions into account. K normally ranges from 3 to 10 depending on the overall
effectiveness of the ventilation system, and uniformity of contaminant evolution. A higher K value
is associated with poor airflow conditions and other unknown conditions or circumstances that
could increase exposures to workers (see Figure 20 -2).

Example: A cleaning operation in an open -bay work area uses methyl ethyl ketone (2-butanone) at
the rate of 2 pints/h. The general air distribution is good but the layout of the workroom prevents
some of the dilution air from passing directly through the zone of contaminant evolution at the
workbench²assume a value of 5 for "K." Calculate the dilution airflow requirement to maintain the
airborne concentration at 50 ppm.

Answer: The amount of chemical released is 2 pints/h, or 0.033 pints/min. The specific gravity of
methyl ethyl ketone is 0.81 and its molecular weight is 72 (NIOSH, 1994).
Applying Equation 1:
Q = 403 x sp gr x ü x K x 1,000,000
MxL

Q = 403 x 0.81 x 0.033 pints/min x 5 x 1,000,000

72x50

Q= 14,961 ft 3/min

uilution Ventilation for Health: Purging

The purging rate equation can estimate how long it will take the fan to remove the contaminated air
from the work environment after the release or generation of contaminant ceases. This is when all
residual liquid has been cleaned up or has evaporated into the air, which is when the release of
contaminant ceases.

Page 635

50 ppm = 4000 ppm [eK-2ü21)/9000]]

50 = 4,000 [e*-0-3**]
50 _ = (e (-0.33t)
4,000

0.0125 = [e (-0.33t)]

-4.38 + -0.33 t

t = 13.3 minutes

Table 20-A shows the use of Equation 3 to estimate the approx-mate elapsed time to reach 10 percent
and one percent of the iriginal concentration based on the ratio of Q' to room volume:
Effective Air Exchange Rate (air changes/min) =

Example: For the previous example, estimate the time unti l he concentration reaches one percent
of the original concentration (i.e., 40 ppm).

Answers Applying Equation 4:

Effective Air Exchange Rate = Q' 2,992 ft 3/min
Vr 9,000 ft 3
3
033 air changes/min
From Table 20-A, the closest listed value of Effective AirExchange Rate is 0.35. üith this rate it will
take approximately 13 minutes to reach 40 ppm, which is one percent of the original concentration.
This value is very close to the time calculated in the example above; the difference is due to using the
closest Effective Air Exchange Rate in the table rather than the actual value.

uilution Airflow uesign uata

As an option to using Equation 1, the ACGIH $
contains airflow recommendations for some
applications such as general welding (Table 20²B), and use of lift trucks powered by internal
combustion engines inside buildings.

For example, a dilution airflow of 5,000 ft 3/min for each propane-fueled lift truck and 8,000 f 3 /min
for each gasoline-fueled lift truck is recommended under the follo wing conditions (ACGIH, 1998):

>A regular maintenance program incorporating finalengine tuning thr ough carbon monoxide
analysis of exhaust gas must be provided, with CO concentrations no higher than 1 percent for
propane-fueled trucks and2 percent for ga soline-fueled trucks.
> Periods of lift truck operation do not exceed 50 percent of the working day.
>A reasonably good distribution of airflow must be provided.
>The volume of space must be at least 150,000 ft 3/lift truck,
>The truck must be powered by an engine of less than 60 hp.

This type of design information is especially helpful for new facilities where no ambient
contaminant measurements can be conducted prior to system design.

CALCULATINÔ uILUTION AIRFLOü FOR FIRE ANu EXPLOSION PREVENTION

Dilution ventilation is used to reduce concentrations of flam mable or explosive gases, vapors, or dust
to safe levels well belowtheir lower explosive limit (LEL).

Table 20-A. !

 
=  
9


)
  



)
  



Page 637

Table 20-£ Dilution Airflow for Welding*

The dilution must occur before the contaminated air reaches any source of ignition. The accu -
mulation of flammable or explosive mixtures in basements, pits, and other locations also must be
considered in addition to dilut ing vapors in the general work area. The equation for calculating dilution
airflow for flammable or explosive gases or vapors is:

Q = 403xspgrxüxSfxl00
M x LEL x B

where Q = dilution airflow, ft 3/min

sp gr = specific gravity of liquid (water = 1.0)
ü = amount of flammable liquid used or released, pints/min
Sf = dimensionless safety factor that depends on the percentage of LEL acceptable for safe
conditions. For some applications the concentration should not exceed 25 p ercent of the LEL so S f
= 4 (i.e., 100 + 25 = 4); for other situations S f values of 10 or higher may be needed
M = molecular weight of contaminant
LEL = lower explosive limit of contaminant, percent
B = constant reflecting that the LEL decreases at el evated temperatures. B = 1 for temperatures
up to 250 F, B = 0.7 for temperatures above 250 F.

Equation 5 is based on the assumption that 100 percent of the dilution air is effective in diluting the
contaminant before the contaminated air reaches a source of ignition. If this is not the case, the
calculated Q must be multiplied by an additional safety factor.

Some operations release peak amounts of contaminants over a short time period. For example,
drying ovens evaporate solvents rapidly during the first few minutes after objects are placed in the
oven. In these cases the value of ü should reflect the peak emission r ate rather than the average
rate.

ühen both employee exposure and fire/explosion pre vention are considered for the same
operation, the dilution flow rate calculated using Equation 1 almost always governs because the
allowable airborne levels for breathing are sig nificantly lower than the LELs for almost all, if not all,
substances.
Example: As part of a laboratory analytical test, one pint of n-hexane is evaporated per hour in a
small evaporation chamber. How much airflow is needed through the chamber to keep the
concentration at 5 percent of the LEL?

Answer: Since one pifit is evaporated per hour:

ü =1 pint 1(h) = = 0.017 pints/min
h (60 )

The specific gravity of n-hexane is 0.66, the molecular weight is 86, and the LEL is 1.1 percent
(NIOSH, 1994). Since the temperature is less than 250 F, B = 1. To maintain the concentration at
20 percent of the LEL, S f = 20 (i.e., 100 + 5 = 20). Applying Equation 5:
Q = _403xspgrxüxSfxl00
M x LEL x B

Q = 403 x 0.66 x 0.017 x 20 x 100

86 a 1.1 x 1

Q = 95.6 ft 3 /min

Air uensity Adjustments uue to HighTemperatures

Equations 1 through 5 assume that the dilution air has stan dard density of 0.075 lb/ft3. This is the
density of air at 70 F, 29.92 in. of mercury atmospheric pressure, and 50 per cent relative humidity.
Factors that affect density are temperature, altitude, and humidity. Density correction calculations
are explained in Chapter 19, Loc al Exhaust Ventilation. For dilution systems the most common
factor is high temperature within drying ovens or similar enclosures. Density adjustments for high
temperatures can be calculated from:

Qactual = Qcalculated ( 460 F + T )

(530 F)
where Qactual = dilution airflow at actual temperature, ft 3/min
Qcalculated= dilution airflow calculated from Equations (1) or (5), ft 3/min
T = actual dilution air temperature, F

Page 638

Figure 20-4. Typical fans used for dilution ventilation.

FANS FOR uILUTION VENTILATION
As explained in Chapter 19, 5
Exhaust Ventilation, there are two main categories of fans:
 

and  


Centrifugal fans, most often used in LEV systems, were described in
the previous chapter. Dilution systems may use either type of fan, but the simple dilution systems
described in this chapter would typically be a good application for an axial flow fan.

üith axial fans the air travels parallel to the fan shaft and leaves the fan in the same direction as it
entered. A screw or propeller action produces airflow. There are three different types of axial fans
(Figure 20-4):

 

move air where there is no resistance to air flow and there is a ready source of make -
up air. They are suitable for use as exhaust fans through a wall or similar application. They are not
used with ducts because they do not produce pressure (either positive pressure or suction). Of all
the axial fans, the propeller fan exhibits the most sever e drop in airflow as resistance increases.

!Ã 

are special propeller fans mounted inside a short duct section. The fan blades are
specially shaped to enable the fan to move air against low resistance. This type of fan can be used
as an exhaust fan, and is often used with flexible ducts for temporary dilution set -ups. It is also
used for some LEV applications such as paint spray booths.

Î 

are similar to tubeaxial fans but have vanes mounted in the duct to convert spinning
air motion into higher static pressure and to straighten out the moving air. This type of fan is
commonly used in HVAC systems. For dilution systems it could be used as an exhaust fan or for
the make-up air supply fan for a complex system. They are usu ally noisier than other axial fan
designs.

VENTILATION OF NORMALLY UNOCCUPIEu ENCLOSEu SPACES

Dilution is often used to ventilate workspaces such as tanks and utility vaults that are usually
unoccupied but occasionally require workers to enter for inspection, cleaning, maintenance or other
tasks. Effective use of dilution in these situations require careful application of the principles described
so far in this chapter, plus additional concepts unique to the enclosed spaces.

üork in confined or enclosed spaces presents special hazards including oxygen deficiency, toxic
contaminants, risk of engulf ment by solid materials, and the risk of being trapped by small
passageways. üorking safely in these locations where hazards either exist or might develop
requires extraordinary care. A safety plan for work in these locations includes features such as
preventing unauthorized entry, identifying an d controlling thepotential hazards, performing air
monitoring, providing ventila tion, providing rescue equipment and personnel, and training
employees.

Page 639

Figure 20-5. The dilution ventilation must work with natural air movement such as the conv ective rise
due to solar heat load on this process vessel. (Courtesy ExxonMobil Corporation.)
Figure 20-6. Short circuiting (top) reduces the effectiveness of dilution ventilation. Relocating the fan and
make-up air entry ports can help to solve the problem. (Courtesy ExxonMobil Corporation.)

The work may be subject to specific regu lations such as the OSHA "Permit-Required Confined
Spaces" standard. (U.S. OSHA: 29 '

1910.146). Other standards may cover specific work tasks
such as welding, and require local exhaust ventilation or specific respiratory protection depending
on the materials involved. ! 
& 


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à 
Ã

 

 


Effective use of dilution should follow these principles:

}
In many enclosed spaces there is a natural air movement due to the solar load or other
factors. For example, in a large tank or process vessel located outdoors there is often a
 

from the sun's heat that causes the air to rise (Figure 20 -5).

Underground utility vaults may have a natural air move ment due to thermal load on an attached
building or other structure. In some spaces the air direction may change over the course of a day
due to warming and cool ing cycles. Dilution ventilation should be arranged to take advantage of
the natural movement. Mechanical dilution fans may not be strong enough to overcome nat ural air
movement if the set-up requires the fan to work against the natural forces such as convection.

}
Air distribution inside these spaces must be managed. .  
 
can occur if the air
moves from the inlet to the exhaust fan without diluting contaminants where employees are
working. Temporary scaffolding or other internal features may impede good airflow. It may
be necessary to block off some air inlets or take other steps to assure good air distribution
(Figure 20-6).

Page 640

In many applications good air distribution is easier to achieve if fresh air is blown into the space
using a flexible duct arrangement rather than using the fan to exhaust the space. The air can be
discharged into the area whe re people are working, and will flow out available openings (Figure
20²7) .üith this arrangement, care is needed to assure that the high velocity air discharge in the
workspace does not stir up dust and cause an eye hazard.

}
Another type of short circuiting can occur if the exhaust fan or duct is not sealed to the
workspace opening. In this case outside air is pulled back through the fan rather than air
from the interior of the closed space (Figure 20²8). Bolts and clamps to hold the fan in
place can solve this problem, with plywood adapter plates between the fan and workspace
opening where needed.

The axial flow fans often used for dilution ventilation i n enclosed spaces may exhibit a severe drop
in airflow (Q) with added resistance to airflow. For each fan the amount o f air it can move depends
on the resistance or static pressure it is operating against. In enclosed spaces the extra resistance
usually is due to either long lengt hs of duct attached to the fan, or too small openings for make -up
air, which causes aslight negative air pressure inside the space. Fan manufac turers provide
literature that shows how much air will b e moved against varying static pressure levels. For fans
used with flexible ducts the data sheets will show the airflow with different duct lengths.

Fans used for dilution in enclosed workspaces may be pow ered by electricity or compressed air.
Air-powered units typically have air channels in the fan blades s o that a jet of air isdischarged at
the blade tip to cause fan rotation. For air -driver fans, the fan's airflow at different compressed air
pressures willbe shown in the manufacturers literature. Air -driven fan units should not be used to
blow air into the workspace unless th e compressed air is of respirable quality.

MEASURINÔ uILUTION PERFORMANCE

A description of air measuring devices and techniques is in Chapter 19, Local Exhaust Ventilation.

.
Ã
are useful in identifying the air distribution patterns in the work area, the movement
of contaminants from discrete sources, the direction of natural air movement and problems such as
short-circuiting.

Î 
 
is determined from this equation:

Q=VxA

where Q = volumetric airflow, ft 3 /min

V = velocity, ft/min
A = area of flow, ft 2


Î 
are used to determine the velocity through openings. For a space that is being
exhausted, it may be easier and more accurate to measure the make -up air flowing into the space
rather than measure the fan's output directly.

ühere accurate airflow data is needed, follow the instruction for a Î
!  
in Chapter 19,
Local Exhaust Ventilation.

Figure 20-8. A gap in the fan mounting on a ventilation port (top) causes recirculation of outside air through
the fan. A tight connection (bottom) maximizes the quantity of air exhausted from the workspace. (Courtesy
ExxonMobil Corporation,}

SUMMARY
Dilution occurs when contaminants released into the work room mix with air flowing through the
room. It is used in situations where small quantities of relatively low toxicity (o r low fire hazard)
contaminants are released into the work room air, and sufficien t dilution occurs before worker
breathe the contaminated air or a flammable mixture reaches a source of ignition. The major
difficulty in designing a dilution ventilation system is that the inherent uncertainties that exist in
many of the design parameters require that large "safety factors" be applied to airflow equations to
assure that safe conditions are maintained. T his can result in large air volumes being exhausted
from the workplace.

Dilution is also used to ventilate workspaces such as tanks and utility vaults that are usually
unoccupied but occasionally require workers to enter for inspection, cleaning, main tenance or
other tasks. üork in confined or enclosed spaces presents special hazards , and work in these
locations where hazards either exist or might develop requires extraordinary care. Effective use of
dilution in these situations require care ful application of the general principles that apply to all work
settings plus additional concepts unique to confined or enclosed spaces .

Chapter 21
Ôeneral Ventilation of Nonindustrial Occupancies

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ENERÔY CONSERVATION VERSUS INuOOR AIR QUALITY *IAQ)

During the 1970s and 1980s, many buildings were built or remodeled to minimize air -handling
energy costs. This often meant limiting the amount of outside air brought into the building,
sometimes to as low as 0²5 cfm OA/person. During the same time, many new building methods
and materials were introduced, some of which created new air contaminants. This h as often
resulted in underventilated buildings and occupants who complain about the air quality.
TERMS
Airhandling unit *A{)is the ventilation equipment in HVAC systems.
AS{A *American Society of {eating,
  
and Air Conditioning ngineers) is the
primary North American association dealing with IAQ issues; has devel oped a number of IAQ-
related standards.
Acceptable indoor air quality is air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful levels
as determined by appropriate authorities, 
airwith which 80 percent or more of the people do not
express dissatisfaction based onseveral acceptability criteria (such as temperature, relative
humidity, odors, and air movement).

Page 644

Commissioningis the acceptance process in which an HVAC systems performance is

determined, identified, verified, and documented to ensure proper operation in accordance with
codes, standards, and design intentions.
Constantair
olume *CV) is an HVAC system in which the supply air volume is constant;
temperature and humidity are varied at the air -handling unit (AHU).
{VAC*heating
entilating, 
air 
 
"{Vac") systems are air-handling
systems designed primarily for temperature, humidity, odor, and air -quality control.
Occupied zoneis usually the region within an occupied space between the floor and 72 in. above
the floor and more than 2 ft ftom the walls.
Outdoorair +-),
is "fresh" air; the OA is mixed with return air (RA) to dilute contaminants in the
supply air (SA); outdoor air is usually obtained from outside the building, but alternatives exist
(such as from an acceptable hallway).
Supplyair +.),
is air supplied to a space by t he air-handling system.
Variableair
olume
+Î)Î,
refers to HVAC systems in which the air volume is varied by dampers
or fan speed controls to maintain the temperature; primarily used for energy conservation.
HVAC SYSTEMS
The term Î)
implies mechanically ventilating, heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, and
cleaning air for comfort, safety, and health. HVAC systems also provide odor control and maintain
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels at acceptable concentrations. Mechanical air -handling systems
(as opposed to natural ventilation, which relies on wind and temperature differences to induce
airflow through a building) range from a simple fan to complex, digitally con trolled central air-
handling units.

Individual units may be installed in the space they serve, or central units can be installed to serve
multiple areas.
Figure 21-1. Outdoor air consensus standards over the years.

Figure 21-2. Zone terms.

Zones
HVAC systems are built to serve specific 
areas within a building that are served by an air
handling system. The smaller the zone, the better chance there is of providing sat isfactory
conditions. But the costs increase as size decreases and the number of zones increases.

Most zones are defined by one thermostat. Some systems ar e designed to provide individual
control of room air temperature in both single- and multiple-zone systems. (See Figure 21²2.)

The following paragraphs describe basic systems.

SINÔLE-ZONE CONSTANT-VOLUME SYSTEM
The designer (or user) of an air -handling system must choose combinations of volume flow rate,
temperature, humidity, and air quality that satisfy the needs of the space. Figure 21 -3 shows a
schematic of a simple, ideal commercial HVAC sys tem. Systems vary in design and complexity,
but the single-zone constant-volume (SZCV) system is the simplest.

Every central HVAC system has an OA 
usually a louvered opening on the top or side of the
building. As air enters the intake, pushed by atmospheric pressure, a 
regulates the amount
of OA taken into the system. Intake dampers should have a min imum set point such that an
adequate supply of outside air is delivered to building occupants at all times. (See Figure 21 ²3.)

Incoming outdoor air (OA) mixes with return air (RA) from the occupied spa ce, forming recirculated
air, or mixed air (MA). The MA usually passes through a coarse 
(arrestance filter), which
removes bees, flies, bird feathers, leaves, and larger dust particles. Small particle collection
requires a more efficient filter, the dust spot filter. The air then enters the 

Discharged at the fan outlet , the air, now under positive pressure, is pushed through coils that heat
and cool the air depending on air temperature, the season, and the zone being served. A drain pan
is fitted below the coils to collect water that condenses on the cooling coil. Leaving the coils,
the air may be humidified (or dehumidified), which adjusts the relative humidity to 30 ²60 percent.

Page 645

Typically, the conditioned air moves through metal ductwork (sometimes insulated with a
sound-absorbing lining that must be kept dry and mold -free) at about 10²20 mph (1,000-2,000
fpm) to a distribution à 
From there it travels through smaller ducts to the supply  
or
 

Entering the room at 500 ²1,000 fpm, the air usually hugsthe ceiling and walls, and its velocity
slows to a terminalvelocity of about 40 -50 fpm. For comfort reasons, it is important that supply air
reaches terminal velocity before it reaches building occupa nts²as higher velocities will cause
drafts and thereby discomfort.

In about five to ten minutes, the air migrates through the space to the  

 often a
louvered opening into a return air duct or a return air plenum, the space above the ceil ing tiles.
From there it moves to the return air duct, where it may be recirculated (RA) or be exhausted to
the outdoors (EA). Many buildings are maintained under positive pressure, and air may exfiitrate
anywhere along the building periphery. Sophisticat ed controls manage the system and determine
how much OA will be introduced, how much RA will be exhausted, and what temperatures and
humidities will be maintained.
Figure 21-4 shows how a single constant-value (CV) supply system can provide temperature
control in multiplezones. Each zone has a reheat coil controlled by a thermostat.Air is first cooled
at the central cooling coil and thenreheated at the final distribution point to maintain
propertemperature. These systems are less energy efficient because they both cool and reheat
the air.

Figure 21-5 shows another approach, which serves manyzones from one air handler. The air is
split before the heating and cooling coils. Dual ducts carry heated and cooled air to final mixing
boxes near the zones. Thermostats control dampersthatmix the appropriate amounts of air to
achieve the desired temperature. Energy use is high, but individual control is also high.

Figure 21-3. Typical single-zone constant-volume HVAC system. Note: MA =mixed air; OA =
outside air; RA = returnair; SA = supply air; EA = exhausted air.

Figure 21-4 - CV reheat system

VARIA£LE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS

In contrast to the constant-volume system, which varies air temperature to maintain temperature,
a  Ã


(VAV) system varies the amount of air delivered to the space to maintain
temperature. (See Figure 21 ²6.) For example, in summer, if the temperature increases, additional
cool air is provided. As the space temperature drops to desired levels, the airflow diminishes.
These systems are energy efficient, but they may cause problems of insufficient outside air. For
example, if the space does not call for cool air, the airflow will drop, perhaps to zero flow in poorly
performing HVAC systems.

In cases where a minimum volume of air is required, reheat coils must be installed to provide
temperature control.
The advantages of variable airflow are energy conservation and lower operating costs. Air
volume and fan speed (in rpm) are linearly related. If the airflow is to be cut in half, then fan
speed is cut in half. But horsepower and speed are related through a third -power relationship. If
the speed is reduced by half, the horsepower and the costs are reduced by eight times.
Page 646

The use of fan inlet dampers toreduce airflow also results in lower costs (but not by the same
factors as reducing fan speed).

If variable-volume boxes are installed at the distribution point, more zones can be accommodated
from a single fan. As the demand for air decreases, dampers at the boxes close, and the fan
slows, saving energy. (See Figure 21 ²7.)

Reheat coils can be installed at each distribution box to regulate temperature where a minimum
airflow is desired. This increases costs, however. Another way to maintain a minimum O A supply
is to provide dual ducts with cool and warm air. Mixing boxes mix the air, always at the minimum
flow required for temperature control and OA delivery, thus allowing the fan to run at the lowest
rpm.

UNIT VENTILATORS
Unit systems canstand alone. (See Figure 21²8.) All of the air movement, OA delivery, and
heating and cooling mustbe provided by the un it. These are often seen in offices with windows,
hotel rooms, and other locations requiring self -contained operation.

Complex systems may have combinations of multiple zones, variable air volumes, and dual ducts.

Figure 21-5 Dual-duct HVAC system.

Figure 21-6. VAV HVAC system.
Figure 21-7 VAV with variable-air boxes.)
Figure 21-8 Unit ventilator.

AIR MIXINÔ IN THE OCCUPIEu ZONE

Delivery of air to a space does not guarantee that prop er mixing will occur. Offices with partitions
are often susceptible to this problem. The placement of bookshelves, furnitur e, windows, and
walls changes the movement of air, often for the worse. This problem is often quantified by
calculating the
Mixing efficiency or ventilation effectiveness. The missing factor is defined as the ratio of the amount
of air required to dilute a contaminant to the ideal amount of air that should reduce it.

 
An office building houses 30 employees. ASHRAE Standard 62-1999 calls for 20 cfm OA per
person to be delivered to the occupied zone.
Page 647

If because of poor mixing it actually takes 800 cfm to pro -ride 20 cfm OA per person, then

In well-planned buildings served by good HVAC systems, š
is often close to 1.0 (perfect mixing).
Good mixing can be attained by the following approaches:
> Provide and properly position an adequate number ofsupply and return registers.
>Place supply registers so as to circulate air t o where people are located in the occupied zone.
> Provide free-standing fans for people located in areas of poor mixing. (This approach is often
cost-effective and I satisfying to building occupants.)

uAMPERS
Dampers are used in HVAC duct systems to control airflow. Damper positions can be set
automatically or manually depending on the type and sophistication of the HVAC con trol system.
Fire and smoke dampers are used to restrict the spread of heat and smoke during a fire.
Dampers, actuators, and control systems should always be checked and maintained regularly to
ensure proper flow of air through the system.

TERMINAL uEVICES
Supply diffusers, return and exhaust grilles, and associated dampers and controls are used to
produce proper distribu tion of the supply air. The number, location, and type of terminal devices
determine the air distribution in the occu pied space. Improper devices can lower the ventilation
effectiveness and create stagnant areas, drafts, odor buildup, uneven temperatures, short -
circuiting of the air, and air stratification.

RETURN AIR SYSTEMS

ühere the space above the ceiling (the return plenum) is used for returning air, certain practices
should be followed:
>Electrical wiring should be in conduit or coated with aspecial fire -resistant covering.
> Plastic piping and plastic air registers, such as polyvinylchloride, should not be used because of
the smoke theyproduce in a fire.
>The space should be kept clean and dry to reducebioaerosol amplification.
>Fire walls (which extend to the floor above) must be breached, sometimes with backdraft
dampers, to allowthe air to return to the AHU.
> Ceiling tiles and access doors must be kept in place to ensure proper airflow inthe occupied
space.

From the return plenum, air enters the ret urn ducts and is ducted to the central AHU. Some
systems use return fans to ensure proper pressure relationships between the supply and return
ducts.

HVAC SOURCES ANu CAUSES OF IAQ PRO£LEMS

NIOSH, in studies of over 1,300 IAQ episodes since the late 1970s, categorized major causes or
sources of IAQ problems (rounded to the nearest 10 percent):
> Fifty percent related to deficiencies in the ventilation of the building, such as lack of outside air,
poor air distribution, uncomfortable temperatures and humidities, and sources of contaminants in
the system.
> Thirty percent related to some indoor air contaminant, such as formaldehyde, solvent vapors,
dusts, or microbiological agents.
>Ten percent could be attributed to an outdoor source, such as motor vehicle exhaust, pollen,
fungi, smoke, or construction dusts.
> Ten percent had no observable cause.

Note that about half of all IAQ episodes had their origin in the HVAC system. According to NIOSH,
common patterns emerge from HVAC-origin IAQ problems:
}
Forced ventilation is common.
}
Buildings are energy-efficient.
}
People perceive they have little control over their environ ment (for example, there is no
thermostat in the room).
}
There are more complaints when population densities are higher.

Table 21²A lists typical deficiencies and their causes.

HVAC STANuARuS FOR MAINTAININÔ AuEQUATE IAQ Consensus Standards

The three most important consensus standards affecting IAQ are ASHRAE 62 on Ventilation for
IAQ, ASHRAE 55 on Thermal Comfort, and ASHRAE 52 on Air Filtration. The latest standards are
described in the following paragraphs.

ASHRAE 62-1999: VENTILATION FOR ACCEPTA£LE AIR QUALITY

The following paragraphs provide a list of the most impor tant provisions of the standard. The
"shoulds" and "shalls" are taken directly from the standard.
}
ühen mechanical ventilation is used, provision for air flow measurement should be
provided. ühen natural ventilation is used, sufficient ventilation should be
demonstrable. (Section 5.1)
}
Ventilation air shall b e supplied throughout the occupied zone. This implies delivery to
where people actually are, as opposed to simply delivering air to the building. (Section 5.2)
}
ühere  Ã


 
+Î)Î,
are used, and when the supply of air is reduced
during times a space is occupied, indoor air quality shall be maintained through out the
occupied zone. (Section 5.3)
}
Ventilation systems should be designed to prevent the growth and dissemination of
microorganisms (e.g., limit use of fiber-lined ductwork where it may get dirty or wet).
(Sections 5.4 and 5.5)

Page 648

}
Inlets and outlets shall be located to avoid contamination of intake air. (Section 5.4)
}
ühere practical, exhaust systems shall remove contami nants at the source. (Section 5.6)
}
ühere combustion sources, clothes dryers, or exhaust systems are used, adequate
makeup air should be provided. (Section 5.7)
}
ühere necessary, particle filters and gas/vapor scrubbers should be sized and used to
maintain air quality. (Sec tions 5.8 and 5.9)
}
Relative humidities should be maintained between 30 and 60 percent. (Section 5.10)
}
AHU condensate pans shall be designed for self -drainage. Periodic in -situ cleaning of
cooling coils and condensate pans shall be provided. (Section 5.11)
}
AHU shall be easily accessible for inspection and pre ventive maintenance. (Section 5.11)
}
Steam is preferred for humidification. Standing water used in humidifiers and water sprays
should be treated to avoid microbial buildup. (Section 5.11)
}
Special care should be ta ken to avoid entrainment of moisture drift from cooling towers into
makeup air and intake vents. (Section 5.11)
}
Indoor air should not contain contaminants at concen trations known to impair health or
cause discomfort. Outdoor air introduced to the buildin g through the ventilation system
should not exceed USEPA National Pri mary Ambient-Air Quality Standards. If the outdoor
air contaminant levels exceed EPA values, the air should be treated. ühen confronted with
air known to contain contaminants not on the EPA list, one should refer to other references
 for guidance. (Section 6)
}
The standard lists minimum OA requirements for about 100 occupancies, including offices
and classrooms. (See the sample shown in Table 21 -B.) The standard assumes good
mixing and distribution of the outdoor air. It also assumes a certain occupant loading.
ühere these are not the case, additional OA may be required (Section 6.1.3).

Table 21-A. :

Î)
. 

! 


ASHRAE 55-1992: THERMAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONuITIONS FOR HUMAN OCCUPANCY

The standard specifies conditions in which 80 -90 percent or more of the occupants should find the
environment thermally acceptable. It does not address other environ mental factors such as air
quality and contaminants. This st andard attempts to predict what conditions of tempera ture,
humidity, activity, clothing, air movement, and radi ant heat sources will satisfy 80-90 percent of
the people.

Page 649

21-B. .

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& 
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).
)
IÑG000

.
-

Satisfaction for any single parameter (such as temperature) should be 90 percent or more, and
the satisfaction expressed for all parameters collectively should be 80 per cent or more.

Figure 21²9 summarizes the standards provisions for temperature and humidity. The figure is a
simplified version of the original, which uses "operative temperatures" and con cepts that can be
understood only by reading the actual stan dard. (See the Bibliography.)

ASHRAE 52: 1992 METHOuS OF TESTINÔ AIR CLEANINÔ uEVICES USEu IN ÔENERAL VENTILATION FOR
REMOVINÔ PARTICULATE MATTER
Most modern HVAC systems use two filters: a roughing filter to remove large particles and a dust
spot filter to remove smaller particles. (Charcoal filters and HEPA filtration systems ma y be used in
rare instances to remove gases, vapors, and very small particles.) The three performance
characteristics of greatest importance in selecting an air filter are as follows:
>The filters efficiency in removing particles from theairstream
>The resistance to airflow through ,the filter
>The time interval between cleaning or replacement

ASHRAE 52 has established two testing or rating procedures:

}
The ASHRAE Dust Spot Efficiency test, sometimes referred to as the 52 Atmospheric test,
uses a fine dust as the test medium.
}
The ASHRAE Arrestance test uses a coarse dust as the test medium.
Each has its place, but the dust sp ot efficiency test is used with filters that capture smaller
particles. For example, a fine open foam filter with an arrestance rating of 80 percent may have
a dust spot efficiency rating of 20 -25 percent, and 0 percent for the very small DOP test aerosols
used for testingHEPA filters.
Typical comparisons are shown in Table 21 ²C, by percent removal.

Regulatory Standards - All existing buildings were built to comply with local build ing and fire
codes in force at the time of construction (or rebuilding). Many building code authorities have
adoptedsome version of ASHRAE IÑ
and 55. You should check yourlocal codes.

As of May 2000, OSHA was in the process of developing an LAQ regulation for places of
employment. The proposed OSHA rule on LAQ included the following major provisions related to
ventilation:
> Keep carbon dioxide levels below 800 ppm; this trans lates intoan OA requirement (in typical
office spaces) of 25-30 cfm.
> Keep relative humidity below 60 percent (which is con sistent with ASHRAE 55-1992).
>Obtain and maintain records on HVAC systems.
>Inspect, maintain, and operate the HVAC system so that it meets th e criteria of the codes in
force at the time the building was constructed.
>Exhaust designated smoking areas to the outdoors and keep the area under negative pressure.
>Locate intakes to prohibit uptake of contaminated air.
>Provide local exhaust of specific emitters if necessary.

OSHA also estimated that it would cost about $1.40 per square foot (for problem buildings) to
upgrade existing HVAC systems to meet the proposed standard, for a total of $12 billion for the
country. Call your local state or federal

Page 650

OSHA area office for the latest information on the status of this important regulation .

Table 21-C.  

'
!

TESTINÔ, TROU£LESHOOTINÔ, ANu MAINTAININÔ HVAC SYSTEMS

In order for any HVAC system to operate properly and consistently over its life span,


  Ã 
and 
are required.


is a process in which a new HVAC system's performance is identified, verified,

and documented to ensure proper operation and compliance with codes, standards, and design
intentions. Commissioning often requires tests and demonstrations to verify that the system
operates properly. Troubleshooting and maintenance activi ties also require system testing. A


is often chosen by the building owner, the architect, or the contractor to
oversee construction and commissioning activities.

!

Ã
(TAB or T&B) is periodically required for all systems. This involves the
testing and adjusting of system components (such as dampers) to ensure adequate air distribution
to the occupied spaces. ühen hiring a TAB specialist put requirements on paper in the form of a
performance specification. Always check for references and certifications, such as those issued
by the National Environ mental Balancing Bureau (NEBB). You can obtain detailed information
from your local Sheet Metal and Air Condi tioning National Association (SMACNA).

Most health and safety professionals are not able to con duct in-depth testing of HVAC systems.
Specialized knowledge of testing and balancing is required on the complex HVAC systems of
today. This chapter provides guidelines for 
testing and troubleshooting that non -HVAC
personnel might perform. For example, most people should be able to do the following:
>Become familiar with the HVAC system characteristics
> Determine the intended or desired operating parameters
> Perform cursory ventilation checks with smoke tubes, balometers, velometers, and pressure-
measuring equipment.

Early on, the investigator should contact the building engineer or a person who intimately knows
the HVAC system. (Sometimes this person is the only one who really knows how the system
operates "now that the system has been modified so much," a common pr oblem.) Try to have that
person available during the investigation.

Simple initial checks of the ventilation in a room that anyone can perform are shown in Table 21 ²
D.

Simple measurements of the ventilation in a room that anyone can perform are shown in Table
21²E.

One approach to becoming familiar with an HVAC system is to follow the system from start to
finish. Go first to the air intakes and follow the air as it flows through the dampers, filters, fans,
coils, ductwork, terminal boxes, and supply registers. Then identify return grills and follow the air
back to the air handler. The following should be noted:
}
Air intake and exhaust locations and damper settings
}
ühat equipment is actually running and what is shut down
}
Closed or jammed dampers
}
Clogged or misplaced filters
}
Settled water anywhere
}
Thermostat locations and temperature levels
}
Supply air quality (clean, odorless, properly humidified)
}
Drafts or stuffiness in occupied space
}
Supply and return register locations and damper settings
}
Potential sources of contaminants (microbial or chemi cal) anywhere
}
Provision for OA
}
Positioning of OA and RA dampers
}
Controls operation
}
VAV system air delivery schedule, minimums
Next, review the as-built and as-modified drawings to become familiar with the HVAC system and
the building. Read the original (or modified) specifications to become familiar with the intended
operating parameters.
Forms 21-1 and 21²2 and Checklists 21²1, 21²2, and 21²3 (at the end of the chapter) can
help you organize your in formation-gathering and testing efforts.

Page 651

}
Does the room have a Supply diffusor'' A return?

}
Is air moving through diffusers and return grills?
}
Are air diffusers and gulls open'' 1 Blocked'' Attached to ductwork?
}
Is supply air distributed throughout the occupied space?
}
Do people actually feel air moving?
}
Are there dead air spaces in the office or room?
}
Do printers, copiers, and other equipment have adequate ventilation?
}
Are mixing fans or portable heaters used by occupants?
}
Does the HVAC system always operate when people are in the building?
}
Is the air too hot? Too cold? Too humid? Too dry?
}
Do people actually detect odors?
}
Do occupants report symptoms that they associate with air quality?
}
ühat contaminates the air?

Simple Calculations for Characterizing the Airflow in a Space

A number of simple calculations are available to the health and safety professional for determining
air volume flow rates, the amount of OA being delivered to a space, and so forth. All of the
equations presented in Chapter 20 can also be used in IAQ applications. Additionally, the
following approxima tions are helpful.

PERCENTAÔE OF OUTuOOR AIR IN THE SUPPLY AIR

It is possible to estimate the percentage of outdoor air (OA) in the supply air (SA) by measuring
the temperatures of the air.
where TRA = temperature of return air (dry-bulb)
Tma = temperature of mixed return and outside air *dry-bulb)
TQA = temperature of outdoor air (dry-bulb)

For example, assume the following temperatures were measured in an air-handling unit: Tra =
70 F, Tma = 66 F, and TQA = 50 F. The percentage of OA can be estimated by the following
equation:

ESTIMATINÔ THE AMOUNT OF OA IN AN OFFICE SPACE

Outdoor air (OA) reduces the indoor contaminants to con centrations that are acceptable to a
majority (if not all) of the occupants in a space. Carbon dioxide is used as a surrogate for other air
contaminants. It has been suggested that building owners and operators maintain CO2
concentrations below 1,000 ppm. In their 62 -1999 standard, ASHRAE recommended maintaining
a steady-state concentration of CO2 no greater than 700 ppm above outdoor levels as an
indicator of body odor acceptability. The concentrations of carbon diox ide in a building vary with
the number of sources (people) and the volume of OA introduced and mixed in the space. (See
Figure 21-10.) Note that concentrations tend tobuild and decay exponentially over time. This
behavior allows us to predict airflow rates from measurements of carbon dioxide.

TRACER ÔAS APPROACHES TO uETERMININÔ THE OUTuOOR AIRFLOü RATE IN A SPACE

The airflow through a building, space, or room can be esti mated using tracer gas methods. Three
methods are widely used: the  
method, the 
method, and the
 
method. All three methods are based on a simple relationship:
Change in tracer-gas concentration =
Amount introduced - Amount removed

The change in tracer gas is related to the nature of the air flow and the source of the tracer gas.
Carbon dioxide, as well as other inert gases and vapors, can be used as tracer gas in occupied
spaces.

Table 21 -E Simple Measurements of Indoor Airuality ’arameters

Figure 21-10. Typical carbon dioxide concentrations in today's buildings.

Page 652

The sources listed in the Bibliography at the end of this chapter contain more information on
tracer-gas calculations. The following simple estimating techniques are based on techniques
using carbon dioxide as the tracer gas.

A useful approximation of the volume flow rate of out door air is based on the 

technique. The number of people working in an office space and the measured carbon dioxide
concentrations in the space (after the concentration has leveled off) are generally related to the
volume flow rate of outdoor air as follows

where å-)
3approximate volume flow rate of outdoor air (cfm)


3
number of people working in an office com plex (with about seven people per 1,000 ft2 of office
space)
Cindoors = measured concentration of CO2 in the office air after a long period of occupancy time,
such as near lunch or near the end of the day (ppm)
QOA =concentration of C0 2 in the outdoor air (ppm)

 
Suppose 12 employees work in an office complex. After sev eral hours the measured CO2
concentration has leveled off at about 1,000 ppm. The outside concentration of CO2 is 340 ppm.
The approximate volume of outdoor air being introduced to the space is calculated as follows:

Perhaps the easiest and most useful method of measuring air -exchange rates over short periods
of time is the  
tracer-gas approach. Human-origin carbon dioxide
concentrations are used as the tracer gas. During the day CO2 builds up naturally; after everyone
leaves at 5:00 p.m., OA will dilute the carbon dioxide. (See Figure 21 ²10.) Knowing the initial and
final concentrations and the time elapsed allows the use of purge formulas to predict the amount
of OA delivered.

where
ë
= air exchange, air changes per hour, OA

= concentration of C0 2 at start of test
4= outdoor concentration, about 330 ppm
= concentration of CO2 at end of test

= time elapsed between start and end of test
In is the natural log.

ühen using this equation, be sure the HVAC system operates normally during the time of the test.
(Many HVAC systems automatically reduce service at or before quitting time.) Be sure that almost
all of the people have left the building or space being measured. Measure background car bon
dioxide outside the building, if possible. A good location is at the air intake for the HVAC system.
Be sure to subtract background concentrations from your measured va lues. If the decay line is
flat, then no OA is being supplied. If the decay line is uneven (not smoothly exponential), then the
air in the space is not being uniformly mixed in the space.
Volume flow rates can be calculated from the following formula:

 
Suppose the carbon dioxide concentration is Ci = 1,200 ppm at 5:30 p.m., when all of the people
have departed a build ing. By 7:30 p.m., the concentration has been reduced to = 400 ppm. The
outside concentration is 330 ppm. How many air changes per hour of OA does this suggest? ühat
is QOA. for a space volume of 50,000 ft 3?
It is possible to estimate the percentage of outdoor air in the supply air by measuring the car bon
dioxide concentrations at the AHU and using the following equatio n:

where
CRA = CO2 concentration in return air
CSA = CO2 concentration in supply air (any pointafter the return air and outdoor air have
mixed)
-)
3
CO2 concentration in outdoor air
 
Assume the following concentrations of CO2 are measured at the air -handling unit:
CRA = 750 ppm
CSA = 650 ppm
Coa = 330 ppm

Page 653

The percentage of OA is calculated as follows:

Additional information on estimating airflow rates can be found in the references listed in the
Bibliography.

Troubleshooting HVAC Systems

Invariably, something goes wrong with almost all ventilation systems. Simple troubleshooting
usually involves three phases of study:
> Characterizing complaints and gat hering backgrounddata
> Checking performance of ventilation systems and theircontrols
> Measuring carbon dioxide, temperature, and relativehumidity

First, the troubleshooter should talk to those who are complaining to characterize the problem,
gather background data, and try to establish causes or sources of the problem.
The most common causes and sources of trouble related to ventilation systems are as follows:
#Insufficient outdoor air (OA) introduced to the system
>Poor distribution/stratification of supply air in occupiedspace
> Draftiness²too much supply air or improper terminalsettings
>Stuffiness²not enough air delivery or not deliveredproperly
>Improper pressure differences²doors hard to open
>Temperature extremes²too hot or too cold
>Humidity extremes²too dry or too humid
> Poor filtration²dirt, bugs, or pollen in the air -deliverysystem
> Poor maintenance
> Energy conservation the number-one priority
>Settled water in system
>Visual evidence of slime or mold
> Improper balance of distribution system
> Dampers at incorrect positions
#Terminal diffusers not at correct positions
> VAV systems in nondelivery or low -delivery mode

If after investigating the troubleshooter has identified one or more problems, he or she should not
overreact; it is probably not a life-threatening situation. Furthermore, correction of the problems
may or may not satisfy those who are registering complaints. Corrective measures do not hurt, of
course, and any measures taken to solve the problem will probably be appreciated.

The following paragraphs list some common maladies or complaints and potential causes or
sources of trouble.

! 
  


 
+

,
Potential problems: thermostats misadjusted, supply air
temperature setting too high or low, too much or too little supply air, supplydiffuser blows air
directly on occupants, temperature sensor malfunctioning or misplaced, cold air not mixing with
occupied space air, HVAC system defective or undersized, and building under negat ive pressure,
which causes infiltration of air at the building perimeter (building pressures should be +0.03 to
+0.05 in. wg). Simple testing equipment: ther mometer, velometer, smoke tubes.

! 




+

,
Potential problems: Humidity controls not operating correctly or
undersized. Simple testing equipment: sling psychrometer.

! 


 

or !  




Potential problems: Nondelivery or low

delivery of air to space, filters overloaded, VAV dampers malfunc tioning, restrictions in ductwork,
ductwork disconnected from supply diffusers, duct leaking, inadequate delivery of outside air, and
blockage from furniture, partitions, or other barriers in the occupied space. Simple testing
equipment: thermometer, velo meter, smoke tube, CO2 meter.

!  




 



Potential problems: VAV system set to deliver no air
when system is not calling for cooling (common problem in older VAV systems). Simple testing
equipment: thermometer, velometer, smoke tube, CO2 meter.

!  
 


 
Potential problems: Occupant outside of occupied zone, supply diffuser
set to blow air direcdy on occupant, occupant near open door or window, free -standing fan blowing
on occupant. Simple testing equipme nt: velometer, smoke tube.

)


 
8 
8

Potential problem: Microbiological contamination. Simple testing

equipment: noses, visual inspection. Sampling may be warranted.

)



 
Potential problems: Air intake near loading dock, other diesel engine
exhaust source. Simple testing equipment: velometer, smoke tube, indicator tubes.

Checklists 21-4 and 21²5 (at the end of the chapter) are useful in checking and troubleshooting
existing systems.
Operation and Maintenance
Correct operating procedures and maintenance of the HVAC system will ensure its continued and
consistent effectiveness. Maintenance is time -consuming and expensive but has been proven to
be cost-effective. Labor-intensive maintenance (a general rule is one maintenance person per floor
of building) requires trained workers, good materials, and good manage ment. Preventive
maintenance (PM) programs usually pre vent problems before they arise.

Checklists 21-6, 21-7, and 21-8 (at the end of the chap ter) can be helpful in establishing a good
PM management program.

Lapses in maintenance activity require repair and renova tion (for example, when ducts must be
cleaned because filters have been left to deteriorate) .

Dirt, debris, and microbiological growths in ductwork can be minimized by the following measures:

>üell-maintained filter systems (at least 40 -60 percentefficiency, dust spot test)
>Regular HVAC maintenance
>Good housekeeping in the occupied space
#Locating air intakes in noncontaminated locations
> Keeping all HVAC system components dry (or drained)

Ducts can become both the source and the pathway for dirt, dust, and biological contaminants to
spread through the build ing. ASHRAE 62-1999 and other standards suggest that efforts be made
to keep dirt, moisture, and high humidity from ductwork. Filters must be used and kept in good
working order to keep contaminants from collecting in the HVAC system.

Duct contaminants may include hair and dander, skin particles, insects and insect parts, organic
and inorganic dust, carbon and oil particles, glass fibers, asbestos, pollen, mold, mildew, bacteria,
leaves, dirt, and paper²all of which 
contribute to IAQ problems. On the other hand, the mere
presence of these contaminants has no effect on people if the contaminants do not leave the duct,
if they do not generate other contaminants (for example, organic dust may support growth of mold
or release adsorbed volatile organic com pounds), or if they do not generate odors. Indeed, there
have been cases where inert and inactive dusts were stirred up dur ing duct cleaning, resulting in
occupant complaints. Most ducts have small amounts of dust on their surfaces ²a common
occurrence that almost never necessitate s duct cleaning.

Duct cleaning or replacement is generally warranted in the following conditions:

>There is slime growth in the duct.
>There is permanent water damage.
#There is debris that restricts airflow.
> Dust is actually seen issuing from supply registers.
> Offensive odors come from the ductwork.

Duct cleaning should be performed after one can answer "yes" to all of these questions:

>Are there contaminants in the ductwork?

> Has testing confirmed their type and quantity?
> Do they (or their odors or byproducts) leave the ductand enter the occupied space?
>Is the source of these contaminants known? Can the source be controlled? (If not, cleaning is
only a temporary measure.)
>Do the contaminants actually cause IAQ problems?
#üill duct cleaning effectively remove (neutralize, inacti vate) the contaminant?
#

duct cleaning the only (or the most cost-effective)solution?
>Has a qualified and reputable duct -cleaning firm beenidentified?
> Have the firms references been checked?
> Does the duct-cleaning firm have a sensible, sound approach? Does it have the right kind of
equipment? üill the cleaning process protect your HVAC equipment and the occupants of the
space during cleaning?
#üill the firm give a guarantee?

SUMMARY
The occupational health and safety professional has many tools with which to work when
investigating, correcting, and controlling IAQ problems. The references that follow this chapter
contain more detailed discussions of the particulars.

Chapter 22

Page 667

Respiratory Protection - Ã
 




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Page 668 - RESPIRATORY PROTECTION PROÔRAMS

A written respiratory protection program must be estab lished when respiratory protection is
needed. It should include worksite -specific procedures covering the following minimum program
elements:
> Procedures for selection of proper respiratory -protectiveequipment including exposure
assessment
#Procedures for medical evaluation of respirator wearers
> Procedures for fit testing of workers using tight -fittingrespirators
> Procedures for proper respirator use du ring routine andreasonably foreseeable emergency
situations
> Procedures and schedules for cleaning, disinfecting, stor ing, inspecting, repairing, and
discarding respirators
>Procedures to ensure adequate air quality, quantity, and flow of breathing air for atmosphere-
supplying respirators
> Procedures for training workers on respirator use and res piratory hazards
> Procedures for regular program evaluation

In addition, a program administrator must be appointed to manage the program.

The OSHA standard requires that these points be addressed. The ) 
ë
. 


 
 
Z88.2-1992, is a voluntary consensus standard for the proper use of
respiratory-protective equipment. This standard is pub lished by the American Nationa l Standards
Institute (ANSI). It specifies similar points for a program, but it enumerates them slightly differently. It
is highly recommended that the American National Standard be consulted as well as the OSHA
regulation.

üorksite-Specific Procedures
üritten worksite-specific procedures that cover the entire res piratory protection program need to be
developed and imple mented as they apply to each employer's own facility. The procedures need to
cover all the elements of the program listed above as wel l as the issuance and purchasing of
respirators and any company policies pertaining to respirator use. Each ele ment must be covered
in enough detail so it is clear exactly how each element will be accomplished. Restating the OSHA
requirements such as, "üe will do fit testing annually," does not suffice. The worksite -specific
procedures must spell out exactly how the company intends to implement each program element at
each worksite. üho will do the fit testing? ühere will the fit testing be done? ühat prot ocol will be
used? Examples of employer policies that may be included are disci plinary action for not using the
respirator and facial hair. The program should be a tool to enhance worker protection.

In addition, written worksite -specific procedures must be developed for emergency and rescue
operations. Although every situation cannot be anticipated, many of the needs for emergency and
rescue use of respirators can be envisioned. This can be done by consideration of the following:
> An analysis of the emergency and rescue uses of respira tors based on materials, equipment,
work area, processes and personnel involved
#A determination, based on the above analysis, of whether the available respirators can provide
adequate protection to allow workers to enter the potentially hazardous environments
> Selection of the appropriate type and numbers of respirators
> Maintenance of these respirators so that they are readily accessible and operational when
needed.

Copies of these procedures must be available for th eemployees to read. The procedures need to
be reviewed andrevised as conditions and equipment change.

Exposure Assessment of Respirator üearers

Exposure assessments are basic to the proper use of respiratory -protective equipment. This
information is used not only to identify the need for respirators but also to iden tify the level of
protection required. The information is also needed to establish the required change schedule for
chemical cartridge and gas mask respirators used for gases and vapors. The le vels of worker
exposure are determined by instruments and equipment designed to measure the concentrations
of air contaminants and oxygen. Adequate air sampling and analy sis should be carried out to
determine time-weighted average concentrations and, when appropriate, compliance with ceil ing
and short-term exposure limits as well. Other chapters in this book should be consulted for more
detail.

Selection of Proper Respiratory -Protective Equipment

Selection of the proper respirator is a very important task. The respirator must be National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) approved. Respirator selection must be based on an
exposure assessment and relevant work place and user factors. Although it is obvious that the
respirator selection must be based on the hazard to which the worker is exposed, there are many
points that must be considered. These issues will be discussed later in this chapter.

Medical Evaluations of Respirator üearers

Respirators can impose several physiological stre sses ranging from very mild restriction of
breathing to burdens of grea t weight and effort. The type of effects produced depend on the type
of respirator in use, the job, and workplace condi tions. For this reason, a physician or other
licensed health care professional (PLHCP) must determine whether or no t an employee has any
medical conditions that would preclude the use of respirators.
To assist the physician or other licensed health care pro fessional, the program administrator must
advise the physician or other licensed health care professional of the type and weights of
respirators to be used for either emergen cy or routine use: typical work activities; expected
physical work effort; additional protective clothing and equipme nt to be worn; environmental
conditions, such as high heal frequency and duration of respirator use; and hazards ft which the
respiratory-protective equipment will be worn.

Page 669

Although it is generally agreed that relatively few nondis abling medical conditions make respirator
use dangerous, especially for employees who need respirators only briefly or occasionally to
perform their tasks, it is important to identify those employees who may experience difficulties. A
medical evaluation to determine the worker's ability to use the respirator must be completed before
the worker is fit tested or required to use the respirator. This 

may be performed
by either administering a questionnaire or an 

 
A copy of the
questionnaire is in the OSHA respiratory protection standard (see the chapter ad dendum).
Depending on the results of the initial medical valuation, a 

 
may be
required) investigate potential problems with respirator use. The follow-up medical examination
must include any medical tests, consultations, or diagnostic procedures deemed neces sary to
make a final determination regarding ability to wear respirator. Pulmonary function tests
(spirometry) are not specifically required. They may be required during th e follow-up medical
examination, however, if the physician deemed the tests necessary to make a determination.
Additional medical evaluations are not required annually, however, they must be provided under the
following conditions:
> An employee reports medical signs or symptoms that arerelated to ability to use a respirator
>A physician or other licensed health care professional, supervisor, or the respirator program
administrator informs the employer that an employee needs to be reevaluated
> Information from the respiratory protection program, including observations made during fit
testing and program evaluation, indicates a need for employee reevaluation
>A change occurs in. workplace conditions (for example, physical work effort, protective clothing,
and temperature) that may result in a substantial increase in the phys iological burden placed on an
employee.

A physician may require that additional medical evalua tions be based on a specific frequency (for
example, annually) or on a frequency based on the age of the worker. For example, a younger
worker may receive an additional med ical evaluation every three years whereas an older worker
may receive one annually, even if not reporting difficulty with res pirator use, problems during fit
testing, or changes in the workplace.

For further information, consult the ) 
ë
. 


 
  

 
%² 
å

 
and

 
 
(
from
the American Thoracic Society (See Bibliography.

Figure 22-1 b The two types of tight-fitting respiratory inlet coverings: a. Half facepiece with P100
particulate filters, b. Full facepiete with cartridges and P100 particulate filters. (Courtesy 3M.)

Respirator Fit
Each respirator wearer of a tight-fitting respirator (Figure 12 -1) must be provided with a respirator
that fits. To find the respirator that fits, the w orker must be fit tested. This will be discussed later in
this chapter. In addition, each res pirator wearer must be required to check the seal of the
respirator by appropriate means before entering a harmful atmosphere.

Page 670

Each respirator manufacturer provides instruc tions on how to perform these user seal checks . A
user seal check is a test conducted by the wearer to determine if the respirator is properly adjusted
to the face. The procedures may vary slightly from one r espirator to another due to dif ferences in
construction and design. In general the employee is checking either for pressure or flow of air
around the sealing surface. User seal checks are not substitutes for qualita tive or quantitative fit
tests. Care must be taken in conducting user seal checks. Thorough training in carrying out these
tests must be given to respirator wearers.

A respirator equipped with a tight -fitting facepiece (Figure 22 -1) must not be worn if facial hair
comes between the sealing periphery of the facepiece and, the face or if facial hay: interferes with
valve function. Only respirators equipped watt loose -fitting hoods or helmets areacceptable with
interfering facial hair (Figure 22-2b,c). If spectacles, goggles, or & face shields must be worn with
a half- or full-facepiece respirator, they must be worn so as not to adversely affect the seal of the
facepiece to the face. Certain facepieces also enable the wearer to wear prescription spectacles
without disturbing the facepiece seal.

Figure 22-2c. The three types of loose -fitting respiratory inlet coverings: a. Loose-fitting facepiece. b.
Helmet, c. Hood. Respirators with loose-fitting respiratory inlet coverings do not need to be fit tested. The
loose-fitting facepiece is not suitable for workers with beards because it forms a partial seal with the face.
The loose-fitting helmet (b) and hood (c) are acceptable for workers with beards.

Page 671

Training

For the safe use of any respirator it is essential that the user properly instructed in its use.
Qualified persons must let supervisors as well as the person issuing respirators, Emergency and
rescue teams must be given adequate train-to ensure proper respirator use. The OSHA standard
requires that all employees be trained in the proper use of the device assigned to them. Many
companies have their employees sign a document attesting to their having com pleted a training
session with the respiratory-protective equipment. As a minimum, written records of the names of
those trained and the dates when the training occurred must it kept. The workers need to be
trained upon initial assign ment of a respirator and followed up with annual training.

Each respirator wearer must be able to demonstrate knowledge of at least the following:
> ühy the respirator is necessary and how improper fit,usage, or maintenance can compromise
the protectiveeffect of the respirator
> ühat the limitations and capabilities of the respirator are
> How to use the respirator effectively in emergency situations, including situations in which the
respirator malfunctions
> How to inspect, put on and remove, use, and check theseals of the respirator
> ühat the procedures are for maintenance and storage of the respirator
> How to recognize medical signs and symptoms that maylimit or prevent the effective use of
respirators
> The general requirements of the OSHA respiratory protection standard

The training must be conducted in a manner that is understandable to the employee and provided
prior to requiring the employee to use a respirator in the workplace. In addition to being retrained
annually, retraining must be performed when: changes in the workplac e or respirator type make
the previous training obsolete, inadequacies in the employee's knowledge or use of the respirator
indicate that the employee has not retained the required level of understanding or skill, or any
other situation arises in which ret raining appears necessary to ensure safe respirator use. The
training in putting on the respirator must include an opportunity to handle the respirator with
instructions for each wearer in the proper fitting of the respirator, including demonstrations and
practice in how the respirator must be worn, how to adjust it, and how to determine if it fits
properly. Respirator manufacturers can provide training materials that tell and show how the
respirator is to be adjusted, put on, and worn. The training session must also allow for time to
practice. Hence, simply showing a videotape is not sufficient unless it is followed up with actual
hands-on time. Close, frequent supervision can be useful to ensure that the workers continue to
use the respirator in the manner they were trained. Supervisory person nel should periodically
monitor the use of respirators to insure they are worn properly.

Respirator Maintenance
The respirator maintenance program includes cleaning and disinfecting of respirators where
necessary, inspection of the equipment for defects, maintenance and repair of, defects found, and
proper storage of the respirator. A maintenance schedule should be implemented that ensures
each worker is provided with a respirator that is clean, sanitary, and in good operating condition.
The manufacturer's instructions should be followed. The precise nature of the program will vary
because of such factors as size of the facility and the equip ment involved.

CLEANINÔ ANu uISINFECTINÔ

Personally assigned respirators must be cleaned and disinfected regularly. Respirators that may be
worn by different individuals must be cleaned and disinfected before being worn by a dif ferent
individual. Cleaner -disinfectants that effectively clean the respirator and contain a bacteric idal
agent are commercially available. The bactericidal agent is often a quaternary ammonium
compound. For personally assigned respirators, equipment wipes containing these compounds are
available. üipes should not be the only method in place. Alternative ly, respirators can be washed
in a mild detergent solution (such as a dishwashing liquid) and then immersed in a disinfecting
solution. Commonly recommended disinfecting solutions are an aqueous hypochlorite (bleach)
solution and aqueous iodine solution; 50 ppm of chlorine and iodine, respectively. The rec -
ommended immersion time is two minutes. Strong cleaning and disinfecting agents and many
solvents can damage rubber and elastomeric respirator parts. These substances should be used
with caution. It is advisable to check the respirator man ufacturer's instructions or contact them if
there are questions.

INSPECTION
The respirator must be inspected by the wearer immediately prior to each use to ensure that it is in
proper working order. In addition, emergen cy and rescue use respirators must be inspected at
least monthly. Emergency escape-only respirators must be inspected before being carried into the
workplace for use. All respirators that do not pass the inspection must be immediately removed
from service and repaired or replaced. The respirators should also be inspected during cleaning to
determine if they are in good condition or if parts need to be replaced or repaired or whether they
should be discarded.
Respirator inspection must include a check for tightness of connections, for the condition of the
respiratory inlet covering, head harness, valves, connecting tubes, harness assem blies, hoses,
filters, cartridges, canisters, end-of-service-life indicator, electrical components, and shelf -life
date(s). The inspection should also include a check for proper function of the regulators, alarms,
and other warning systems. Com pressed gas cylinders on self -contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) must be checked to ensure that they are fully charged. The cylinde rs must be recharged
when the pressurefalls to 90 percent of the manufacturers recommended pres sure level.

Page 672
The inspection of emergency use respirators must be cer tified by documenting the date the
inspection was performed, the name (or signature) of the person who made the inspection, the
findings, required remedial action, and a serial number or other means of identifying the inspected
respirator. The information should be provided on a tag or label that is attached to the respirator
storage compartment, is kept with the respirator, or is included in inspection reports stored as
paper or electronic files. It must be kept until it is replaced by a subsequent certification.

REPAIR
Replacement of other than disposable parts and any repair should be done only by personnel with
adequate training in the proper maintenance and assembly of the respirators. Replacement parts
must be only those designated for the specific respirator being repaired. Failure to do so may
result in malfunction of the respirator. In addition it will void the NIOSH approval.

STORAÔE
The respirators must be properly stored in order to protect them from dust, sunlight, excessive
heat, extreme cold, excessive moisture, damaging chemicals, and physical dam age from things
such as vibration and shock. Tool boxes, paint -spray booths, and lockers am not appropriate
storage locations unless they are protected from contamination, dis tortion, and damage. In
addition, emergency and rescue use respirators that are located in the w ork area must be readily
accessible. Their location must be clearly marked.

Air Quality
ühen a program includes atmosphere -supplying respirators, then assurance of breathing air
quality must be included. Compressed air, compressed oxygen, liquid air, and liquid oxygen used
in atmosphere-supplying respirators must be of high purity. Oxygen must meet the requirements of
the %
.
  
for medical or breathing oxygen. Compressed gaseous air must
meet the requirements for grade D as described in CGA G-7.1-1997. The limiting characteristics
are listed in Table 22 -A. ühen cylinders of purchased breathing air are used the employer must
have a certificate of analysis from the supplier stating that the breathing air meets the
requirements of Grade D. The moisture content of the cylinder air must not exceed a dew point of -
50 F (-45.6 C ) at one atmosphere pressure.

ühen compressors are used to supply breathing air, the moisture content must be controlled so
that the dew point at one atmosphere pres sure is 10 F (5.56 C) below the ambient temperature.
Sorbent beds and filters that are used to ensure the air quality must be maintained and replaced or
refurbished periodically following the manufacturer's instructions. A tag maintained at the
compressor must contain the most recent change date and signature of the person authorized to
perform the change.

Program Administration
Responsibility and authority for administration of a respi ratory protection program must be
assigned to one person who may and probably will have assistance from others. Centralizing
authority and responsibility ensures that there is coordination and direction for the program.
Respiratory protection programs will vary widely from company to company, and depends upon
many factors; a program may involve specialists such as safety personnel, industrial hygienists,
health physicists, and physicians. In small plants or companies having no formal industrial
hygiene, health physics, or safety engineering department, the respiratory protection program
should be administered by a qualifiedi person responsible to the facility manager. The administra -
tor must have sufficient knowledge to supervise the pro gram properly. It is important that the
administrator keep abreast of current issues, advances in technology, and regu lations. In any
case, overall responsibility must reside in a single individual if the program is to achieve optimum
results.
The program administrator's responsibilities include the following:
> Conducting exposure assessments of the work area prior to respirator selection and periodically
during respirator use to ensure that the proper respirator is being used
#Selecting the appropriate respirator that will provide adequate protection from all contaminants
present or anticipated
> Maintaining records as well as the written procedures in a manner that documents the respirator
program and allows for the evaluation of the program's effectiveness
> Evaluating the program's effectiveness through ongoing surveillance of the program

In addition to watching the program day to day, program evaluations must be performed
periodically (such as yearly) in order to ensure that the program reflects the worksite -specific
procedures and complies with current regulations and standards. The program must be
periodically reevaluated to determine whether its goals are being met and changes are needed.

Table 22-A, Grade D £reathing Air equirements

Page 673

It is recommended that the evaluation be conducted by a knowledgeable person not directly

associated with the program instead of the respiratory protection program administrator. The
outside individual brings a new set of eyes i n an attempt to prevent overlooking deficiencies.

As a minimum records and certifications regarding med ical evaluations, fit testing, inspection of
emergency use respirators, replacement of filters and sorbents for ensuring g ood air quality from
compressors, air sampling, and objective data used to establish chemical cartridge changes
schedules must be maintained.

)
program evaluation checklist covering the entire pro gram should be prepared and updated as
required. There must be an effective means for correcting any defects found during the evaluation.
A record should be kept of the find ings along with plans and target dates for correction of defi -
ciencies or problems, and actual date completed.

HISTORY OF RESPIRATOR REÔULATIONS ANu APPROVALS

After enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct), the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) jointly
promulgated 30 '

Part 11, which prescribed approval procedures, established test
requirements, and set fees for obtaining joint approval of respirators. Over the years, government
reorganization has resulted in transfer of the approval functions to NIOSH. NIOSH has been
named as the testing, approving, and certifying agency for respirators. ühen NIOSH took ov er the
sole responsibility for respirator approval, the approval requirements were changed and moved to
42 '

Part 84 (42 '

84). The respirator approvals are issued by NIOSH with the exception of
self-contained self-rescuers. These devices are used for self-rescue from mines. NIOSH and the
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) jointly approve them.

The NIOSH Testing and Certification Laboratory has the [following responsibilities:
> To publish certification requirements
> To test and certify products meeting those requirements
>To publish lists of certified products
>To audit respirator manufacturers facilities to determine the acceptability of their quality -
assurance programs
> To sample products from the open market and test them for contin ued conformance to
certification requirements
> To perform research on the development of new test methods and requirements for product
improvement where necessary to ensure worker protection

All NIOSH-approved respiratory protection devices have an app roval label similar to that shown in
Figure 22-3.
Voiding an Approval
Once a NIOSH-approved respirator has been selected, theuser should become acquainted with
the limitations of the device as set forth in the approval (Figure 22 ²3). The approval will be void if
the device is used in conditions beyond the lim itations set by NIOSH or those established by the
manufacturer. The user should also guard against any alteration being made to the device. All
parts, filters, canisters, cartridges, or anything else not specifically intended to be used on the
device by NIOSH or the manufacturer will void the existing approval. If there is any question
concerning parts, alteration, or limitation of the device, always checks with the manufac turer. The
employer should take care so as not to knowingly void the approval for a piece of equipment.
NIOSH has the authority to purchase and test respira tory-protective devices on the open market
as a continuing check on manufacturers' quality -assurance standards and adherence t o approvals.
Manufacturers may not institute design changes of the device or its components without obtaining
an extension of an existing approval or resubmit ting a device for a new approval.

Passage of the OSHAct affected respiratory protection in anoth er way besides leading to NIOSH
approvals. Shortly after OSHA was established, OSHA promulgated a standard regulating the use
of respiratory-protective devices. In January 1998, OSHA revised its respiratory protection
standard. This standard, 29 '

1910.134, "Respiratory Protection," established the requirements
for a respiratory protection pro gram (see Addendum). These program requirements are essentially
identical to those discussed earlier in this chapter. NIOSH and OSHA requirements are
interrelated in that OSHA requires approved respirators to be used and NIOSH certification
establishes limitations on the use of the respira tors; OSHA regulates the use, whereas NIOSH
regulates the design and performance of respiratory -protective equipment. OSHA sometimes
allows for use of respirators that are dif ferent from the NIOSH use limitations. NIOSH, however,
sometimes makes recommendations regarding respiratory-protective equipment use that may be
different than OSHA requirements. These recommendations do not change or replace OSHA
standards.

In addition to 29 '

1910.134, OSHA has promulgated other standards that address respiratory
protection require ments that may be more specific to certain situations or more stringent. These
include the ventilation stan dard for abrasive blasting respirator use requirements, the standards
for hazardous waste operations and emergency response, permit -required confined spaces, and
the fire brigade, as well as the various substance specific standards such as asbestos, lead,
benzene, and cadmium. This is not a comprehensive list; OSHA is continually promulgating new
substance-specific standards. Consult the appropriate OSHA standards cover ing the industries or
operations in question.

CLASSES OF RESPIRATORS

Respiratory-protective devices can be described based ontheir capabilities and limitations and
placed in three classes:air-purifying, atmosphere-supplying, and combination air -purifying and
atmosphere-supplying devices
Page 674

Figure 22-3. A typical approval label that accompanies each NIOSH-approved respirator. This
label is for a self -contained breathing apparatus. The user should make;ure the limitations of t he
device are understood.

Page 675
Air-Purifying uevices
The air-purifying device cleanses the contaminated atmosphere. Ambient air passes through an
air-purifying element that can remove specific gases and vapors, aerosols, or a com bination of
these contaminants. This type of device is limited in its use to those environments where there is
sufficient oxygen to support life and the contaminant's airborne concen tration level is within the
maximum use concentration of the device. The useful life of an air -purifying device is limited by the
concentration of the air contaminants, the breathing rate of the wearer, temperature and humidity
levels in the workplace, and the removal capacity of the air -purifying medium.

Figure 22-4. A full facepiece respirator with replaceable P100 particulate filters. The viewing lens
has been adapted to accommodate a welding lens for welding applications. A weld ing shroud
covers the full facepiece and exposed skin for skin protection. (Courtesy 3M.)

AEROSOL-REMOVINÔ RESPIRATORS
Aerosol removing respirators offer respiratory protection against airborne particulate m atter,
including dusts, fibers, mists, and fumes, but they do not protect against gases, vapors, or oxygen
deficiency. These respirators are equipped with filters to remove aerosols (particles) from the air.
The filter may be a replaceable part or a perman ent part of the respirator. They consist essentially
of a facepiece, either quar ter-face (above the chin), half -face (under the chin) (Figure 22 -1a), or
full-face design (Figure 22-4). Directly attached to the facepiece is one of several types of filters
made up of a fibrous material that removes the particles by trapping them as air is inhaled through
the filter. Particulate respirators where the filter is a permanent part of the respirator or the entire
facepiece is composed of the filtering medium, are sometimes referred to as disposable
respirators and more recently as filtering facepiece respirators .

There are many classes of filter respirators specifically designed for airborne particulate matter.
Although a single particulate respirator can be made to provide effective pro tection against all
aerosols, in most cases, it would be too expensive and perhaps to© cumbersome for the great
majority of users. There are potentially nine classes of respirators allowed by 42 '

84. The filter
classes are designed for different types of aerosols, use times, and filter efficiency levels.
Therefore, proper filter selection depends on knowledge of the material and the work conditions.

In these fibrous filters, various filtration mechanisms are at work. T hese filtration mechanisms
include particle inter ception, sedimentation, impaction, and diffusion. In addic tion to these
mechanical mechanisms some filters will also use electrostatic attraction. The filtration
mechanisms work together in every filter to some d egree, as the filter manufacturer attempts to
make an efficient filter with low breathing resistance. The exact contribution of each mechanism
depends on flow rate and particle size.

In  
 
the particles do not deviate from their original streamline of air (Figure 22 -
5). As the airstreams approach a fiber lying perpendicular to their path, they split and compress in
order to flow around the fiber. The airstreams rejoin on the other side of the fiber. If the center of a
particle in these airstreams comes within one particle radius of the fiber, it contacts the fiber
surface and is captured. As particle size increases, the probability of interception increases.

.
 
is due to the effect of gravity on the particle; therefore, the flow rate through
the filter must be low (Figure 22 -6). It is most significant for large particles, for example, larger than
3 åm.

Particles with sufficient inertia cannot change direction sufficiently to avoid the fiber. As the
airstreams split and change direction suddenly to go around the fiber, these par ticles are captured
due to 
on the surface of the fiber (Figure 22 ²7). A particle's size, density, speed, and
shape determine its inertia.

:
is particle movement due to air molecule bombardment and is important only for smaller
particles (Figure 22²8). The particles can randomly cross the airstreams and encounter a filter
fiber. This random motion is dependent on particle size and temperature. For example, as particle
size decreases, diffusive activity of the particle increases. This increases the chance of capture. A
lower flow rate through the filter also increases the chance of capture as the particle spends more
time in the area of the fiber.

In  
 
the charged particles are attracted to filter fibers or regions of the filter fiber
having the opposite charge. Uncharged particles may also be attracted depending on the level of
charge imparted on the filter fiber. This mech anism aids the other removal mechanisms, especially
interception and diffusion. These filter types use electrical charges to enhance their mechanical
filtering capabilities. In the past two types of electrostatic materials were used in respirator fil ters in
the United States, resin wool and electrets. üith the revision of the nonpowered particulate
respirator approval tests, NIOSH-approved respirators with resin wool filters no longer exist. All
electrostatic filters are of the electret type.

Page 676

 
à 
are a recent development in filtration tech nology. Over the last several years, they
have undergone many improvements. Electret fibers are plastic fibers that have a strong
electrostatic charge permanently embedded into their surface during processing. They maintain a
positive charge on one side of the fiber and a negative charge of equal magnitude on the opposite
side of the fiber (Figure 22 ²9). Both charged and uncharged particles will be attracted to electret
fibers. Charged particles are attracted to the parts of t he fiber which have an opposite charge.
Uncharged particles have equal internal positive and negative charges. The strong electrostatic
forces of the electret fibers polarize these charges, inducing a dipole within the particle, and the
particle is then attracted to the fiber by a polarization force. Long -term environmental testing of
electret filters using elevated temperatures and humidity indicated they were not affected by
exposure to these conditions.

The exact combination of capture mechanisms dep ends upon several factors. Generally, large
heavy particles are removed by impaction and interception; large, light particles are removed by
diffusion and interception. Diffusion removes very small particles (Figure 22 ²10). ühen the fiber
used in the explanation of the capture mechanisms is joined by other fibers to create a filter maze
of certain average porosity and thickness, the different filtration mechanisms will combine at
different particle sizes to affecttotal fi ltration performance and efficiency. The capture mechanisms
of sedimentation, interception, and inertial impaction combine effectively to remove nearly all
particles sized above 0.6 å m.

Figure 22-5. Interception capture mechanism.

Figure 22-6. Sedimentation capture mechanism.

Figure 22-7. Impaction capture mechanism.

Figure 22-8. Diffusion capture mechanism.

Figure 22-9. Long-range attraction of particles by the perma nently charged electret fibers. A
coulombic force attracts the two charged particles on the left, while a polarizatio n force attracts the
two uncharged particles on the right.
Figure 22-10. Filter efficiency vs. particle size with mechani cal filtration mechanisms identified.

Page 677

Additionally the low flow rates through respirator filters of only a few centimeters per second let
diffusion play its part very effectively for particles below 0.1 å m.

However, between these two particle size regions (0.1 to 0.6 å m), diffusion and impaction are not
as effective and a minimum filtration efficiency exists as shown in Fig ure 22-10. The lowest point
on this curve is called the most pen etrating particle size and can be determined empirically in the
laboratory. The most penetrating size range can vary with filter design and flow rate. The addition
of an electrostatic charge to the fibers improves the filtering ability in this range by increasing the
capture efficiency at the "most penetrating particle size." Most respirator filters have a "most
penetrating particle size" between 0.2 and 0.4 ån. This is the basis forthe widely used dioctyl
phthalate (DOP) test for particulate filters using a 0.3 -åm particle. The filter efficiency for good
filters will always be much better at any particle size other than the "most penetrating particle size."
Because a respirator filter has measurable penetration of particles in the 0.2 -0.4 åm range, it is
easy to forget the fact that anywhere else in the wide range of particle size in the workplace,
filtration efficiency is essentially 100 percent. For the filter in Figure 22 -10, the penetration at the
"most penetrating particle size" is around five percent, while at 1 åm the penetration is only about
one percent. It is the reduction of the entire actual work environment particulate challenge in
particle number or mass that is important to prote cting the worker. Table 22-B shows overall mass
efficiency for a filter with five -percent penetration at the most penetrating size, a class 95 filter.
Note that the overall efficiency is much greater than 95 percent for the industrial aerosols shown.

The most desirable compromise must be worked out for each filter classification with respect to filter -
surface area, resistance to breathing, efficiency in filtering particles of specific size ranges, and the
time to clog the filter. Filters may be made of randomly laid nonwoven fiber materials or fibroses
glass that may be loosely packed in a filter container or made into a flat sheet of filter material that
is pleated and placed in a filter con tainer. Pleating is a way in which the filter surface area is
increased, which can improve filter loading, and lower breath ing resistance.

NIOSH certifies nine classes of filters. These filters may be either replaceable or an integral part of
the respirator. At the end of service the filters are discarded or, in the case where they are a
permanent part of the respirator, the entire respirator is disposed. The replaceable filters may be
used on either a half -facepiece or full-facepiece respirator. The nine classes of filters are divided
into three filter series, N, R, and P. Because some oils and oil -like materials may affect some filter
materials so that the filter efficiency (not the filter) is degraded with use, three categories with
different degrees of resistance to filter efficiency degradation were establishe d.

Table 22-8 Mass Efficiency for Class 95 Filters by Industry

Page 678

Figure 22-11a.

Figure 22-11 b. a. Half-facepiece respirator with replaceable N95 particulate filters, (Courtesy 3M.)
b. Disposable half facepiece N95 particulate filter respirator. Also referred to as a filtering
facepiece respirator. (Courtesy Moldex Metric, Inc.)

Figure 22-12. Disposable (filtering facepiece) N100 particu late filter respirator. (Courtesy 3M.)

Each filter series has three levels-if-filter efficiency: 95 percent, 99 percent, and 99.97 percent.

#ë. 
' 
These filters are restricted to use in atmospheres free of oil aerosols. They may
be used for any solid or liquid airborne particulate hazard that does not contain oil. Generally these
filters should be used and reused subject onl y to conditions of hygiene, dam age, and increased
breathing resistance.
>N95 Particulate Filter: This N-Series filter is at least 95 percent efficient when tested with -0.3 um
NaClaerosol. Many of the so-called filtering facepiece respirators have N95 particulate filter
approvals. However, this respirator category is not restricted to filtering facepiece respirator
types. These filters may also be approved for use as replaceable filters on half -facepieces and full-
facepieces (Figure 22²11).
> N99 Particulate Filter: This N -Series filter is at least 99 percent efficient when tested with -0.3 um
NaCl aerosol.
> N100 Particulate Filter: This N -Series filter is at least 99.97 percent efficient when tested with -
0.3 um NaCl aerosol (Figure 22 ²12).
>
. 
' 
A filter intended for the removal of any particle including oil -based liquid aerosol.
They may be used for any solid or liquid airborne particulate haza rd. If the atmosphere contains
oil, the R-Series filter should be used only for a single s hift (or for eight hours of con tinuous or
intermittent use). In the approval tests these filters are loaded with 200 mg of the test aerosol and
filter efficiency is then determined. It is not known what happens beyon d this loading point, but at
200 mg level the filter efficiency is still equal to or greater than that required for certification at the
indicated level.
> R95 Particulate Filter: This R -Series filter is at least 95 percent efficient when tested with -0.3 urn
DOP (dioctyl phthalate) aerosol (Figure 22 ²13).
> R99 Particulate Filter: This R -Series filter is at least 99 percent efficient when tested with -0.3 um
DOP (dioctyl phthalate) aerosol.
> R100 Particulate Filter: This R -Series filter is at least 99.97 percent efficient when tested with -
0.3 um DOP (dioctyl phthalate) aerosol.
>. 
' 
)
filter intended for the removal of any particle including oil -based liquid aerosol.
They may be used for any solid or liquid airborne particulate hazard. T hese filters have been
tested to a point where filter effi ciency was not degrading. Consequently they have lo ngeruse
periods than the R-series filters.

Page 679
Figure 22-13. Filtering facepiece R95 particulate filter respira tor (Courtesy 3M.|

Because no filter will last forever, NIOSH requires respirator manufacturers to put a time
restriction for all P-series filters. Consult the manufacturer's instructions for specific guidance on
how long to use the filter before it should be replaced.
#P95 Particulate Filter: This P-Series filter is at least 95 percent efficient when tested with -
0.3 pm DOP (dioctyl phthalate) aerosol.
> P99 Particulate Filter: This P -Series filter is at least 99 percent efficient when tested with -
0.3 pm DOP (dioctyl phthalate) aerosol.
#PI00 Particulate Filter: This P-Series filter is at least 99.97 percent efficient when tested
with -0.3 pm DOP (dioctyl phthalate) aerosol. This filter or its container is magenta colored
(Figures 22²la, 22-4).

It is difficult to perceive the difference between aerosol fil ters visually. Therefore it is
important to read the NIOSH approval label or filter designation to identify against which aerosols
(oils or non-oils) the filter should be used. Oil has never been defined by a regulator y agency. The
following definition may be helpful, however, in deciding whether the material should be
considered an oil.

-
Any of numerous mineral, vegetable, and synthetic sub stances and animal and vegetable
fats that are generally slippery, combust ible, viscous, liquid, or liquefiable at room temperatures,
soluble in various organic solvents such as ether but not in water.
ühile there are differences in stated filter efficiencies at the most penetrating particle size, it
is important to note that industrial aerosols are not predominantly in this size range (Table 22 -C).
ühen NIOSH established these filter cate gories they stated that all of these filters would be
effective against any particle size. Particle size is not a major concern  
selecting one of these
filters. Generally speaking, how ever, the higher the filter efficiency the greater the
breathingresistance. Breathing resistance can greatly affect the comfortof the wearer and affect
the amount of time the worker wearsthe respirator (see w ear time discussion).

Table 22-C Aerosol Size Distributions for Various Industrial Operations

’age 680

Figure 22-14. Haft-facepiece chemical cartridge respirator with interchangeable cartridges affords
protection against light concentrations of organic vapors and certain gases
Table 22-D.  
  
! 



$ 

ÔAS/VAPOR REMOVINÔ RESPIRATORS

These air-purifying respirators protect against certain gases and vapors by using various chemical
filters to purify the inhaled air (Figure 22 ²14). They differ from aerosol filters in that they use
cartridges or canisters containing sorbents, generally carbon, to remove harmful gases and
vapors. The cartridges may be replaceable or the entire respirator may be disposable. S orbents
are granular, porous materials that interact with the gas or vapor molecule to clean the air. In
contrast to aerosol filters, which are effective to some degree no matter what the particle,
cartridges and canisters are designed for protection again st specific contaminants (such as
ammonia gas or mercury vapor) or classes of contaminants (such as organic vapors). Table 22 -D
identifies the various types of chemical cartridges approved by NIOSH. Activated carbon is
commonly used for removal of organic vapors. Activated carbon is a carbon material that has its
surface greatly enhanced using heat and steam. The most com mon starting carbon materials for
respirator cartridges are coconut and coal. Activated carbon has an extensive network of internal
pores of near molecular dimensions and conse quently large internal surface areas. The typical
range of surface area is 1,000-2,000 m2/gram of carbon.

Organic vapors are removed by the process of adsorption. ) 
is the adherence of gas or
vapor molecules to the surface of the activated carbon. The attractive force between the activated
carbon and the chemical molecule is a relatively small, weak physical force. The strength of the
attraction depends in part on the chemical. Generally, organic vapors of molecular weight (MüT)
greater than 50 or boiling points (BP) greater than 70 C are effectively adsorbed by activated
charcoal. For gases and vapors that would other wise be weakly adsorbed, sorbents can be
impregnated with chemical reagents to make them more selective. Examples are activated
charcoal impregnated with iodine to remove mercury vapor or with metal salts like nickel chloride
to remove ammonia gas or with copper oxides and metal sul fates or salts of sulfamic acids to
remove formaldehyde.

Impregnated activated carbon removes specific gas and vapor molecules by chemisorption.
  
is the formation of bonds between molecules of the impregnant and the chemical
contaminant. These bonds are much stronger than the attractive forces of p hysical adsorption.
Both removal mechanisms are essentially 100 -percent efficient until the sorbents capacity is
exhausted. At this point "breakthrough" occurs as the contaminant passes through the cartridge or
canister and into the respirator.

Cartridges and canisters should be changed before break through occurs. To do this cartridge
change schedules must be established based on the expected service life time for the particular
workplace environment that the cartridge is being used in. ühen the breakthro ugh point is
reached, the worker should exit to a clean area and replace the cartridges, canister, or respirator.
Cartridges are similar to canisters. The basic difference is the volume of sorbent, not the function.
Canisters have the larger sorbent volume .
Page 681

Service life of these respirators depends on the following factors: quality and amount of sorbent;
packing uniformity and density; exposure conditions, including breathing rate of the wearer,
relative humidity, temperature, contaminant con centration, the affinity of the gas or vapor for the
sorbent, and the presence of other gases and vapors. (Generally, high concentrations, a high
breathing rate, and humid conditions adversely affect service life.) Table 22 ²E shows various
chemical cartridge breakthrough times for different organic gases and vapors. Although the
organic vapor cartridge is approved by testing against carbon tetrachloride, the cartridge may last
a longer (as with butanol) or a much shorter (as with methanol) time period than wh en compared
to the test agent. Hence, an organ ic vapor cartridge may be recommended for use against
butanol, but not for methanol (MüT < 50; BP < 70 C), even though both compounds are classified
as organic vapors.

elati
e humidity. Relative humidity (RH) greater than 50 percent (especially greater than 65%)
can have a dramatic effect on service life of organic vapor chemical cartridges. The effect of
relative humidity on service life of organic vapor cartridges will depend on the relative humidity
level, the chemical concentration, volatility of the chemical, and the chemical's miscibility (ability to
dissolve) in water. For chemicals with low volatility, such as styrene, the effect of high relative
humidity is small. For more volatile chemicals, the most significant RH effect is at low
concentrations.

Figure 22-15a.

Figure 22-15b. Gas masks provide longer service life than chemical cartridge respirators for many
commonly encountered vapors and gases, a: Chin -style gas mask. b. Back-mounted gas mask. (Courtesy
Scott Aviation Health and Safety Products.)

Table 22-E. Organic Vapor Chemical CartridgeBreakthrough Times for Various Chemicals

Page 682

The service life for cartridges using impregnated activated char coal is not affected by relative
humidity like the organic vapor cartridge. In fact, higher RH may actually increase the service life
of cartridges with impregnated carbon, especially those for acid gases.

Migration. Since only weak physical forces hold the organic vapors on activated carbon, the
process can be reversed. This is called  
Desorption is the process of an adsorbed
material "letting go" from the activated car bon. Desorption can occur naturally during periods of
nonuse or by the presence of another more strongly adsorbed substance displacing a less strongly
adsorbed chemical (that is, a more volatile chemical). Generally, the more volatile the chemical the
less strongly adsorbed, or the more likely it will undergo desorption. Desorption during storage or
nonuse times can result in chemical migration. $ 
is the movement of a previously
adsorbed chemical through the chemical cartridge, even without air move ment. Migration is mainly
a concern only for organic vapor cartridges. Variables that appear to impact migration include:

> Volatility²the more volatile the chemicals, the greaterthe concern for migration
> üater vapor coadsorption²coadsorption (from use inatmospheres with high relative humidity
[>50%]) canincrease the migration ef fect
> Amount of material adsorbed onto the cartridge in thefirst use
> Storage time
> Vapor type
The potentials for desorp tion and migration makes reuse of organic vapor cartridges a concern.
Desorption of very volatile contaminants can occur after a short period (hours) without use (for
example, overnight). Partial use of the chemical cartridge and subsequent reuse could potentially
expose the user to the contaminant. This is most significant or the most volatile and poorl y
retained organic vapors (for e xample, boiling point < 65 C). These chemicals are often classified
as low boiling chemicals. However, a boiling point of 65 C is not a fine line between ch emicals that
migrate and those that do not. Chemicals with boiling points greater than 65 C can still migrate, but
the nonuse period of con cern may be longer than above. As the volatility decreases migration will
become less of a concern.

The chemical bonds formed during chemisorption typically result in irreversible binding of the
chemical contaminant to the impregnant. Migration is usually not a concern or these cartridges.
Thus, reuse of chemical cartridges that work on the principle of chemisorption is not a problem.

imitations. Chemical cartridges and canisters are limited to use in concentration s that are no
greater than the a ssigned protection factor of the respirator times the occu pational exposure limit.
This is called the maximum use concentration (MUC). At one time, maximum use limits were
included on the cartridge or canister. These have beenremoved by NIOSH; thus the maximum use
concentrationlimits are dependent upon the respirator's assigned protection factor. This topic will
be discussed later in this chapter.

(

is a term used often for a gas- or vapor-removing respirator that uses a canister.
Although gas masks are limited by their assigned protection factor, they can be used f or escape-
only from atmospheres immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) which contain adequate
oxygen to support life (>19.5 % O2). They must 
be used for entry into a n IDLH atmosphere.

Cartridge 
canister replacement. Cartridges an canisters should be replaced under any one
or more of the following conditions:
> If the end of service life indicator shows the specifi ed color change
> As indicated by the change schedule
> If the shelf life is exceeded
> If an OSHA regulation specifies a disposal frequency ( as with formaldehyde and benzene)

If a person is wearing a cartridge or canister that nee ds replacement, they should return to fresh
air as quickly as possible. In addition, if uncomfortable heat in the inhale air is detected or the
wearer has a feeling of nausea, dizzines: or ill-being it is imperative they return to fresh air. (A
properly operating cartridge or canister may become warm o n exposure to certain gases or
vapors, but a device that becomes extremely hot indicates that concentrations great er than the
device's limits have been reached.)

COM£INATION AEROSOL FILTER/ÔAS OR VAPOR-REMOVINÔ RESPIRATORS

These respirators use aerosol-removing filters with a chemical cartridge or canister for exposure to
multiple contaminants or more than one physical form (for example mist an vapor) (Fi gure 22²lb).
The filter is generally a permane nt part of the canister, but can be either permanent or replaceable
on the chemical cartridge. Replaceable filters are some times used because the filter and chemical
cartridge are not exhausted at the same time (Figure 22-16). This allows for disposing only of the
part that is in need of changing. Filters used in combination with cartridges must always be locate d
on the inlet side of the cartridge. This way, any gas or vap or adsorbed onto a filtered particle is
captured by the sorbent as it desorbs from the particle. The combination aerosol fiter/gas or vapor -
removing respirators most often used are f or paint spray and pesticides.

POüEREu AIR-PURIFYINÔ RESPIRATORS

The air-purifying element of these respirators may be a fiter, chemical cartridge, or canister. They
protect again; particles, gases and vapors, or particles and gases an d vapors. The difference
between these and the air-purifying respirators previously discussed is that the powered air -
purifying respirator (PAPR) uses a power source (usually a battery) to operate a blower that
passes air across the air-cleansing element to supply purified air to a respiratory inlet (mouth and
nose) covering.
Page 683

Figure 22-16. üorkers wearing combination chemical cartridge/N95 particulate filter respirator for
protection from solvent vapors and mists and glass fibers in a fiberglass operation. (Courtesy 3M|

Figure 22-17 A full facepiece powered air -purifying respirator with the motor and blower assembly
mounted in the facepiece with a welding lens adapter. (Courtesy 3M.)

Figure 22-18 Powered air-purifying respirators with hoods or helmets can be worn by workers
with beards and/or eye glasses. (Courtesy 3M.)

To be certified as a powered air-purifying respirator by NIOSH, the blower must provide at least
four cubic feet per minute (cfm) of air to a tight -fittingfacepiece (half -face or full-facepiece) and at
least 6 cfm to a loose-fitting helmet, hood, or facepiece. Figure 22 -17 shows a powered air-
purifying respirator with a full facepiece and Figure 22 -18 shows one with a loose-fitting hood. The
great advantage of the powered air -purifying respirator is that it usually supplies air at positive
pressure, reducing inward leaka ge when compared to the negative pressure respirators. This is
why they have a higher assigned protection factor than their negative pressure counterpart. It is
possible, however, at high work rates to create a negative pressure in the facepiece, thereby
increasing facepiece leakage. This can be reduced by fit testing tight -fitting powered air-purifying
respirators. ühen 42 '

84 was promulgated, the PAPR filter classifications were not changed.
However all of the 30 '

11 filters were eliminated excep t for the high efficiency filter. Today the
only particulate filter available for PAPRs is the high efficiency filter. This filter is approved for all
aerosols. It is designed for protection against dusts, fumes, and mists of materials having an
occupational exposure limit 
than 0.05 mg/m3 or 2 mppcf. These filters are many times referred
to as high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters or simply high efficiency filters

Page 684

The high efficiency refers to the filter test requirement they must meet. HEPA filters must be at
least 99.97 percent efficient when tested against 0.3 um dioctyl phthalate [DOP) particle. DOP is
the test material for the filter. These filters do not undergo loading with the test aerosol. The labels
for these filters may also state they can be used for par ticulate radionuclides. Radionuclides are
materials that spontaneously emit ionizing radiation.

Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators
Atmosphere-supplying devices are the class of respirators that provide a respirable atmosphere to
the wearer, independent of the ambient air. The breathing atmosphere is supplied from an
uncontaminated source. The air source for an atmosphere -supplying respirator must conform to
grade D requirements as specified in the Compressed Gas Associ ation Standard, G-7.1-1997,

.

) 
Table 22-A lists the air quality requirements for grade D breathing
air. Atmosphere-supplying respirators fall into three groups: air-line respirators, self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA), and combination air -line and SCBA.

AIR-LINE RESPIRATORS
Air-line respirators deliver breathing air through a supply hose connected to the wearer's facepiece
or head enclosure. The breathing air is supplied through the hose from either a compressor or
compressed air cylinders. If a compressor sup plies air, it must be equipped with specific safety
devices according to OSHA. Oil-lubricated compressors must have a high -temperature or carbon
monoxide alarm, or both, to monitor carbon monoxide levels. If only high-temperature-alarms are
used, the air supply must be monitored at suffi cient intervals to prevent carbon monoxide from
exceeding 10 ppm in the breathing a ir. For compressors that are not oil-lubricated, the employer
must ensure that the carbon monoxide level does not exceed 10 ppm in the breathing air . No
specific alarms or methods are required, A flow contro l valve, regulator, or orifice is provided to
govern the rate o airflow to the w orker. Depending on the certification, up to 300 feet of air supply
hose is allowable. Hose supplied by the respirator manufacturer along with recommended hose
lengths and operating pressures mast be used .

Page 685

The maximum permissible inlet pressure is 125 pounds per square inch (psig). The approved
pressure range and hose length is noted in the operating instruction manual provided with each
approved device (Figure 22 -19).

These devices should only be used in non -IDLH atmospheres, or atmospheres in which the
wearer can escape with out the use of a respirator. This limitation is necessary because the air -line
respirator is entirely dependent upon an air supply that is not carried by the wearer of the
respirator. If this air supply fails, the wearer may have to remove the respirator to escape from the
area. OSHA considers all oxygen-deficient atmospheres to be IDLH. However, OSHA has
established an exception. Any air-line respirator may be used in oxygen deficient atmospheres if
the employer can demonstrate that, under all foreseeable conditions, the oxygen con centration
can be maintained within the ranges specified in Table 22 -F. Another limitation is that the air hose
limits the wearer to a fixed distance from the air supply source.

Air-line respirators operate in three modes: demand, pres sure demand, and continuous flow. The
respirators are equipped with half facepieces, full facepieces, helmets, hoods, or loose-fitting
facepieces. Some of these respiratory inlet coverings may provide eye pro tection.

Table 22-F. - :
)  
=  )  . 

  
$
9

%
Figure 22-20 Pressure demand air-line respirators are used with compressed air supplied
by a compressor or a cascade of compressed air cylinders. (Courtesy 3M.)

Figure 22-21 ± A continuous flow air-line respirator with a tight -fitting facepiece.

:
Demand air-line respirators are equipped with either half or full facepieces. They deliver
airflow only upon inhalation. Due to their design, a negative pressure with respect to the outside of
the respirator is created in the face -piece upon inhalation. These respirators are negative -pressure
devices. "ühile these respirators can still be found in worksites, they are not recommended if one is
buying new respirators because the pressure-demand type is available. The pressure -demand air-
line respirator is much more protective and the cost differential between the two is negligible.

  

Pressure-demand air-line respirators are very similar to the demand type
except that because of their design, the pressure inside the respirator is generally positive with
respect to the air pressure outside the respira tor during both inhalation and exhalation. This
positive pressure means that when a le ak develops in the face seal dueto head movement, for
example, the leakage of air would be outward. Thus they provide a higher degree of protection to
the user. They also are available only with half and full face -pieces (Figure 22-20). Such
respirators are normally used when the air supply is restricted to high-pressure compressed air
cylinders.
Page 686

A suitable pressure regulator is required to make sure the air pressure is reduced to the proper
level for breathing.
Figure 22-22. A continuous flow air-line respirator with a helmet with a viewing lens adapter for
welding. (Courtesy 3M.)

Figure 22-23. Abrasive blasting continuous flow air -line respirator. (Courtesy 3M.)



A continuous-flow unit has a regulated amount of air delivered to the facepiece or
head enclosure and is normally used where there is an ample air supply such as that p rovided by
an air compressor. These devices may be equipped with either tight -fitting or loose-fitting head
enclosures. Those equipped with tight -fitting enclosures, a half or full facepiece, must provide at
least 4 cfm measured at the facepiece (Figure 22 -21). ühen loose-fitting helmets, hoods or
facepieces are used, the minimum amount of air to be delivered is 6 cfm. In either case the
maximum flow is not to exceed 15 cfm. Versions of these respirators may be designed for welding
(Figure 22-22) or abrasive blasting (Figure 22 -23). Respiratory-protective equipment designed for
abrasive blasting is equipped to protect the wearer from impact of the rebound ing abrasive
material. A special hood may be used to protect the wearer's head and neck and shielding
material may be used to protect the viewing win dows of the head enclosures.

SELF-CONTAINEu £REATHINÔ APPARATUS

The self-contained breathing apparatus (S CBA) provides respiratory protection against gases,
vapors, particles, and an oxygen deficient atmosphere. The wearer is independent of the
surrounding atmosphere because the breathing gas is carried by the wearer. SCBA may be used
in IDLH and oxygen-deficient atmospheres either as escape-only devices or for entry into and
escape from these atmospheres. A full facepiece is most com monly used with these devices. Half
facepieces, hoods, and mouthpieces are available on some units. There are two major types of
SCBAs: closed circuit and open circuit.

Closedcircuit SC£A. In closed circuit SCBA (Figure 22-24) all or a percentage of the exhaled
gas is scrubbed and rebreathed. Closed -circuit units have the advantage of lower weight for the
same use duration as open-circuit devices. Units are available from 15 min to 4 h. Disadvantages
include increased complexity (for example, a carbon dioxide scrubber is required in many of the
units) and cost. Due tothe design of many of the devices, the air supply can become quite warm
because of rebreathing of the air.

Page 687

Closed-circuit SCBAs are available as both negative - and positive-pressure devices. They may be
designed as a stored-oxygen system or an oxygen-generating system.
Stored oxygen systems supply oxygen compressed in cylinders or carried as a liquid. Oxygen is
admitted 6ft;* breathing bag either as a continuous flow or controlled by a regulator governed by
the pressure or degree of inflation of the bag. The wearer inha les from the bag, and exhales into it.
Exhaled breath is scrubbed of carbon dioxide by a chemical bed, usually a caustic such as sodium
hydroxide.
Oxygen-generating systems rely on chemical reactions to provide the needed oxygen. üater
vapor from the exhaled breath reacts with a solid chemical, usually potassium super oxide, in a
canister-size container that releases oxygen. Car bon dioxide is removed from the exhaled breath
in the canister also.
OpenCircuit SC£A. In an open-circuit SCBA the exhaled breath is released to the surrounding
environment rather than being recirculated. The breathing gas is generally compressed air.
Typically they are designed to provide 30 -60 min of service (Figure 22-25). According to OSHA
regulation 1910.134, only full-facepiece, pressure-demand (positive-pressure) SCBAs are approved
for IDLH atmospheres.

Figure 22-24. Closed circuit self-contained breathing apparatus designed for 60 minutes of
service. (Courtesy Biomarine.)
Figure 22-26. Some self-contained breathing apparat us aredesigned for escape-only from
hazardous atmospheres.

Page 688

Figure 22-27. Combination self -contained breathing appara tus and air-line respirators can be connected to
an external air supply for working in a hazardous atmosphere and still allow ing for escape without removing
the respirator. (Courtesy 3M.)


.9)
Some SCBAs are (feigned for escape only (Figure 22-26). They are similar in design
to the types described above, except that the use duration tends to be shorter, typically 5, 7, or 10
min. Units approved for escape only may not be used to enter into a hazardous atmosphere. The fact
that they are certified for escape only means that assigned protection factors have not been
established for this category of respirator.

THE COM£INATION SELF-CONTAINEu £REATHINÔ APPARATUS *SC£A) ANu AIR-LINE RESPIRATOR

These units are air-line respirators with an auxiliary self -contained air supply combined into a
single device (Figure 22 -27). (An auxiliary SCBA is an air supply, independent of the one to the
air-line respirator, that allows a person to evacuate a contaminated area.) Because they have
escapeprovisions, these devices axe usable in IDLH and oxygen -deficient atmospheres. The
auxiliary air supply can be switched to in the event the p rimary air supply fails to operate. This
allows the wearer to escape from the IDLH atmosphere.

An advantage of these devices is they can be used in situations requiring extended work periods
where the self-contained air supply alone does not provide suffi cient time. In this situation, the
wearer may connect to an air line to provide longer service time. The longer service life and smaller
SCBA cylinder make these devices particularly convenient for use in confined spaces.

The auxiliary self-contained air supply may be NIOSH-approved in one of two categories: 3, 5, or
10-min service time or for 15 min or longer. If the SCBA portion is rated for a serv ice life of 3, 5, or
10 min, the wearer must use the air line dur ing entry into a hazardous atmosphere; th e SCBA
portion is used for emergency egress only. ühen the SCBA is rated for service of 15 min or longer,
the SCBA may be used for emergency entry into a hazardous atmosphere (to connect the air line)
provided not more than 20 percent of the air supply's rated capacity is used during entry. This
allows for enough air for egress when the warning device indicates a low air supply.

The combination SCBA/air-line respirators may operate in demand, pressure -demand or

continuous-flow modes. These devices use the same principles as the respective airline resjprator.
Demand mode is not recommended.

Combination Air-Purifying and Atmosphere-Supplying uevices

Another type of respirator is gaining in popularity. It is a combination of an air-line respirator and an
auxiliary air-purifying attachment, which provides protection in the event the air supply fails (Figure
22-28). NIOSH has approved combination air-line and air-purifying respirators with the air line
operating in either continuous -flow or pressure-demand flow. These respirators can be used in
either an air-purifying or airline mode. The most popular versions are ones in which the air-
purifying element is a class 100 filter, but devices are avail able with complete arrays of chemical
cartridges as well.

These respirators have additional limitations:

>They are not for use in IDLH atmospheres.
>They are not for use in atmospheres containing less than 19.5 percent oxygen.
> Use only the hose lengths and pressure ranges specifiedin the operator's manual.
> Use only in atmospheres for which the air -purifying element is approved.
The approval label and operator's manual must be con sulted for proper use of the respirator in the
air-purifying mode. The restrictions can vary from manufacturer to man ufacturer depending on the
respirator design.

RESPIRATOR SELECTION

Proper selection of respirators must start with an assessment of the inhalation hazardspresent in
the workplace.

Page 689

Figure 22-28. Combination air-purifying and air-line respirators provide protection in the event the air
supply fails. Courtesy 3M.)

Thisassessment must include the following:

}
The nature of the hazardous operation or process
}
The type of respiratory hazard
}
The location of the hazardous area in relation to the nearest respirable air source
}
The time period that respirators must be worn
}
The workers' activities
Respirators must then be selected for the situation after the physical characteristics and functiona l
capabilities and limitations of the various types of respirators and their assigned protection factors
(APFs) have been considered.

Selection Requirements
The OSHA Standard 29 '

1910.134 states that respira tors shall be selected on the basis of the
respiratory hazard(s) in the workplace and relevant workplace and user factors. A NIOSH -
approved respirator must be selected. The work place respiratory hazards must be identified and
evaluated; this evaluation includes a reasonable estimate of worker expo sures to respiratory
hazard(s) and an identification of the contaminant's chemical state and physical form. If the
respiratory hazard cannot be identified or the worker expo sure estimated, the atmosphere must be
considered IDLH. For certain respiratory ha zards, specific instructions about respirator use are
given in other OSHA regulations (&t* example, Asbestos, 1910.1001 and 1926.1101; Vinyl Chlo -
ride, 1910.1017; and substances regulated after promulga tion of vinyl chloride). The trend is
toward regulations that specify the conditions of respirator use for each substance.

The substance-specific OSHA standards list respiratory protection equipment for various
concentrations of a substance. This is called the Respirator Selection Table (Table 22 -G). To
provide additional protection, an employer may select a respirator prescribed for concentrations
higher than those found in the workplace. However, the employer may not use respirators that are
not listed. These standards also call for a respiratory protecti on program as spelled out in 29 '


1910.134 of the OSHA regulations.

Figure 22-28. Combination air-purifying and air-line respirators provide protection in the event the air
supply fails. Courtesy 3M.)

Table 22-G.  

-.)

 
.
!Ã"

 
 

)Ã
'Ã 

Page 690

For the large number of chemicals for which OSHA does not have a substance -specific
standard, the general selection requirements of 29 CFR 1910.134 must be followed. Con sult the
)ë.
. 


 
 
JEEÑ /00Ñ
for additional guidance.
Respirator selection involves determining the hazard and following a selection logic to
choose the correct type or class of respirator that offers adequate protection.
Figure 22-29. Totally encapsulating suits can be selected to provide skin protection and
accommodate the respirator. (Courtesy ILC Dover.)

Hazard uetermination
The steps for hazard determination are as follows:
 If the potential for an oxygen -deficient atmosphere exists, measure the oxygen content.

 Determine what contaminant(s) may be present in the workplace.

 Determine whether there are Threshold Limit Values® (TLVs), Permissible Exposure Limits
(PELs) or any other available exposure limits.
 Determine if the IDLH concentration for the contaminant(s) is available.
 Determine if there is a substance-specific health standard (e.g., lead, asbestos) for the
contaminant(s). If so, there may be specific respirators required that will influ ence the selection
process.
 Determine the physical state of the contaminant. If the contaminant is an aerosol, determine
whether the vapor pressure is significant at the maximum expected tem perature of the work
environment. In these situations it may be possible to have a significant portion of the con-
taminant concentration in the vapor phase, requiring respiratory protection for both the particle
and vapor phase of the contaminant.
 Measure or estimate the concentration of the contaminant(s).
 Determine whether the contaminant(s) can be absorbed through the skin, cause skin
sensitization, or be irritat ing to or corrosive to the eyes or skin. Respirators that provide skin or
eye protection or air-supplied suits may be required in addition to providing protection from the
inhalation hazard.
 For gases or vapors, determine if a known odor, taste, or irritation threshold exists because
these may provide a secondary indication for cartridge breakthrough.

SKIN A£SORPTION
Chemical absorption through skin can be a significant route of exposure. Depending on the
chemical, this route of exposure may be more significant than absorption through the res piratory
system. For example, assuming 100 percent skin absorption, two drops of aniline on the skin
would be equivalent to an inhalation exposure at the ACG IH Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for eight
hours. To avoid this possibility, selection of protective clothing may be required. Respirators may
provide limited skin protection by a full facepiece or hood that protects the face area from
absorption of gaseouscontaminants and splashes. For total skin protection, either chemical
clothing that encapsulates the respirator and worker or supplied -air suits must be selected (Figure
22-29). Encapsulation suits are available from several suppliers.
Supplied-air suits are usually custom-made for the intended purpose of the user. Generally,
they consist of a full body suit and an air line to supply air to the suit. For more information on
supplied-air suits, consult
 
 "
)
$

(

üARNINÔ PROPERTIES
In the past, warning properties such as odor, eye irritation, and respiratory irritation have
been relied on almost completely for indicating when chemical cartridge breakthrough was
starting. In fact, organic vapor chemical cartridges were ap proved by NIOSH only for those organic
vapors with good warning properties. However, warning properties rely upon human senses that
are not foolproof. The 1987 NIOSH Res pirator Decision Logic described the typical wide variation
of odor threshold in the g eneral population (greater than two orders of magnitude). Other problems
exist: shift in odor threshold due to extended low exposures, shifts due to simple colds and other
illnesses, and failure to recognize odor because of distraction of the workplace com peting for
worker attention.

Page 691

Given the variability among people with respect to detection of odors and differences in measuring
odor thresholds, a better practice is to establish cartridge change -out schedules even for
chemicals with "adequate warning properties." Because of this fact, when OSHA revised its
respiratory protection standard, it prohibited the reliance on warning properties as the primary
means for indicating when it was rime to change the chemical cartridges. Instead, OSHA requi res
that a change schedule be established that identifies how long a chemical cartridge can be used in
a particular workplace before being replaced. OSHA has indicated that if an effective change-out
schedule can be established for chem icals with poor warning properties, chemical cartridges could
also be used for these chemicals as well. ANSI Z88.2 -1992 recognized {his. NIOSH recently
updated its policy to be consistent with OSHA by recognizing the use of change schedules and by
recommending against relian ce on warning properties. The warning properties in these cases
should be used as a secondary indicator for cartridge change -out.

Figure 22-30 Pressure demand self-contained breathing apparatus are designed for use in
oxygen deficient or immediately dangerous to life or health atmospheres as well as fire fighting.
(Courtesy Scott Aviation Health and Safety Products.)

Selection Steps
After information is collected in the hazard determination step, proper selection should be made as
follows:
 If there is an oxygen-deficient atmosphere (<19.5 percent 02) consider the atmosphere IDLH
(see next item and Figure 22 -30).

 If the potential contaminants present were unable to be identified, consider the atmosphere
IDLH (see next item).
 If no exposure limit or guideline is available and esti mates of toxicity cannot be made, consider
the atmosphere IDLH (see next item).
 If the measured or estimated concentration of the con taminants exceed the IDLH levels, the
atmosphere is IDLH (see next item).
5. Divide the measured or estimated concentration by the exposure limit or guideline to obtain a
hazard ratio.
 If a substance-specific standard exists for the contaminant, consider those
guidelines/requirements.
 If more than one chemical is present, potenti al additive and synergistic effects of exposure
should be considered. If the ACGIH TLV® for mixtures is used, a result greater than unity (that
is, one) is the hazard ratio. Select a res pirator with an assigned protection factor (APF) greater
than the value of the hazard ratio. If an air -purifying respirator is selected, go on to the next
step.
If the contaminant is a particle, a respirator with a par ticulate filter must be selected. Determine the
filter efficiency required. Use a class 100 (99.97% effi ciency) filter if a specific regulation or
regulatory policy requires it. If no such regulation or policy exists, a class 95 (95% efficiency) filter
may be used. Next determine the filter series needed. If no oil is present, an N -, R-, or P-series
filter may be selected for the respirator with the appro priate APR If oil is present, either an R - or P-
series filtermust be selected. R-series filters must be changed after eight -hour use or after the
respirator is loaded with 200 mg of aerosol. ühere oil is sus pected, but air samples have not been
taken to determine its presence, an R - or P-series filter should be selected.
 If the contaminant is a gas or vapor, a respirator with a cartridge effective against the
contaminant and with an assigned protection factor greater than the hazard ratio must be
selected. If there is no chemical cartridge that is effective against the contaminant, an
atmosphere-supplying respirator with an appropriate APF must be selected.
  For gases or vapors, determine if the effective chem ical cartridge has an end-of-service-life
indicator (ESLI) or if service life data exists to allow for a cartridge change -out schedule to be
established.
 If a respirator with either a chemical cartridge or canister is selected, establish a change
schedule that results in replacing the cartridge or canister before significant breakthrough
(concentrations exceeding the exposure limit) occurs.

 If the contaminant(s) is a particle and gas or vapor, such as with paint spray or pesticides, an
air-purifying respirator with both an appropriate chemical cartridge and particu late filter or an
atmosphere-supplying respirator must be selected. A change schedule for the cartridge or
canister must be established.
IMMEuIATELY uANÔEROUS TO LIFE OR HEALTH *IuLH)

Numerous definitions have been presented for IDLH atmos pheres. OSHA defines :5
an
atmosphere that poses an immediate threat to life, would cause irreversible adverse health effects,
or would impair an individual ¶s ability to escape from a dangerous atmosphere. The common
theme in all the definitions is that IDLH atmospheres will affect the worker acutely as opposed to
chronically. Thus, if the concentration is above the IDLH levels only highly reliable res piratory
protective equipment is allowed. The only two devices that meet this requirement and provide
escape provisions for the wearer are:
>A full-facepiece pressure-demand or other positive-pressure self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) certified for a minimum service life of 30 minutes.
> A combination type, full-facepiece pressure-demand airline respirator with auxiliary self -
contained air supply. The IDLH limits are conservative, so any approved respi rator may be used
up to this limit as long as the maximum use concentration for the device has not been exceeded
(Figure 22-31). IDLH limits have not been established by OSHA. NIOSH has recommended IDLH
values for many chemicals in the ë-.

(

 
 
for the purpose of
respirator selection. Two factors have been considered when establishing IDLH concentrations:
> The worker must be able to escape without losing his or her life or suffering permanent health
damage within 30 minutes. Thirty minutes is considered by NIOSH as the maximum permissible
exposure time for escape.
>The worker must be able to escape without severe eye or respiratory irritation or other reactions
that could inhibit escape.

A location is considered IDLH when an atmosphere is known or suspected to have chemical

concentrations above the IDLH level or if a con fined space contains less than the normal 20.9
percent oxygen, unless the reason for the reduced oxygen level is known. Otherwise according to
OSHA, oxygen levels of less than 19.5 percent are IDLH unless the requirements for the OSHA
exception discussed earlier can be met. ühen there is doubt about the oxygen content, the
contaminants present or their airborne levels, the situation should be treated as IDLH. If an error in
respirator selection is made, it should be on the side of safety. Thus in emergency situations, such
as a. spill, where the chemical or its airborne concentration are unknown, one of the above two
respirators must be selected.

Figure 22-31. Assigned protection factors (APFs) are used in the selection process to determine
the maximum use concentration(MUC) for the respirator. It is determined by multiplying the TLV®
by the APF (Table 22-H). The APFs should be used only whenthe employer has established a
respiratory protection program meeting the requirements stated in this chapter and sati sfactory
fittesting has been performed.

LOüER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT *LEL) ANu FIRE FIÔHTINÔ

Concentrations in excess of the lower explosive limit (LEL) are considered to be IDLH. Generally,
entry into atmospheresexceeding the LEL is not recommended except for life saving rescues.

Page 693

For concentrations at or above the LEL, respirators must provide maximum protection. Such
devices include pressure-demand self-contained breathing apparatus and combi nation positive-
pressure air-line respirators with egress cylinders.
The ANSI standard Z88.5,  


 
 

 
' 
. 
1981, Refines
fire fighting as immediately dangerous to life, so for fire fighting, the only device providing
adequate protection is the pressure -demand self-contained breathing apparatus. In addition to
being NIOSH-approved, the SCBA used for fire fighting (Figure 22 -30) should comply with the
most current edition of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standard, NFPA 1981 (last
published in 1997).
Figure 22-32. üorkplace studies simultaneously measuring air contaminants outside and inside the
respirator are being used to establish assigned protection factors for the classes of respirators. (Courtesy
3M.)
Table 22-H. ë-.

)ë.
)
 
' 

ASSIÔNEu PROTECTION FACTORS

Assigned protection factors (APFs) are a very important part of the selection process. The
assigned protection factor is the expected workplace level of respiratory protection that would be
provided by a properly functioning respirator or a class of respirators to properly fitted and trained
users. Simply stated, APFs are a measure of the overall effectiveness of a respirator used in
conjunction with a good respirator pro gram. The APFs recommended by ANSI Z88.2-1S® (Table
22-H) are based on tests measuring the performance of res pirators in the workplace or simulated
workplace environments. These studies are sometimes referred to as workplace protection factor
studies. In these studies measurements are taken simultaneously outside and inside the respirator
as the worker does their normal job (Figure 22 -32). The results of these studies indicate that an
APF of 10 for both disposable and elastomeric half -facepiece respirators is appropriate. An APF of
10 means the respirator will reduce the concentration actually breathed in by 10 times compared
with the actual airborne concentration.

Sometimes the APFs that OSHA uses in the substance -specific standards will be different as the
OSHA standards do not keep up with the latest information. These recom mended APFs should be
used only when the employer has established an acceptable respiratory protection program
meeting the requirements of 29 '

1910.134 and satisfactory fit testing of tight -fitting respirators
has been performed.

Another set of APFs was established by NIOSH in 1987 (Table 22 -H). The majority of these APFs
are based on quantitative fit testing of respirators approved by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. A few
are based on workplace protection factor studies. Because there are currently no APFs in
theOSHA respirator standard, OSHA stated that it expectsemployers to take the best available
information intoaccount in selecting respirators.

Page 694

ühen evaluating recommended APFs, one should consider the basis for the APFs, how old the
data are, and the date of the recommendation. Research in this area is ongo ing and current data
should be used. Quantitative fit-test results should not be used for establishing APFs, as studies
have shown these do not correlate to protection factors measured in the workplace.

CHANÔE -OUT SCHEuULE

ühen a respirator with an end -of-service-life indicator is not available, the only method avai lable
for replacing cartridges o r canisters before breakthrough is by a cartridge change-out schedule.
The objective data used to set a change schedule must be documented in a written respiratory
protection program. It is not necessary to develop a cartridge change sched ule for gas and vapor
contaminants regulated by OSHA's substance-specific standards, since cartridge change
schedules are specified in each regulation. A change schedule is a predetermined interval of time
after which a used cartridge s replaced with a new one. In order to determine an appro priate
change schedule, the breakthrough time for the gas or vapor in question must be known or
estimated. Breakthrough means that a stated concentration of the chemical can be detected
(measured) on the downstream side of the cartridge. The amount of time required to reach br eak-
through is sometimes referred to as the service life of the car tridge. An appropriate cartridge
change schedule is one that is both convenient and assures that the concentration of the chemical
downstream does not exceed the exposure limit.

The service life estimate is the fundamental piece of information to base a chang e schedule on.
Several methods can be used to estimate breakthrough times (that is, service life). These vary in
cost, complexity and precision. All methods require professional judgment to establish an
appropriate change schedule and all require the same basic information. This information includes
the specific respirator and cartridge to be used, airborne concentration of the contaminant(s),
temperature and humidity in the work place, the pattern of respirator use (for example, hours per
shift, shifts per week), and the expected work rate. Each of these can affect cartridge service life.
Service life can be estimated using general guidelines, determined by testing car tridges in the
laboratory or in the field, or calculated using breakthrough equations.

A few general guidelines for estimating the service life of organic vapor chemical cartridges exist.
Basically, high boiling point materials are collected more efficiently than low boiling point materials.
Guidelines for estimating change -out for organic vapor cartridges are:
}
If the organic vapor's boiling point is greater than 70 C,and its concentration is less than
200 ppm, the organic vapor cartridge should last eight hours at a normal workrate
(assuming normal breathing rate)
}
Service life is inversely proportional to flow rate
}
If the concentration is reduced by a factor of ten, the service life will only increase by five

There are no general gu idelines to follow for the other types of chemical cartridges.

Respirator manufacturers, private testing laboratories an d research scientists have done

laboratory testing with some chemicals. Many commercial labs are equipped to r un test) for a fee.
Laboratory testing involves measuring the actua l breakthrough time for a specific cartridge when
tested with a specific chemical. The cartridge is mounted in a test appa ratus, and a known
concentration of the chemical is drawn through it at a specific flow rate, temperature, and humidity
The time it takes to detect a stated concentration of the chemical on the downstream side of the
cartridge is measured. Laboratory testing gives an actual measurement o f breakthrough time for
the test conditions. Because labora tory studies are usually conducted at high concentrations to
save time, professional judgment or rules of thumb must be used to apply this information to
workplace conditions. It if also possible to conduct a series of tests at d ifferent concentrations and
humidity levels in order to develop a break through curve to predict the performance of the
cartridge at a wide range of conditions. Laboratory testing can be done with mixtures, but
problems of generating and controlling a complex test atmosphere must be overcome. The cost
for laboratory testing is rather high, approximately $2,000 for asingle chemical.

Much of the breakthrough data published in the litera ture were collected using cartridges
manufactured more that 20 years ago. Table 22-E lists examples of published breakthrough data
for several chemicals. Generally this information is for single chemicals, but it is possible to test
more than one chemical simultaneously at concentrations and rel ative humidity that mimic the
work environment. ühen the testing conditions are not representative of the workplace, itis more
difficult to extrapolate to the workplace. Because res pirator and carbon technology have improved
over the years modern cartridges are likely to perform bet ter than published data indicate.

Field testing determines breakthrough time in the work place. Air from the workplace is drawn
through the cartridge and the downstream air is monitored to determine whe nbreakthrough occurs.
Pumps capable of drawing 20 to 60 liter per minute are required, whi ch typically means that the
pumpmust be in a fixed location. Consequently, the challenge to th ecartridge may not accurately
represent workers' actual exposures. Field testing overcomes many of the disadvantages
ofmathematical models and laboratory testing. Relative humid ity and the presence of several
vapors in the atmosphere areautomatically incorporated into the breakthrough measure ment.
However, field testing has the disadvantage of being rel atively equipment- and labor-intensive. In
addition, sine workplace concentrations of each vapor vary considerabl y, samples may need to be
collected over several days.

Page 695

Breakthrough equations or mathematical models have been developed to estimate breakthrough

time for organic vapor cartridges and canisters. The calculation of break through time depends on
solvent variables, carbon variables, and ambient conditions. The models currently used for organic
vapors are limited to liquids, limited by humidity, and restricted to single chemicals. Mathematical
models provide estimates of service life based on the physical properties of the chemical and the
carbon used in the cartridges. Many respirator manufacturers have developed these models for
use with their respirators. Some provide service life estimates for inorganic chemicals. These
models can usually be obtained from the respirator manufacturer's website. It is important to use
the service life estimate model for the brand of chemical cartridge being used.

To verify that the change schedule is appropriate, an alter nate field testing procedure can be used.
It determines theremaining service life of cartridges after use in the workplace. This type of test is
used to demonstrate that the gas or vapor has not broken through. It is easily accomplished by
sampling behind the cartridge near the end of the use period. Any sam pling method with sufficient
sensitivity to detect the chemical of interest at a concentration below the exposure limit can be
used to take the sample. Sampling behind the cartridge has been used for a limited number of
materials and exposures. It is a simple method that allows breakthrough to be measuredin the
workplace at the actual contaminant concentration,environmental conditions, and work rate. It
enables verification of service life predictions from mathematical models or change schedules
based on limited information. This method is also suitable for atmospheres containing several
vapors. Itsprimary disadvantage is its labor intensity, particularly i f no service life estimate is
available.

Setting an appropriate change schedule requires professional judgment to interpret information

and apply appropriate safety factors. This is especially true when general guidelines, laboratory
data, field data, or mathematical models are used. An acceptable margin of safety between a
service life estimate and a change schedule is influenced by:
> Toxicity of the chemical
#üarning properties
#Quality of data and assumptions
#Exposure estimate
> Service life data
>-üork rate estimate
> üorkplace temperature and humidity

Chemical migration must be considered when the change schedule includes nonuse time periods.
For organic vapors with a boiling point less than 65 C, it is recommended that the organic vapor
cartridge never be used longer than one shift even if the estimated service life is greater than the shift
duration and the cartridge is used for only a short time during the shift. For chemicals with boiling
points greater than 65 C, nonuse or stor age periods of a few days, like over a weekend, may be a
concern. The reuse pattern must be carefully evaluated even forthese less volatile chemicals.
Chemicals with low volatility will give long service lives, but even in these situations, use should
probably not extend beyond a week or two even if the service life estimate is longer. For workers
that use their respirators intermittently and perhaps in different environ ments, such as a
maintenance worker or inspector, the organic vapor cartridges should probably n ever be reused.

The user can conduct desorption studies, mimicking the work conditions of use and nonuse, to
determine acceptable patterns of reuse. The ANSI Z88.2 -1992 American National Standard for
Respiratory Protection recommends that organic vapor ca rtridges be changed daily unless
desorption studies support longer use.

HEALTH CARE SETTINÔS

One of the more recent worksites seeing increased respirator usage is health care settings.
Respiratory-protective devices are being used to reduce exposure to ae rosolized drugs (such as
pentamidine, ribavirin, antineoplastics) and bioaerosols (such as droplet nuclei containing
$ Ã 
à 
[TB]). This area presents many challenges including unknown safe
levels of exposure for these agents or respira tor efficacy for bioaerosols. Acceptable airborne
 levels have not been established for many pharmaceutical drugs or potentially infectious aerosols.
NIOSH-approved or certified respirators have not been tested against bioaerosols such asTB.

This lack of information makes the respirator selection process difficult. Use of a properly selected
respirator may reduce the risk due to exposure to these materials, but can not guarantee
protection. Respirators with high assigned protection factors should be expec ted to reduce risk to
a lower level than respirators with lower assigned protection factors when used within a respirator
program and worn properly and diligently by the worker. On the other hand, respirators with higher
assigned protection factors are more complex, burdensome to the worker, and costly. The proper
balance needs to be achieved. Disposable particulate respira tors mentioned earlier have been
used in health care settings because of their simplicity, cost, and efficiency, and also because of
the ease of disposal if they become contaminated. Reuse of a respirator or its disposal must also
be consistent with the operating procedures of the infection -control program of the health care
facility.

Effective Protection Factor

Another variable that is often overlooked when selecting a respirator is worker acceptability. If the
device is not acceptable to the worker it probably will not be worn. A respirator must be worn to be
effective. Not wearing a respirator for short periods of time while it is ne eded can have a profound
effect on overall protection that a respirator is capable of pro viding. If a respirator is not worn, the
protection factor it provides is one, that is, the individual is exposed to the ambi ent contaminant
concentration.

Page 696

The effect of not wearing the a respirator can be calculated from the following equation.
Effective üork shift time, min
Protection (l/APF)(wear time, min) + (Non-wear time, min)
Factor

The exposure during wear time can be reduced by the APF or any assumed level of protection.

For example, if a person removes their respirator for one minute to talk during a task that takes
one hour, the wear time is 98 percent. If the person uses a respirator with a APF of 1,000, the
effective level of protection (effective protection factor) received is 56 including this one minute of
non-wear time. In training it is important that people understand the effect of non -wear time on the
level of performance that can be achieved. As non -wear time increases for any respirator, the
protection level for all respirators approaches one. ühere poor wear habits exist, the effective
protection levels of an SCBA and a half mask may be identical (Table 22 -1).

RESPIRATOR FIT TESTINÔ

After close consideration of all the details pertaining to respirator selection, proper protection will
not be provided if the respirator facepiece does not fit the wearer properly. One make and model
of respirator should not be expected to fit the entire work force. Because of the great variety in
face sizes and shapes encountered in male and female workers, most respirator manufacturers
make their models of respirators available in more than one size or make several models of the
same respirator type. In addition, the size and shape of each facepi ece varies among the different
manufacturers. In other words, the medium-size half facepiece of one man ufacturer is not the
same shape and size as the medium-size half facepiece from another manufacturer. For these
reasons,it may be necessary to buy several commercially available respirators to conduct a good
respirator fit testing program. The exact number of respirators to meet this requirement will vary.
For a small number of respirator wearers (for exam ple, four) one manufacturers' style and size
may suffice. On the other hand, for a larger employer with hundreds of res pirator wearers, several
manufacturers' respirators in various sizes may be necessary.
All tight-fitting (half- and full-facepiece) respirators, whether negative or positive pressure, must be
fit tested. This includes disposable respirators. This can be achieved by one of two fitting methods:
qualitative or quantitative fit testing. In either case, test agents or chemicals are used to detect
leaks in the respirator facepiece -to-face seal. Fit testing should be conducted on all tight -fitting
respirator wearers at least once every 12 months. The fit test must be repeated when a worker
has a new condition that may affect the fit, such as a significant change in weight (plus or minus
10 percent or more), significant scarring in the face seal area, dental changes, or reconstructive or
cosmetic surgery.
The fit test conductor should be able to set up the test equipment, prepare any solutions, and
maintain the test respirators. This individual should be familiar with the physical characteristics that
may interfere with a face seal (such as beards) and should be able to recognize improper
respirator donning and performance of the user seal checks. The test conductor must also be able
to perform the fit test and recognize a good test from an improper fit test. In addition, for
quantitative fit testing, the fit tester should be able to per form preventive maintenance on the test
equipment, check the system for leaks, and calibrate the equipment.

Qualitative Fit Testing

A qualitative fit test relies on the wearer's subjective response. The test agent is a substance that
typically can be detected by the wearer such as isoamyl acetate (banana oil), saccharin, BitrexŒ'
or irritant smoke. The respirator must be equipped to remove the test agent (Figures 22 -33 and
22-34). For example, if using isoamyl acetate, which is an organic chemical that gives off a vapor,
an organic-vapor chemical cartridge must be used. üith a respirator in good repair, if the w earer
smells isoamyl acetate, the respirator does not fit well. These tests are relatively fast, easily per -
formed, and use inexpensive equipment. Because these tests are based on the respirator
wearer's subjective response to a test chemical, it is import ant that the purpose and impor tance of
this test be thoroughly explained to the worker.

Four qualitative tests are commonly used. Detailed protocols are available in the OSHA Respiratory
Protection Standard that must be followed when conducting fit testing. These tests have been
shown to identify poor fitting respirators by studies con ducted in the laboratory. Three tests have
had sufficient testing to be considered validated. An important point for validation is to be able to
generate reliably low concentrations of the test agent to test the workers' ability to identify low levels
of the testagent inside the respirator.

Page 697

The validated fit test methods have been designed to assess fit factors of 100 ( < 1 percent face seal
leakage). ühen qualitative fit tests are used to fit test negative pressure respirators, the respirators
can be used only in atmospheres up to ten times the occupational exposure limit (OEL). This
means that if a full-facepiece negative-pressure respirator is fit tested qualitatively, it can be used
only up to ten times the OEL. To use the full -facepiece respirator in concentrations up to its APF,
quantitative fit testing must be performed. These test protocols that have been validated are the
isoamyl acetate vapor test and the saccharin and Bitrex mist test. These tests have further been
shown to be effective through workplace protection factor studies. üh ere these protocols have been
used for fit testing, the results show the workers received adequate protection as indicated by the
in-facepiece sampling results.

Qualitative Fit-Test Protocols

The qualitative fit-test protocols consist of three steps: threshold screening, respirator selection,
and fit testing. The threshold screening step is performed without wearing a res pirator to
determine if the subject can detect low levels of the test agent. This level would be similar to the
amount inside the respirator if the facepiece-to-face seal had a small leak. During this test, the test
subject also learns what to expect if the respirator is leaking.
The purpose of the respirator selection step is to find one that provides the most comfortable fit.
Every make and model respirator has a different size and shape. If the respirator is cor rectly
chosen and properly worn and fit as indicated by a fit test, it should provide adequate protection.
The respirators used in this step must be equipped with the filter or cartridge appropriate for the
test agent. This is necessary to minimize the effects of filter or cartridge penetration so that only
face-piece-to-face seal is evaluated. Respirators fit tested using isoamyl acetate must be equipped
with organic vapor cartridges or canisters. Any respirator with a particulate filter can be fit tested
with saccharin and Bitrex mist. The saccharin and Bitrex solution aerosol protocols are the only fit -
test protocols currently available that are validated and can be used wi th disposable particulate
respirators (filtering facepiece respirators) not equipped with class 100 filters. Respirators must be
equipped with class 100 filters to be tested with irritant smoke.

The fit test consists of the test subject s wearing the re spirator while exposed to the test agent and
performing facial movements (exercises) to test the facepiece -to-face seal. The qualitative fit -test
protocols are in Appendix A of 29 '

1910.134 (see Addendum).

ISOAMYL ACETATE PROTOCOL

This protocol uses an organic vapor as the test agent, therefore respirators equipped with organic
vapor cartridges or canisters must be used. This minimizes the effects of cartridge penetra tion so
only the facepiece-to-face seal is evaluated.

SACCHARIN ANu £ITREX SOLUTION AEROSOL PROTOCOL

These protocols use a test agent in the form of a fine mist. Therefore, the respirator must be
equipped with particulate filters so only face seal leakage is evaluated. Each respirator must be
equipped with a particulate filter, that is, N -, R-, or P-95-100 particulate filter. NIOSH has
previously recommended against the saccharin fit test because of its classifica tion as a potential
carcinogen. However, NIOSH recently re-examined the potential risk to workers that would be
posed by saccharin used in fit testing. Finding that the risk to workers from use of saccharin in
respirator fit testing is extremely small and may be zero, and in accordance with the new REL
(Recommended Exposure Limit) policy, NIOSHrecommends both saccharin and Bitrex for use in
qualitative respirator fit testing, consistent with OSHA's respiratory protection standard (29 '


1910.134).

Page 699

IRRITANT FUME PROTOCOL

This protocol uses a particle produced by condensation. This process produces very small
particles. Therefore, the respirator must be equipped with a class 100 or HEPA filters so only face
seal leakage is evaluated. It is important to note there is no thre shold screening test as the
threshold levels for irritant smoke have not been established. For this reason, respiratory
protection experts do not consider the irritant fume protocol as a validated fit -test method. NIOSH
reviewed the revised protocol for th e irritant smoke test in OSHA's final respiratory protection
standard and concluded that a risk exists for overexposure to hydrogen chloride dur ing a
facepiece fit test. To check the test subject's sensitivity, they are required to breathe irritant smoke
both before and after a successful fit test. Generated concentrations to which test subjects are
subjected are not measured in the test pro tocol. A concentration of 5 ppm is the accepted
threshold level at which a response is evoked from most persons. A f it test is a failure when a test
subject experiences an involuntary cough or irritation. Retesting requires repeating the sen sitivity
check. In each case, the responses of coughing and irritation are the adverse health effects for
which hydrogen chloride's exposure limits are intended to protect against. Consequently, NIOSH
does not recommend the use of irritant smoke as a fit testing agent. It is acceptable for OSHA
compliance, however.

Figure 22-35. A probed respirator is used for quantitative fittest ing to measure aerosol inside the
facepiece.
Figure 22-36. A quantitative fit -test adapter that can be placed on the respirator for fit testing and then
removed when finished. (Courtesy 3M.)

Figure 22-37. A portable corn oil quantitative fit -test system utilizes a test enclosure. (Courtesy Air
Techniques Inc.)

Quantitative Fit Testing

A quantitative fit test measures actual leakage of a test gas, vapor, or aerosol into the facepiece.
Instrumentation is used tosample and measure the test atmosphere and the air inside the
respirator facepiece.

Page 699

üith this information, a quantitative fit factor (or fit factor) is calculated. The fit fac tor is the ratio of
the outside concentration to the concen tration inside the respirator facepiece. The advantage of
this type of testing is that it does not rely on a subjective response. The disadvantages are cost of
instrumentation, need for highly trained personnel to conduct the test, and use of probed
respirators (Figures 22-35, 22-36) to sample air from inside the respirator.

Commercially available quantitative fit testing equipment use sodium chloride and corn oil mist
generating systems (Figure 22-37). These devices use test enclosures to contain the test agent. A
newer system that measures the pen etration of ambient aerosols into the facepiece is very
portable (Figure 22-38). No test enclosure is required in this system. Fit testing with either of these
systems must use respirators equipped with class 100 filters. Class 100 filters are used to
minimize particle penetration through the filters and allow facepiece fit evaluations. Some of these
instruments can be fitted with an adapter to allow quantitative fit testing of class |95 respirators.

A third method of quantitative fit testing does not inv olve aerosol measurement, but rather
determines leakage by creating a negative pressure inside the facepiece and measuring
theleakage rate of air. This technique is sometimes referred to as the controlled negative -pressure
method (Figure 22-39). The respirator does not need a probe, but test adapter manifolds are
placed on the respirator in place of filters or cartridges. Only respirators that can be adapted with
the manifolds can be tested by this method. These manifolds are specific for the brand of
respirator. The manifolds seal the respirator inlets so air cannot enter the respirator. One manifold
contains a valve, which allows air to enter the respirator so the subject can breathe. The valve can
be closed by squeezing a bulb hooked to this manifold. Th e second manifold contains ports so air
can be pumped from the respirator, creating a negative pres sure inside the facepiece.

To perform a test, the test subject puts on the properly equipped respirator, takes a deep
breath, and holds it. The person cond ucting the test squeezes the bulb to "seal off" the respirator.
The only way air can enter the respirator then is through face seal leaks. The instrument, which
contains a pump to pull air out of the facepiece, is then started. Air is drawn out of the resp irator
until a predetermined "challenge pressure" is reached. This negative pressure created inside the
facepiece causes air to leak into the facepiece from around the seal. The pump speed is then
controlled to maintain the "challenge pressure." The amount of air pumped out of the respirator is
equal to the air that leaks into t he facepiece, thus the leak rate is measured. An equivalent fit
factor is then calculated by the instrument comparing the airflow needed to maintain the negative
pressure and the leak rate. A single measurement takes about 12 seconds. The OSHA protocol
provides instructions on how to perform facial exercises while testing.

Figure 22-38. The ambient aerosol quantitative fit -test system not use a test enclosure and must
be used with respirator with high efficiency filters.

Figure 22-39. This quantitative fit -test equipment determines leakage by creating a negative
pressure inside the facepiece similar to normal inspiratory pressures antf measuring the leakage
rate of air.

Quantitative Fit-Test Protocol

The OSHA standard provides protocols for three methods of quantitative fit testing: generated
aerosol, ambient aerosol condensation nuclei counting, and controlled negative pres sure
quantitative fit testing protocols. These three co mmercially available methods are schematically
represented inFigure 22-40.

Page 700

This figure points out the major differences and similarities of the three quantitative fit -test
methods.

If the TSI Portacount® Respirator Fit Tester is used, the worker should not be allowed to smoke
within 30 minutes of the fit test . This can result in low fit fa ctors since this instrument counts
particles in the air. It is also important that all connections to tubing be tight. The respirator probe
must not leak around the outside. These situations can result in low fit factors that do not reflect
face seal leakage.

Positive-Pressure Respirators
Tight-fitting positive-pressure respirators must be either qualitatively or quantitatively fit tested in
the negative-pressure mode. Qualitative fit testing of these respirators is accomplished by
temporarily converting the respirator user's actual facepiece into a negative -pressure respirator
with the appropriate filters, or by using an identical negative pressure air -purifying respirator
facepiece with the same sealing surfaces as a surrogate for the atmosphere -supplying or powered
air-purifying respirator facepiece. This can be done on tight -fitting powered air-purifying respirators
by turning the blower off as long as the proper air-purifying element is on the respirator. Air -line
respirators and SCBAs can be tested by obtaining the air -purifying model with the same facepiece
used on the air-line respirator or SCBA. For some manufacturers, only filter or cartridge ada pters
need to be purchased that attach to the air -line respirator or SCBA facepiece. Combination air -
line/air-purifying respirators can be fit tested in the negative -pressure mode by disconnecting from
the air supply and placing the proper filter or cartri dge in the holders. Quantitative fit testing of
these respirators is done by modifying the converted or surrogate facepiece to allow sampling
inside the facepiece in the breathing zone of the user, midway between the nose and mouth. This
can be accomplished by installing a permanent sampling probe onto a surrogate facepiece (Figure
22²35), or by using a sampling adapter designed to temporarily provide a means of sampling air
from inside the facepiece (Figure 22 ²36).

Page 701

Any modifications to the respirator facepiece for fit testing [must be completely removed, and the
facepiece restored to the NIOSH-approved configuration, before that facepiece is used in the
workplace.

The purpose for fit testing the facepiece of a positive -pressure respirator is to eliminate "gross" face
seal leakage that might degrade protection or shorten service life for SCBA. Either qualitative or
quantitative fit testing may be used for all positive pressure, tight-fitting atmosphere-supplying
respirators and tight-fitting PAPRs. ühile these respirators are used as positive -pressure
respirators in the workplace, they are fit tested in the negative -pressure mode. As a consequence,
the minimum acceptable fit factor for a facepiece in the negative -pressure mode is lower than t he
APF, which is based on use in the positive-pressure mode. Positive-pressure respirators that pass
the qualitative fit test or quantitative fit test may be used at the APFs of these respirators. Only the
fitting capability of the facepiece is being evalu ated, not the performance of the respirator.
Successful completion of the qualitative fit test indi cates the respirator fit is acceptable for the
positive-pressure respirator. ühen quantitative fit testing is used, all respirators with a full -
facepiece must meet or exceed a fit factor of 500, while half -mask respirators must meet or
exceed 100. During qualitative fit testing a fit factor is not determined. If the qual itative fit test is
passed, the fit is acceptable and the APF can be used. The assigned p rotection factors from Table
22-H can be issued after successful fit testing of the respirator. Table 22 ²J summarizes the fit
testing requirements and APFs for tight -fitting positive-pressure respirators.

SUMMARY
The material presented in this chapter is intended for persons concerned with establishing and
maintaining a respira tory protection program. It presents certain basic information for guidance
purposes. However, it is not intended to be all -inclusive in content or scope.
Simplified interpretations of certain federal regulations pertaining to respiratory protection and
monitoring were presented in this chapter. ühile these interpretations convey background
information about the regulations, under no cir cumstances should they be used as the sole basis
of a respiratory protection program. In all cases, the current federal regulations, as published in the
' 


and later collected in the 

' 


should be carefully
studied, and the rules and procedures in those regulations explicitly followed. Only they define the
specific requirements that are in force. For additional information the reader should refer to the
Bibliography.

Page 702

ADDENDUM: OSHA RESPIRATORY PROTECTION STANDARDS

29 '

1910.134 Respiratory Protection
1910.134 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION.
This section applies to General Industry (part 1910), Ship yards (part 1915), Marine Terminals
(part 1917), Long-shoring (part 1918), and Construction (part 1926).
(a) Permissible practice.
* In the control of those occupational diseases caused by breathing air contaminated with
harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays, or vapors, the primary objective
shall be to prevent atmospheric contamination. This shall be accomplished as far as
feasible by accepted engineering control measures (for example, enclosure or confinement
of the operation, general and local ventilation, and substitution of less toxic materials).
ühen effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted,
appropriate respirators shall be used pursuant to this section.
*
 Respirators shall be provided by the employer when such equipment is necessary to
protect the health of the employee. The employer shall provide the respirators which ar e
applicable and suitable for the purpose intended. The employer shall be responsible for the
establishment and maintenance of a respiratory protection program which shall include the
requirements outlined in paragraph (c) of this section.
(b) Definitions.
The following definitions are important terms used in the respiratory protection standard in this
section.
)   
 
means a respirator with an air-purifying filter, cartridge, or canister that
removes specific air contaminants by passing a mbient air through the air-purifying element.
)
 

+)',
[Reserved]
)   
 
means a respirator that supplies the respirator user with
breathing air from a source independent of the ambient atmosphere, and includes sup-plied-air
respirators (SARs) and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) units.


  
means a container with a filter, sor -bent, or catalyst, or combination of these
items, whichremoves specific contaminants from the air passed through the container.
:
 
means an atmosphere-supplying respirator that admits breathing air to the
facepiece only when a negative pressure is created inside the facepiece by inhalation.
 

means any occurrence such as, but not limited to, equipment failure,
rupture of containers, or failure of control equipment that may or does result in an uncontrolled
significant release of an airborne contaminant.
 
  
means exposure to a concentration of an airborne cont aminant that would
occur if the employee were not using respiratory protection.
 

+.5,
means a system that warns the respirator user of the
approach of the end of adequate respiratory protection, for example, that the sorbent is
approaching saturation or is no longer effective.
 
 
means a respirator intended to be used only for emergency exit.
'


  

means a component used in respirators to remove solid or liquid
aerosols from the inspired air.
' 

+
,
means a negative pressure particulate respirator with a filter as
an integral part of the facepiece or with the entire facepiece composed of the filcep -ing medium.
'

means a quantitative estimate of the fit of a particular respirator to a specific individual,
and typically estimates the ratio of the concentration of a substance in ambient air to its
concentration inside the respirator when worn.
'

means the use of a protocol to qualitatively or quantitatively evaluate the fit of a
respirator, on an individ ual. [See also Qualitative fit test (QLFT) and Quantitative fit test (QNFT).]

means a rigid respiratory inlet covering that also provides head protection against
impact and penetration.


 

+),

means a filter that is at least 99.97% efficient in removing
monodisperse particles of 0.3 micrometers in diameter. The equivalent NIOSH 42 '
E1

particulate filters are the N100, R100, and P100 filters.

means a respiratory inlet covering that completely covers the head and neck and may
also cover portions of the shoulders and torso.

 




+:5,
means an atmosphere Ŷ that poses an
immediate threat to life, would cause irr eversible adverse health effects, or would impair an
individual's ability to escape from a dangerous atmosphere.
 
  
  
means the physical activity of fire suppression, rescue or both,
inside of buildings or enclosed structures wh ich are involved in a fire situation beyond the incipient
stage. (See 29 '

1910.155)
5

means a respiratory inlet covering that is designed to form a partial seal
with the face.
$ 

 
+$%,
[Reserved].
ë
  
 
+ 
,
means a respirator in which the air pressure inside the
facepiece is negative during inhalation with respect to the ambient air pressure outside the
respirator.
- 

  
means an atmosphere with an gen content below 19.5% by
volume.
 

 

  
 
+5,
means an individual whose legally
permitted scope of practice (i.e., license, registration, or certification) allows him or H to
independently provide, or be delegated the responsi bility to provide, some or all of the health care
services required by paragraph (e) of this section.

  
 
means a respirator in which the pressure inside the respiratory inlet
covering exceeds the ambient air pressure outside the respirator.
 
   
 
+)
,
means an air-purifying respirator that uses a blower to
force the ambient air through air-purifying elements to the inlet covering.   


 
means a positive pressure atmosphere-supplying respirator that admits breathing air to
the facepiece when the positive pressure is reduced inside the facepiece by inhalation.
å


+å5'!,
means a pass/fail fit test to assess the adequacy of respirator fit that
relies on the individual's response to the test agent.
å


+åë'!,
means an assessment of the adequacy of respirator fit by
numerically measuring the amount of leakage into the respirator.

 

 
means that portion of a respirator that forms the protective barrier
between the user's respiratory tract and an air-purifying device or breathing air source, or both. It
may be a facepiece, helmet, hood, suit, or Ŷ mouthpiece respirator with nose clamp. : .

à  
 
+.9),
means an atmosphere-supplying respirator for which the
breathing air source is designed to be carried by the user.
. 

means the period of time that a respirator, filter or sorbent, or other respiratory
equipment provides adequate protection to the wearer.
.
 
+.)
,

 
 
means an atmosphere-supplying respirator for
which the source of breathing air is not designed to be carried by the user.
! 

means this respiratory protection standard.
! 

means a respiratory inlet covering that forms a complete seal with the
face.
%

 
means an action conducted by the respirator user to determine if the respirator is
properly seated to the face,

(c) Respiratory protection program. This paragraph requires the employer to develop and imple -
ment a written respiratory protection program with required worksite -specific procedures and
elements for required respirator use. The program must be administered by a suitably trained
program administrator. In addition, certain program elements may be required for voluntary use to
prevent potential hazards associated with the use of the respirator. The Small Entity Compliance
Guide contains criteria for^the selection of a program administrator and a sample programthat
meets the requirements of this paragraph. Copies of the Small Entity Compliance Guide will be
available on or about April 8, 1998 from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's
Office of Publications, Room N 3101, 200 Constitution Avenue, Nü, üashington, DC, 20210
(202-219-4667).
(1) In any workplace where respirators are necessary to
protect the health of the employee or whenever res
pirators are required by the employer, the employer
shall establish and implement a written respiratory
protection program with worksite-specific proce
dures. The program shall be updated as necessary to
reflect those changes in workplace conditions that
affect respirator use. The employer shall include in
the program the following provisions of this section,
as applicable:
(i) Procedures for selecting respirators for use in the workplace;
(ii) Medical evaluations of employees required to use respirators;
(iii) Fit testing procedures for tight -fitting respirators;
(iv) Procedures for proper use of respirators in routine and reasonably foreseeable
emergency situations;
(v) Procedures and schedules for cleaning, disin fecting, storing, inspecting, repairing,
discarding, and otherwise maintaining respirat ors;
(vi) Procedures to ensure adequate air quality, quan tity, and flow of breathing air for
atmosphere-supplying respirators;
(vii) Training of employees in the respiratory haz ards to which they are potentially exposed
during routine and emergency situ ations;
(viii) Training of employees in the proper use of res pirators, including putting on and
removing them, any limitations on their use, and their maintenance; and
(ix) Procedures for regularly evaluating the effec tiveness of the program.
(2) ühere respirator use is not required:
(i) An employer may provide respirators at the request of employees or permit employees
to use their own respirators, if the employer deter mines that such respirator use will not
in itself create a hazard. If the employer d etermines that any voluntary respirator use is
permissible, the employer shall provide the respirator users with the information
contained in Appendix D to this section ("Information for Employees Using Respirators
ühen Not Required Under the Standard"); a nd
(ii) In addition, the employer must establish and implement those elements of a written
respiratory protection program necessary to ensure that any employee using a respirator
voluntarily is medically able to use that respirator, and that the respirator iscleaned, stored,
and maintained so that its use does not present a health hazard to the user. Exception:
Employers are not required to include in a written respiratory protection program those
employees whose only use of respirators involves the volunta ry use of filtering
facepieces (dust masks).
* The employer shall designate a program adminis trator who is qualified by appropriate
training or experience that is commensurate with the complex ity of the program to
administer or oversee the respiratory protection program and conduct the required
evaluations of program effectiveness.
* The employer shall provide respirators, training, and medical evaluations at no cost to the
employee.
(d) Selection of respirators.
This paragraph requires the employer to evaluate respiratory hazard(s) in the workplace, identify
relevant workplace and user factors, and base respirator selection on these factors. The
paragraph also specifies appropriately protective respira tors for use in IDLH atmospheres, and
limits the selection and use of air-purifying respirators.
(1) General requirements.
(i) The employer shall select and provide an appropriate respirator based on the respiratory
hazard(s) to which the worker is exposed and workplace and user factors that affect
respirator performance and reliability.
(ii) The employer shall select a NIOSH-certiiied respirator. The respirator shall be used in
compliance with the conditions of its certification.
(Hi) The employer shall identify and evaluate the respiratory hazard(s) in t he workplace;
this evaluation shall include a reasonable estimate of employee exposures to
respiratory hazard(s) and an identification of the contaminant's chemical state and
 physical form. ühere the employer cannot identify or reasonably esti mate the employee
exposure, the employer shall consider the atmosphere to be IDLH.
(iv) The employer shall select respirators from a sufficient number of respirator models and
sizes so that the respirator is acceptable to, and correctly fits, the user.
(2) Respirators for IDLH atmospheres.
(i) The employer shall provide the following respi rators for employee use in IDLH
atmospheres:
*  A full facepiece pressure demand SCBA certified by NIOSH for a minimum service
life of thirty minutes, or
*
 A combination full facepiece p ressure demand supplied -air respirator (SAR) with
auxiliary self-contained air supply.
(ii) Respirators provided only for escape from IDLH atmospheres shall be NIOSH -certified
for escape from the atmosphere in which they will be used.
(iii)All oxygen-deficient atmospheres shall be con sidered IDLH. Exception: If the employer
demonstrates that, under all foreseeable condi tions, the oxygen concentration can be main tained
within the ranges specified in Table II of this section (i.e., for the alti tudes set out in the table), then
any atmosphere-supplying respirator may be used. (3) Respirators for atmospheres that are not
IDLH.
(i) The employer shall provide a respirator that is adequate to protect the health of the
employee and ensure compliance with all other OSHA statutory and regulatory
requirements, under routine and reasonably foreseeable emergency situations.
*  Assigned Protection Factors (APFs) [Reserved]
*
 Maximum Use Concentration (MUC) [Reserved]
(ii) The respirator selected shall be appropriate for the chemical state and physical form of the
contaminant.
(iii)For protection against gases and vapors, the employer shall provide:
*  An atmosphere-supplying respirator, or
*
 An air-purifying respirator, provided that:

* The respirator is equipped with an end-of-service-life indicator (ESLI) certified by NIOSH for
the contaminant; or
*
 If there is no ESLI appropriate for conditions in the employer's workplace, the employer
implements a change schedule for canisters and cartridges that is base d on objective
information or data that will ensure that canisters and cartridges are changed before the end of
their service life. The employer shall describe in the respirator program the infor mation and
data relied upon and the basis for the canister a nd cartridge change schedule and the basis for
reliance on the data.
(iv) For protection against particulates, the employer shall provide:
*  An atmosphere-supplying respirator; or
*
 An air-purifying respirator equipped with a filter certified by NIOSH under 30 '

part
11 as a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, or an air -purifying respirator
equipped with a filter certified for particu lates by NIOSH under 42 CFR part 84; or
* For contaminants consisting primarily of par ticles with mass median aerodynamic diame-
ters (MMAD) of at least 2 micrometers, an air-purifying respirator equipped with any fil ter
certified for particulates by NIOSH.

(e) Medical evaluation.

Using a respirator may place a physiological burden on employees that varies with the type of
respirator worn, the job and workplace conditions in which the respirator is used, and the medical
status of the employee. Accordingly, this i paragra ph specifies the minimum requirements for
medical evaluation that employers must implement to determine the Ŷemployee's ability to use a
respirator.
* General. The employer shall provide a medical eval uation to determine the employees
ability to use a respirator, before the employee is fit tested or required to use the respirator
in the workplace. The employer may discontinue an employees medical evaluations when
the employee is no longer required to use a respirator.
*
 Medical evaluation procedures.
(i) The employer shall identify a physician or other licensed health care professional
(PLHCP) to perform medical evaluations using a medical questionnaire or an initial
medical examination that obtains the same information as the med ical questionnaire.
(ii) The medical evaluation shall obtain the infor mation requested by the questionnaire in
Sections 1 and 2, Part A of Appendix C of this section.
(3) Follow-up medical examination.
 (i) The employer shall ensure that a follow -up medical examination is provided fo r an
employee who gives a positive response to any question among questions 1 through 8
in Section 2, Part A of Appendix C or whose initial medical examination demonstrates
the need for a follow-up medical examination.
(ii) The follow-up medical examination shall include any medical tests, consultations, or
diagnostic procedures that the PLHCP deems necessary to make a final determination.
(4) Administration of the medical questionnaire and
examinations.
(i) The medical questionnaire and examinations shall be administered confidentially during
the employee's normal working hours or at a time and place convenient to the
employee. The medical questionnaire shall be administered in a manner that ensures
that the employee understands its content.
(ii) The employer shall provide the employee with an opportunity to discuss the
questionnaire and examination results with the PLHCP.
(5) Supplemental information for the PLHCP.
(i) The following information must be provided to the PLHCP before the PLHCP makes a
recommendation concerning an employee's ability to use a respirator:
*  The type and weight of the respirator to be used by the employee;
*
 The duration and frequency of respirator use (including use for rescue and escape);
* The expected physical work effort;
*Additional protective clothing and equip ment to be worn; and
(E) Temperature and humidity extremes that
may be encountered.
(ii) Any supplemental information provided previ ously to the PLHCP regarding an employee need
not be provided for a subsequent med ical evaluation if the information and the PLHCP remain the
same. (iii) The employer shall provide the PLHCP with a copy of the written respiratory protection
program and a copy of this section. Note to Paragraph (e)(5)(iii): ühen the employer replaces a
PLHCP, the employer must ensure that the new PLHCP obtains this information, either by
providing the documents directly to the PLHCP or having the documents transferred from the
former PLHCP to the new PLHCP. However, OSHA does not expect employers to have
employees medically reevaluated solely because a new PLHCP has been selected.
(6) Medical determination. In determining the employee's
ability to use a respirator, the employer shall:
(i) Obtain a written recommendation regarding the employee's ability t o use the respirator
from the PLHCP. The recommendation shall provide only the following information:
*  Any limitations on respirator use related to the medical condition of the employee, or
relating to the workplace conditions in which the respirator will b e used, including
whether or not the employee is medically able to use the respirator;
*
 The need, if any, for follow -up medical evaluations; and
(C) A statement that the PLHCP has provided the employee with a copy of the PLHCP's written
recommendation, (ii) If the respirator is a negative pressure respirator and the PLHCP finds a
medical condition that may place the employee's health at increased r isk if the respirator is used,
the employer shall provide a PAPR if the PLHCP's medical evaluation finds that the employee can
use such a respirator; if a subsequent medical evaluation finds that the employee is medically able
to use a negative pressure respirator, then the employer is no longer required to provide a PAPR.
(7) Additional medical evaluations. At a minimum, the employer shall provide additional medical
evaluations that comply with the requirements of this sec tion if: (i) An employee re ports medical
signs or symptoms
that are related to ability to use a respirator; (ii) A PLHCP, supervisor, or the respirator pro gram
administrator informs the employer that an employee needs to be reevaluated; (iii) Information
from the respiratory protection program, including observations made during fit testing and
program evaluation, indicates a need for employee reevaluation; or (iv) A change occurs in
workplace conditions (e.g., physical work effort, protective clothing, temper ature) that may result in
a substantial increase in the physiological burden placed on an employee, (f) Fit testing.
This paragraph requires that, before an employee; may be required to use any respirator with a -
aiegative or positive pressure tight -fitting facepiece, the emplo yee must be fit tested with the same
make, model, style, and size of respira tor that will be used. This paragraph specifies the kinds of fit
tests allowed, the procedures for conducting them, and how the results of the fit tests must be
used.
 * The employer shall ensure that employees using a tight -fitting facepiece respirator pass an
appropriate qualitative fit test (QLFT) or quantitative fit test (QNFT) as stated in this
paragraph.
*
 The employer shall ensure that an employee using a tight -fitting facepiece respirator is fit
tested prior to initial use of the respirator, whenever a*different res pirator facepiece (size,
style, model or make) is used, and at least annually thereafter.
* The employer shall conduct an additional fit test whenever the employee repo rts, or the
employer, PLHCP, supervisor, or program administrator makes visual observations of,
changes in the employee's physical condition that could affect res pirator fit. Such conditions
include, but are not limited to, facial scarring, dental changes , cosmetic surgery, or an
obvious change in body weight.
* If after passing a QLFT or QNFT, the employee subsequently notifies the employer,
program administrator, supervisor, or PLHCP that the fit of the respirator is unacceptable,
the employee shall be given a reasonable opportunity to select a different respirator
facepiece and to be retested.
* The fit test shall be administered using an OSHA -accepted QLFT or QNFT protocol. The
OSHA-accepted QLFT and QNFT protocols and procedures are contained in Appendix A of
this section.
* QLFT may only be used to fit test negative pressure air -purifying respirators that must
achieve a fit factor of 100 or less.
* If the fit factor, as determined through an OSHA -accepted QNFT protocol, is equal to or
greater than 100 for tig ht-fitting half facepieces, or equal to or greater than 500 for tight -
fitting full facepieces, the QNFT has been passed with that respirator.
* Fit testing of tight-fitting atmosphere-supplying respirators and tight-fitting powered air-
purifying respirators shall be accomplished by performing quantitative or qualitative fit testing
in the negative pressure mode, regardless of the mode of operation (negative or posi tive
pressure) that is used for respiratory protection, (i) Qualitative fit testing of thes e respirators
shall be
accomplished by temporarily converting the res pirator user's actual facepiece into a negative
pressure respirator with appropriate filters, or by using an identical negative pressure air -purifying
respirator facepiece with the same sealing surfaces as a surrogate for  
atmosphere-supplying or
powered air-purifying respirator facepiece. (ii) Quantitative fit testing of these respirators shall be
accomplished by modifying the facepiece to allow sampling inside the facepiece in the b reathing
zone of the user, midway between the nose and mouth. This requirement shall be accom plished
by installing a permanent sampling probe onto a surrogate facepiece, or by using a sampling
adapter designed to temporarily provide a means of sampling air from inside the facepiece. *iii)
Any modifications to the respirator facepiece for fit testing shall be completely removed, and the
facepiece restored to NIOSH-approved configuration, before that facepiece can be used in the
workplace, (g) Use of respirators
This paragraph requires employers to establish and implement procedures for the proper use of
respirators. These requirements include prohibiting conditions that may result in facepiece seal
leakage, preventing employees from removing respirators in hazardous environments, taking
actions to ensure continued effective respirator operation throughout the work shift, and
establishing procedures for the use of respirators in IDLH atmospheres or in interior structural
firefighting situations.
(1) Facepiece seal protection,
(i) The employer shall .mot permit respirators with
tight-fitting facepieces to be worn by employees who have:
*  Facial hair that comes between the sealing surface of the
facepiece and the face or that interferes with valve function; or
*
 Any condition that interferes with the face -to-facepiece seal or
valve function.
(ii) If an employee wears corrective glasses or gog gles or other personal
protective equipment, the employer shall ensure that such equipment is
worn in a manner that does not interfere with the seal of the facepiece to
the face of the user.
(iii)For all tight-fitting respirators, the employer shall ensure that
employees perform a user seal check each time they put on the
respirator using the procedures in Appendix B ²1 or procedures
recommended by the respirator manufacturer that the employer
demonstrates are as effective as those in Appendix B ²1 of this section.
(2) Continuing respirator effectiveness.
(i) Appropriate surveillance shall be maintained of work area conditions
and degree of employee exposure or stress. ühen there is a change in
work area conditions or degree of employee exposure or stress that may
affect respirator effectiveness, the employer shall reevaluate the
continued effectiveness of the respirator.
(ii) The employer shall ensure that employees leave the respirator use
area:
*  To wash their faces and respirator face -pieces as necessary to
prevent eye or skin irritation associated with respirator use; or
*
 If they detect vapor or gas breakthrough, changes in breathing
resistance, or leakage of the facepiece; or
* To replace the respirator or the filter, car tridge, or canister
elements.
(iii)If the employee detects vapor or gas break through, changes in
breathing resistance, or leakage of the facepiece, the employer must
replace or repair the respirator before allowing the employee to return to
the work area.
(3) Procedures for IDLH atmospheres. For all IDLH
atmospheres, the employer shall ensure that:
(i) One employee or, when needed, more than one
employee is located outside the IDLH atmosphere; (ii) Visual, voice, or
signal line communication is
maintained between the employee(s) in the
IDLH atmosphere and the employee(s) located
outside the IDLH atmosphere; (iii)The employee(s) located outside the
IDLH
atmosphere are trained and equipped to provide
effective emergency rescue;
(iv) The employer or designee is notified before the employee(s) located
outside the IDLH atmosphere enter the IDLH atmosphere to provide
emergency rescue;
(v) The employer or designee authorized to do so by the employer, once
notified, provides necessary assistance appropriate to the situation;
(vi) Employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmos pheres are equipped
with:
*  Pressure demand or other positive pressure SCBAs, or a
pressure demand or other pos itive pressure supplied -air
respirator with auxiliary SCBA; and either
*
 Appropriate retrieval equipment for remov ing the
employee(s) who enter(s) these haz ardous atmospheres
where retrieval equipment would contribute to the rescue of
the employee(s) and would not increase the overall risk
resulting from entry; or
* Equivalent means for rescue where retrieval equipment is
not required under paragraph (g)(3)(vi)(B).
(4) Procedures for interior structural firefighting. In addition to the
requirements set forth under para graph (g)(3), in interior structural fires,
the employer shall ensure that:
(i) At least two employees enter the IDLH atmos phere and remain in
visual or voice contact with one another at all times; (ii) At least two
employees are located outside the
IDLH atmosphere; and (iii)All employees engaged in interior structural
firefighting use SCBAs. Note 1 to paragraph (g): One of the two
individuals located outside the IDLH atmosphere may be assigned to an
additional role, such as incident commander in charge of the emer gency
or safety officer, so long as this individual is able to perform assistance or
rescue activities without jeopardizing the safety or health of any firefighter
working at the incident.
Note 2 to paragraph (g): Nothing in this section is meant to preclude
firefighters from performing emergency rescue activities before an entire
team has assembled, *h) Maintenance and care of respirators This
paragraph requires the employer to provide for the cleaning and
disinfecting, storage, inspection, and repair of respirators used by
employees.
(1) Cleaning and disinfecting. The employer shall pro vide each respirator
user with a respirator that is clean, sanitary, and in good working order.
The employer shall ensure that respirators are cleaned and disinfected
using the procedures in Appendix B -2 of this section, or procedures
recommended by the respirator manufacturer, provided that such
procedures are of equivalent effectiveness. Th e respirators shall be
cleaned and disinfected at the following intervals: (i) Respirators issued
for the exclusive use of an
employee shall be cleaned and disinfected as
often as necessary to be maintained in a sanitary
condition; (ii) Respirators issued to more than one employee
shall be cleaned and disinfected before being
worn by different individuals; (iii) Respirators maintained for emergency
use shall
be cleaned and disinfected after each use; and (iv) Respirators used in fit
testing and training sh all
be cleaned and disinfected after each use.
(2) Storage. The employer shall ensure that respirators
are stored as follows:
(i) All respirators shall be stored to protect them from damage,
contamination, dust, sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture,
and damaging chemicals, and they shall be packed or stored to prevent
deformation of the face-piece and exhalation valve.
(ii) In addition to the requirements of paragraph (h)(2)(i) of this section,
emergency respirators shall be:
*  Kept accessible to the work area;
*
 Stored in compartments or in covers that are clearly marked as
containing emergency respirators; and
* Stored in accordance with any applicable manufacturer
instructions.
(3) Inspection.
(i) The employer shall ensure that respirators are inspected as follows:
*  All respirators used in routine situations shall be inspected
before each use and during cleaning;
*
 All respirators maintained for use in emer gency situations shall
be inspected at least monthly and in accordance with the man -
ufacturer's recommendations, and shall be checked for proper
function before and after each use; and
* Emergency escape-only respirators shall be inspected before
being carried into the workplace for use.
(ii) The employer shall ensure that respirator inspections in clude the
following:
*  A check of respirator function^ tightness of connections, and
the condition of the vari ous parts including, but not limited to,
the facepiece, head straps, valves, connecting tube, and
cartridges, canisters or filters; and
*
 A check of elastomeric parts for pliability and signs of
deterioration.
*iii) In addition to the requirements of paragraphs (h)(3)(i) and (ii) of this
section, self-contained breathing apparatus shall be inspected monthly.
Air and oxygen cylinders shall be maintained in a fully charged state and
shall be recharged when the pressure falls to 90% of the manufac turer's
recommended pressure level. The employer shall determine that the
regulator and warning devices function properly, (iv) For respirators
maintained for emergency use, the employer shall:
*  Certify the respirator by documenting the date the
inspection was performed, the name (or signature) of the
person who made the inspection, the findings, required
remedial action, and a serial number or other means of
identifying the inspected respirator; and
*
 Provide this information on a tag or label that is attached to
the storage compartment for the respirator, is kept with the
respirator, or is included in inspection reports stored as
paper or electronic files. This info rmation shall be
maintained until replaced following a subsequent
certification.
(4) Repairs. The employer shall ensure that respirators that fail an
inspection or are otherwise found to be defective are removed from
service, and are discarded or repaired or adjusted in accordance with the
following procedures:
(i) Repairs or adjustments to respirators are to be made only by persons
appropriately trained to perform such operations and shall use only the
respirator manufacturer's NIOSH-approved parts designed for the
respirator; (ii) Repairs shall be made according to the manu facturer's
recommendations and specifications for the type and extent of repairs to
be performed; and *iii) Reducing and admission valves, regulators, and
alarms shall be adjusted or repaired only by the manufacturer or a
technician trained by the manufacturer. *i) £reathing air quality and
use
This paragraph requires the employer to provide employees using
atmosphere-supplying respirators (supplied -air and SCBA) with breathing
gases of high purity.
(1) The employer shall ensure that compressed air, compressed oxygen,
liquid air, and liquid oxygen used for respiration accords with the following
specifications:
(i) Compressed and liquid oxygen shall meet the United States
Pharmacopoeia requirements for medical or breathing oxygen; and (ii)
Compressed breathing air shall meet at least the requirements for Grade
D breathing air described in ANSI/Compressed Gas Association
Commodity Specification for Air, G-7.1-1989, to include:

Chapter 23

Page 727


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BACKGROUND
Industrial hygienists we scientist, engineers, and public health
professionals committed to protecting the health of people in the
workplace and the community. Industrial hygienists must be competent
in a variety of scientific fields²principally chemistry, engineering,
physics, toxicology and biology²as well as the fundamentals of
occupational medicine. Trained init ially in one of these fields, most
industrial hygienists have acquired by experience and post graduate
study a knowledge of the other allied disciplines.

In traditional industrial organizations, industrial hygien ists were

required to relate to personnel in other functions including research
and development, medical, management, safety, and production.
Although the working relationships were close, it was understood that
the industrial hygienist: was not expected to have expertise in these
areas. In today's downsized organization, the industrial hygienist may
also act as the safety or environmental professional. Flattened man -
agement structures and the use of self -directed work teams have
created the need for flexible industrial hygienists who understand no t
only technical and scientific issues, but also production and research
concerns. Hygienists at all levels participate in management of cros s-
functional projects that draw on the expertise of all team members to
develop and maintain a safe and healthful w ork environment. One of
thechallenges for this generation of industrial hygienists is maintaining
a high level of technical expertise while broad ening their roles in the
activities just described.

Page 728

uefinition of Industrial Hygiene

The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) has defined
industrial hygiene as the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
control of environmental factors arising in or from the workplace that
may result in injury, illness, or impairment, or affect the well -being of
workers and members of the community. The AIHA describes
industrial hygienists as


 


 
 







 
 

 
 
 



 

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To develop the depth of knowledge necessary to excel in industrial

hygiene, many practitioners specialize in specific sub-disciplines,
such as toxicology, epidemiology, chemistry, ergonomics,
acoustics, ventilation engineering, and statis tics, among others.
Industrial hygienists often find their work overlapping with that of
safety professionals, health physicists, engin eers, and others in
the fields of air pollution, water pollution, solid waste disposal, and
disaster planning.

The industrial hygienist also makes contributions in employee

education and training, law and product liability, sales, labeling,
and public information. Other health professionals, including
physicians, nurses, paramedics, and emer gency medical
technicians may at times assume some industrial hygiene
functions.

JO£ uESCRIPTIONS
The job descriptions and titles of industrial hygiene person nel may
be somewhat similar to those of safety personnel. In the recent
past they have evolved to reflect more team ori ented or
entrepreneurial approaches to safety and health management.
However, many job descriptions have common elements that
loosely coalesce around the following themes. The entry -level
employee may be called a safety or health technologist or
technician. In this function the employee will evaluate hazards and
operations using a few simple instruments, and investigate minor
incidents involving occupational health issues.

Occupational Safety and Health Technologist

In 1976 the American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH), in
recognition of the growing group of technologists engaged in
industrial hygiene activities, established an industrial hy giene
technologist certification program. The technologist was
recognized as someone who had acquired proficiency in an
aspect or phase of industrial hygiene and who performed his
or her duties under the supervision of an industrial hygienist.
The designation certified industrial hygiene technologist was
awarded after the applicant passed an examination. In 1985
the ABIH and the Board-of Certified Safety Professionals
joined to operate this program through a joint committee,
and the certification was chang ed to Occupational Health
and Safety Technologist (OHST). There are currently
approximately 1,192 OHSTs.

Occupational Health and Safety Technologists perform

occupational health and safety activities on a full -time or
part-time basis as part of their job duties. Such duties may
be ancillary to other job functions. Some examples of occu -
pational health and safety activities are safety inspections;
industrial hygiene monitoring; organizing and conducting
health and safety training; investigating and maintain ing
records of occupational accidents, incidents, injuries, and ill -
nesses; and similar functions. Candidates for the OHST
need five years experience in occupational health or safety
activities that comprise at least 35 percent of job duties,
must pass the OHST examination, and complete Certifica -
tion Maintenance requirements every five years. Candidates
may substitute college courses in health and safety or an
associate degree or higher in certain disciplines for up to two
years of the experience requireme nt. The OHST examina-
tion deals with basic and applied science, laws, regulations
and standards, control concepts, investigation (post -event),
survey and inspection techniques, data computation and
record keeping, education, training, and instruction.
Industrial hygiene technicians and technologists can function
efficiently in their limited technical area. They may take
samples and make measurements in the facility or com-
munity. Their data and observations can be used to provide
information for an industrial hygiene plan or program.
The duties of the technician require thoroughness,
dependability, and a concern for the accuracy of the
databeing collected.

Page 729

They should be given a detailed outline of the duties, and

have reference manuals readily available. Technicians must
see the relevance and value of their efforts; these should be
reflected in the technician's salary and in workplace
structure. The industrial hygiene technician is part of the
team in which the technician and industrial hygieni st share
responsibility.

Technology changes and adds new problems to the old

ones. Rarely are old hazards totally controlled. New
problems call for new approaches, new instrumentation, and
new ways of recording, compiling, and integrating data.
Consider, for example, the advent of computerized exposure
monitoring databases accessible through intranets and the
Internet, which allow much quicker sharing of data.
Technicians must be willing to adjust to such changes, and
may be able to become specialists in their own right. Some
may remain technicians, but many will move on to become
industrial hygienists.

Industrial Hygienist
The employee at the next higher level typically titled an
industrial hygienist, functions similarly to the safety engineer.
The industrial hygienist carries out more detailed studies of
incidents; prepares recommendations and other reports;
reviews new processes, machinery, and layouts from a
 health (or safety) viewpoint; promotes occupational health
and safety education; and advises man agement about
health hazards, industrial hygiene practices, procedures, and
equipment needs.

The industrial hygiene manager or supervisor has

traditionally had duties similar to those of a safety director,
and may manage the entire industrial hygiene program. In
the last decade many companies have collapsed the duties
of safety and industrial hygiene manager into one function or
position, and have sometimes added responsibility for other
functions such as environmental safety, facility security, or
risk management. This has sometimes required that routine
activities such as exposure monitoring be delegated to
personnel at lower levels. Such facilities may also have
concurrently reduced the size of their
safety/health/environmental departments, and inste ad may
rely on outside contractors to provide the personnel and
skills necessary for various industrial hygiene projects. Other
facilities may put the burden of more technical exposure
assessment back on the "manager," who again becomes, in
some cases, a "hands-on hygienist," without the assistance
of a staff to support him or her with numerous
responsibilities. Because they have the most experience and
expertise, managers in these situations are likely to be called
on to do the most complicated and advance d industrial
hygiene tasks. Such a high degree of responsibility
reinforces the need for a recognized level of competence in
industrial hygiene personnel, which is provided by the
certification mechanism.

Many certified industrial hygienists are also certified

safety professionals and vice versa. Proficiency in industrial
hygiene, by examination and by experience, follows a route
roughly comparable to that of occupational safety. Moreover,
the type of organization that employs the industrial hygienis t
or safety professional often requires similar skills of each.
ühile many industrial hygienists work in private industry,
many find positions in other types of endeavors that require
particular skill sets.

Government industrial hygienists may find that a diplomatic demeanor

and well-developed interpersonal skills are among their most important
assets. Similarly consultants must have the flexibility to work with a wide
range of clients and demands. Universities require professional
capabilities in research, teaching, and program administration. University
industrial hygienists need to be well versed in occupational and
environmental issues to deal with the many complex problems involving
chemical safety, worker safety, student safety, buildings and ground
worker safety, building workers, and in those institutions affiliated with
medical schools, hospital health and safety. In such settings there are
many opportunities for hands-on industrial hygiene work. Campus health
and safety staff, for example, may conduct many laboratory inspections
that include field measurements such as hood flow rate and face velocity.
They work with contractors doing renovation projects and may need to
make air and ventilation measurements. Radiation safety staff also do
measurement surveys of areas where radiation sources are used.

Labor union industrial hygienists may handle technical inquiries from

contractors, union officials, and union members; develop curricula for
training and regulatory analyses and testimony; perform job si te visits,
inspections, and audits; and conduct presentations. Typically they do little
actual sampling. üriting and communication skills are essential, as are
good interpersonal skills (used in listening to workers and in conflict
resolution).

Industrial Hygienist-in-Training *IHIT)

This designation was formerly part of the ABIH's certification program. It
was issued after the candidate passed the core examination, then the
first of two exams taken to become a CIH. The last core exam was given
by the ABIH in Fall, 2001. Now the procedure to become a CIH has
changed to one in which the candidate takes only one, comprehensive
examination. Those currently holding the IHIT certification (466 in
number) have six years (from date of issue) before their certifica tes
expire. Before then they must take the comprehensive exam and become
CIHs. All of the other experience and education requirements to take the
CIH exam still apply.

Historically, the ABIH had issued the IHIT category in 1972 because it
then recognized that people with degrees and only one year of work
experience wanted to take the core examination before completing the
five years of experience in IH necessary to take the comprehensive
exam.

Page 730

During the first years of his or her career, the IH IT learned about the
elements of organization and management. He/she also learned to
understand flowcharts and blueprints as part of developing skills in
anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling occupational health
hazards. IHITs find that increasing emphasis is placed on communication
skills, and should have been encouraged to draft replies to letters, write
reports, and prepare oral presentations for editing by the supervisor.

If the IHIT has not already done so, he or she should become inv olved in
the local section or chapter of the most appropriate professional
association. The IHIT should attend meetings and work on committees,
and should begin to meet other professionals outside the immediate
workplace.
Industrial Hygiene Functions
Because they have more generalized skills, industrial hygienists should be
able to make independent decisions. The indus trial hygienist decides
what information is available, what additional facts are needed, and how
they will be used or acquired.

Functions
More than 40 years ago, Radcliffe et al. (1959) described the sphere of
responsibility of industrial hygienists, which remains relevant today. They
stated that the industrial hygienist will:
> Direct the industrial hygiene program
> Examine the work environment

Study work operations and processes and obtain full details of the nature
of the work, materials, and equipment used, products and by -products,
number and sex of employees, and hours of work.
Make appropriate measurements to determine the magnitude of
exposure or nuisance to workers and the public, devise methods and
select instruments suitable for such measurements, personally (or
through others under direct supervision) conduct such measurements,
and study and test material associated with the work operations.

Using chemical and physical means, study the results of tests of biological
materials, such as blood and urine, when such examination will aid in
determining the extent of exposure.

> Interpret results of the examination of the environment in terms of its

ability to impair health, nature of health impairment, workers' efficiency,
and community nuisance or damage, and present specific conclusions to
appropriate parties such as management, health officials, and employee
representatives
> Make specific decisions as to the need for or effectiveness of control
measures and, when necessary, advise as to the procedures that are
suitable and effective for both the work environment and the general
environment.
> Prepare rules, regulations, standards , and procedures for the healthful
conduct of work and the prevention of nuisance in the community
> Present expert testimony before courts of law, hearing boards, workers'
compensation commissions, regulatory agencies, and legally appointed
investigative bodies
> Prepare appropriate text for labels and precautionary information for
materials and products to be used by workers and the public
> Conduct programs for the education of workers and the public in the
prevention of occupational disease and commun ity nuisance
> Conduct epidemiological studies of workers and industries to discover
the presence of occupational disease and establish or improve Threshold
Limit Values® or standards for the maintenance of health and efficiency
> Conduct research to advance knowledge concerning the effects of
occupation on health and means of preventing occupational health
impairment, community air pollution, noise, nuisance, and related
problems

The industrial hygienist should be able to determine whether there are

alternative solutions to a problem. Obviously, leadership and
management skills are required.

Few problems are so unique that peer acceptance is not required. Thus,
the industrial hygienist must be able to work with other industrial
hygienists in the same functional area whether in industry, government,
labor unions, insurance consulting, or teaching.

The industrial hygienist should also have the experience knowledge, and
capability to specify corrective procedures to minimize or control
environmental health hazards.

Many organizations try to "grow their own industrial hygienist" ²that is,
taking someone from inside the organization, with some scientific
background and a knowledge of the firm's products, and exposing him or
her to a crash program in industrial hygiene. An organization initiating an
industrial hygiene effort must recognize that knowledge of the
organization alone is not enough for the optimal solution of industrial
hygiene problems. The industrial hygienist must have the nec essary
professional education and expertise.

The capable industrial hygienist who has made the in house adjustment
to the organizations problems should have the versatility and capability to
deal with any industrial hygiene problem that may arise. In the
development of new product, for example, he or she should be able to
meet with research and development personnel and find out what
information is needed. This might include toxicological information,
labeling requirements, assistance to customer; and any special
engineering control requirements as the research effort progresses
through pilot state to commercial production.

üith the assistance of a qualified epidemiologist, the industrial hygienist

can study an existing (or even a suspected) environmental health
problem through epidemiological and biostatistical approaches, in
addition to the usual sampling and measuring proc edures. The industrial
hygienist should know where to go (for example, personnel, purchasing,
or process engineering) for the information he or she needs to investigate
and solve a problem.

Page 731

If the industrial hygienist knows of another organizat ion engaged in

making similar products, he or she can exchange information with its
industrial hygienist and may be able to exchange visits.



Industrial hygienists must work well with other professionals, such as
physicians, nurses, safety engineers, toxicologists, health physicists,
and others, in and out of the organization. They must also
communicate and work very closely with employees. Employees have
insights into potential health hazards in their work area that only those
working with the processes every day can possess. They are a primary
source of information and suggestions for the industrial hygienist.

Industrial Hygiene Manager

In an industry setting, the industrial hygiene manager supervises the
technical and support staff in a health and safety department; prepares
budgets and plans; is familiar with government agencies related to the
operation; relates industrial hygiene operations to research and
development, production, environmental, and other departments or
functions; and prepares appropriate reports. He or she may be called on
to assist the corporate legal department when regulatory and worker
compensation issues arise. The industrial hygiene manager should be
certified by the ABIH (see the description of this organization in the
Addendum to this chapter).

Many aspects of industrial hygiene expertise are unique. It makes sense

for the industrial hygienist to extend his or her capabilities and sphere of
activity by delegating responsibilities to others. This calls for supervisory
and planning skills. The industrial hygienist must be able not only to plan,
direct, and supervise technicians and assistants, but also to plan,
program, and budget the activities of the department and staff. As a
manager, he or she must establish priorit ies and initiate appropriate
corrective action. The industrial hygienist and the industrial hygiene
manager must both be effective communicators. Many aspects of their
work involve formal or impromptu training of employees, managers, and
visitors to a facility. These professionals may also be called on to discuss
an organization's health and safety goals and accomplishments with the
media and other members of the public, and they must be articulate,
knowledgeable, and able to convey technical information in nontechnical
language.

In the last decade many companies have collapsed the duties of safety
and industrial hygiene manager into one function or position, and have
sometimes added responsibility for other functions such as environmental
safety, facility security or risk management. This has sometimes required
that routine activities such as exposure monitoring be delegated to
personnel at lower levels. Such facilities may also have concurrently
reduced the size of their safety/ health/environmental depart ments, and
instead may rely on outside contractors to provide the personnel and
skills necessary for various industrial hygiene projects. Other facilities
may put the burden of more technical exposure assessment back on the
"manager," who again becomes, in some cases, a "hands-on hygienist,"
without the assistance of a staff to support him or her with numerous
responsibilities. Because they have the most experience and expertise,
managers in these situations are likely to be called on to do the most
complicated and advanced industrial hygiene tasks. Such a high degree
of responsibility reinforces the need for a recognized level of competence
in industrial hygiene personnel, which is provided by the certification
mechanism.
Certified Industrial Hygienist *CIH)
The designation of certified industrial hygienist by the ABIH indicates that
a person has received special education and has lengthy experience and
proven professional ability in the comprehensive practice or the chemical
practice of industrial hygiene.

The employer, employees, and the public have a right to be reasonably

assured that the person to whom their lives are entrusted is
professionally capable. One route by which such protection is provided is
through licensing, usually by a government agency, a peer review
arrangement or both. Certification by the American Board of Industrial
Hygiene (ABIH) provides this assurance. Additionally, industrial
hygienists in a number of states have worked to develop various forms of
licensing to ensure that only we ll qualified industrial hygienists are
allowed to promote themselves as such.

For certification by the ABIH, an individual must meet rig orous standards
of education and experience before proving, by written examination,
competency in either the comprehen sive practice of industrial hygiene or
the chemical practice (see Addendum). Diplomates of the ABIH are
eligible for membership in the American Academy of Industrial Hygiene.

Certification provides some assurance that this individual possesses a

high level of professional competence. The certified industrial hygienist is
the person most likely to direct an industrial hygiene program capably, to
work with other professions and government agencies, and to provide the
vision and leadership of an industrial hyg iene program to keep
occupational hazards at a minimum in a rapidly changing technology and
society. At the time of this writing, there are about 6400 active CIHs.

All CIHs must actively work to maintain their certification by earning a

specified number of certification maintenance points during a five -year
cycle. These points are awarded for working as an industrial hygienist;
participating in professional associations; attending approved meetings,
seminars and short courses; participating on technical co mmittees;
publishing in peer-reviewed journals; teaching, when not part of their
primary practice; and other ABIH-approved activities.

The American Board of Industrial Hygiene has introduced a new

industrial hygiene certification in 2001 for those profess ionals who have
industrial hygiene responsibilities, but do not qualify for the Certified
Industrial Hygienist (CIH) designation. This will include environmental
health science (EHS) professionals who do not practice industrial hygiene
a majority of their total work time as well as those who primarily function
in a single industrial hygiene are; such as air pollution, ergonomics, or
health physics, and who do not meet the CIH requirement for broad -
scope IH work experience. This certification will be titled the Certified
Associate Industrial Hygienist (CAIH).
Page 732

The basic qualifications will include:

#a bachelor's degree with at least 30 semester hours of science and
math
#industrial hygiene college or professional development courses covering
fundamentals, measurements, control! and toxicology
> four years of post-bachelor, professional-level industrial hygiene
experience (at least 25% IH activities)
#successful completion of a written exam

The certification will be designed to demonstrate compete nce in applying

fundamental industrial hygiene knowledge and skills. (Consult ABIH for
the most current rules.)

Of course, all of the previously described categories of ABIH

certification²CIH, CAIH, IHIT, and OHST²are open to all industrial
hygiene personnel, whether they an employed in industry, government,
labor unions, educational institutions, or consulting, as long as they meet
the qualifications. However, federally employed industrial hygienists also
have their own unique training programs that refle ct the structure and
duties of their positions.
INuUSTRIAL HYÔIENE, CIVIL SERVICE
For industrial hygiene trainees, assignments are selected and designed
to orient the new employee into the field of industrial hygiene, to
determine areas of interest and pot ential, to relieve experienced industrial
hygienists of detailed and simple work, and to develop the trainee's
knowledge and competence. Specific assignments are carried out under
direct supervision of a qualified industrial hygienist, including recognitio n
and evaluation of hazards, identification of controls, calibration of
equipment, collection of samples, and initial preparation of reports.
During inspections, the trainee observes specific safety items.

Under the general supervision of a senior industr ial hygienist, the trainee
begins to conduct more complex industrial hygiene inspections, including
selection of sampling methods and locations, evaluation of controls and
monitoring procedures, and preparation of reports. Completed work is
reviewed for overall adequacy and conformance with policy and
precedents. The industrial hygienist determines engineering feasibility,
sets periods of abatement, interprets standards, and defends appeals
under supervision of a senior industrial hygienist.

The senior industrial hygienist performs complete industrial hygiene

inspections and prepares the final report. He or she determines
engineering feasibility, sets periods of abatement, defends appeals,
interprets standards, and provides offsite con sultation. He or she receives
general assignment of objectivesand definition of policy from supervisors.
The senior industrialhygienist djffers from the industrial hygienist in that he
or shereceives more complex assignments and may act in place of
theindustrial hygiene supervi sor when the supervisor is absent.

Training Plan for Entry-Level OSHA Industrial Hygienists

On July 7,1992, Assistant Secretary for Occupational Safety and H ealth
Dorothy Y. Strunk issued an OSHA instruction specifying a revised training
program for OSHA compliance personnel. The instruction provided policies
and guidelines for the implementation of technical training programs and
described a federal program change that also affects state OSHA
programs. This revised training program applies to both newly h ired and
experienced compliance personnel and is still in effect.

The training program is designed to -provide a series of training courses

supported by on-the-job training and self -instructional activities to ensure
that compliance personnel are able to apply technical information and
skills to their work; however, the elements of the training program are not
meant to be prerequisites for advancement.

Objectives On completion of the developmental training program, the

compliance safety and health office r (CSHO) will have the following skills:

A working knowledge of the fundamentals of hazard recognition,

evaluation, and control
> Adequate knowledge of the implementation of engineering controls,
abatement strategies, and the interpretation of data
> A reasonable comprehension of basic industrial processes and the
ability to make quantitative observations and measurements
> Field experience in the proper calibration and use of measuring
instruments
>The ability to perform solo or team inspections in most t ypes of
industries
> Knowledge of regulations and laws that involve safety and health in the
workplace
#The ability to present inspection data in a legal proceeding efficiently
> The ability to make a referral to other appropriate industrial hygienists
or safety officers

Organizational Training Responsibilities

The mission of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) Office of Training and Education is to provide a program to
educate and train employers and employees in the recognition,
avoidance, and prevention of unsafe and unhealthful working conditions
and to improve he skill and knowledge levels of personnel engaged in
work elating to the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. The
Office of Training and Education consists of four co mponents:

Page 733

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This division is

responsible for planning agency technical training programs and for
managing the Susan B. Harwood grants.
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responsible for developing and updating safety and health training
programs and related materials.
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This division is
responsible for providing administrative and informational programs for
the Office of Training and Education.
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The Training Institute is responsible for the
delivery of training to the populations served by the agency.

Specific responsibilities of the OSHA Training Institute include the

following:
}
Conducting programs of instruction for federal and state
compliance officers, state consultants, other federal agency
personnel and private sector employers, employees, and their
representatives >
}
Participating in the development of course outlines, detailed lesso n
plans, and other educational aids necessary to carry out training
programs

Each of OSHA's ten regions has a regional training officer or technician,

who assists the regional administrator in coordinating the management of
all regionwide training progra ms. This individual serves as the focal point
in the regional office, ensuring the successful implementation of the
training program for regional compliance personnel. , Specifically, the
regional training officer or technician assists in providing resource
material and current training information to area directors and supervisors
concerning the implementation of the objectives of the training program
and evaluates and monitors all records of training.

In OSHA area offices, the area director has overall r esponsibility for
ensuring and implementing the development and training of newly hired
and experienced CSHOs under his or her supervision. The supervisor,
however, serves as the main focal point in the area office for ensuring
training. The supervisor pro vides and coordinates instruction, assistance,
and guidance to the CSHOs in order to meet the training program
objectives. Reviewing and maintaining progress records for each CSHO
and assigning senior CSHOs to assist in on -the-job training of new hires
is also performed by the supervisor.

The program itself provides a well -articulated progression of training

requirements for newly hired personnel. The elements include formal
training at the OSHA Training Institute and informal training such as self -
study and on-the-job training (OJT). Figure 23 -1 illustrates the
developmental training plan for new hires.

Informational program
The developmental training plan begins with the study of an informational
package of materials developed jointly by the national off ice, the regional
office, and the Office of Training and Education. Contents include
information on the U.S. Department of Labor; an introduction, history, and
purpose statement; the structures of regional and area offices,
procedures, and libraries; common OSHA acronyms; individual training
development programs; and such handout items as organizational charts,
the '
- 
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(FOM), standards, directives, personal
protective equipment, and instruments.

Self-Study Program
Before attending the initial compliance course at the OSHA Training
Institute, each CSHO is required to complete three self -study programs
on the OSHAct, Chapter III of the '


 
$

(FIRM), and Integrated Management Information Systems (IMIS) forms 1,
1A, IB, and 1B-IH. During these self-study assignments, the CSHO
becomes familiar with the basic OSHAct requirements; studies basic
inspection procedures in Chapter III of the FOM, and becomes familiar
with the most commonly used forms.

OSHA Training Institute

After completing the basic self -study prerequisites, each CSHO is
required to complete coursework in one of three tracks: safety, health, or
construction.

Initial compliance course This provides new .-
with an

understanding of occupational safety and health programs, and a working
knowledge of the FOM and OSHA policies.

Technical courses in safety, health, or construction These courses

provide new-hire CSHOs with a thorough introduction to the organization
and content of the standards and to haz ard recognition and
documentation.

Inspection techniques and legal aspects. This provides new CSHOs

with an understanding of basic communication skills, formal requirements
and processes of the legal system, and investigative techniques related to
OSHA compliance activity.

Additional technical courses *at least two courses required) These

provide the CSHO with technical knowledge, skills, and information on
hazard recognition as related to OSHA requirements. The specific
courses are determined by the supervisor based on individual need.
Figure 23-1 lists the technical courses in each track.

Crossovertraining Because CSHOs must be familiar with general

concepts of safety and health, each CSHO is required to complete
crossover training during the develo pmental period. CSHOs on the safety
or construction track are encouraged to attend the introduction to health
course; industrial hygienists are encouraged to attend the introduction to
safety course.

Page 734
Figure 23-1 The OSHA training tracks for compliance personnel.

Continuing Maintenance of Skills and Knowledge

Once the training period is completed, CSHOs typically require additional
training to keep themselves current in the safety and health field. At a
minimum, each CSHO is required to attend a technical course once every 3
years at the OSHA Training Institute. If an institute course has changed
significantly during the years, the CSHO is permitted to repeat the course.

CSHOs are also encouraged to pursue other training opportunities

available both within the Department of Labor and elsewhere.

PERSONNEL NEEuS ANu PRO£LEMS

The American Industrial Hygiene Association reports a national
membership of 12,300 in late 2001, with 76 local sections.. If local section
AIHA members who are not also national members are included, the
figure rises to approximately 15,000.

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

has a membership of approximately 5,000 industrial hygienists from 52
countries. Many hygienists belong to both organizations, limiting the data's
usefulness as an estimate of the total number of professional industrial
hygienists.

In 1975, OSHA, using 1973 NIOSH data, reported a national census of

only 500 industrial hygienists, but 15, 000 occupational safety and health
specialists. The OSHA estimate indicated a then-current need for 5,500
industrial hygienists and 24,000 safety and health specialists. At that
time, OSHA also predicted the need for 11,900 industrial hygienists and
62,300 occupational safety and health specialists by 1985.

Page 735

Cycles of growth and contraction in industry and government will

undoubtedly continue to affect the demand for industrial hygienists well
into the 21st century. In the 1980s, expansion of th e need for hygienists
came in nontraditional areas such as environmental remediation, indoor
air quality, and a number of areas that many see as temporary trends;
asbestos management and remediation projects are prime examples. In
the 1990s, however, downsizing by many corporations resulted in
industrial hygienists often functioning as safety and environmental or
even risk-management professionals, or delegating responsibilities such
as safety training to less trained and credentialed personnel. Some
industrial hygienists whose corporate jobs were eliminated now serve as
private consultants to a variety of clients, including the corporations they
left. ühereas 42 percent of AIHA's members are in private industry,
consultants (in firms or self-employed) make up about 24-25 percent of
the membership, up from about 10 percent in 1984.
Additionally, if a contraction of government agencies occurs because of a
changing political climate, this may mute the demand for industrial
hygienists in both industry and government. However, the 1990s also
saw a movement by large industry, particularly multinational or "global"
employers, to adopt national and international voluntary standards, such
as those developed through the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO
14000, which deals with an organization's management of its relationship
to the environment, is such an example. Industrial hygienists clearly have
roles to play in developing and helping imple ment the goals and
objectives of these programs to ensure that an organization truly
enhances worker safety as it conforms to these voluntary standards.

The absolute need for individuals trained in the prevention of disease and
preservation of health and safety will not change. Eventually, data such
as worker compensation costs and illness and injury rates will reveal the
need for prevention rather than repair of injury.

Education and Training Programs

The education and training programs for industrial hy giene include
professional school training, graduate curricula, and continuing education
(short courses). Professional school curricula in industrial hygiene
generally culminate in a Master of Science or a Master of Public Health
degree.

Educational Resource Centers

NIOSH's findings of shortages of trained occupational safety and health
graduates were cited in successful efforts to expand training grants
programs. One part of this expansion was the introduction of
multidisciplinary educational resource cen ters (ERCs). The other part was
growth of single-discipline training grants.

Congress authorized creation of up to 20 Educational Resource Centers

for occupational safety and health in 1976. Funding increased from $2.9
million in 1977 to $12.9 million in 1980, and in 2000 the ERCs now
number 15. In 1998 the name of these facilities was changed to
Education and Research Centers. These centers provide continuing
education to occupational health and safety professionals; combine
medical, industrial hygiene, safety, and nursing training so that graduates
are better able to work effectively in complex and diverse conditions;
conduct research; and conduct regional consultation services. All ERCs
are located in universities. The centers are distributed as widely a s
possible to give regional representation and to meet training needs for all
areas of the nation.

The ERCs should not be confused with the OSHA Training Institute
education centers, a program in which designated nonprofit organizations
offer the most frequently requested OSHA Training Institute courses for
the private sector and other Federal agency personnel. There are
currently 12 of these OSHA education centers around the U.S.
Professional Schooling
A program of study leading to a professional degree in industrial hygiene
should start with two years of basic arts and sciences, two years of
derivative sciences and advanced subjects, and two years of professional
courses. Such an advanced degree might appropriately be designated
Doctor of Occupational Health, Doctor of Public Health, Doctor of
Science, or Doctor of Engineering. Regardless of its name, however, it
should be clearly understood that such a degree is a professional
scholars degree.

Ôraduate Curricula
Graduate study programs have generally be en developed to provide in -
depth knowledge of a particular subject area and to develop scholarly
research capabilities. The Accrediting Board of Engineering and
Technology (ABET) has accredited master's level programs in industrial
hygiene since 1985 and currently also accredits baccalaureate level
programs. In early 2000 there are 21 accredited master's level programs
and 5 accredited baccalaureate level programs. ABET con siders
industrial hygiene (as well as safety, industrial manage ment, or quality
management) to be engineering related fields. The American Academy of
Industrial Hygiene has been the lead organization responsible for
submitting program criteria for industrial hygiene baccalaureate and
master's programs to ABET. In the past these criteria st ated specific
numbers and types of semester hours of credit that degree candidates
needed to complete the degree program. For example, a baccalaureate
degree program required 63 or more semester hours of college -level
mathematics, including technological c ourses and a minimum of 21
semester hours in communications, humanities, and social sciences. In
the late 1990s ABET's approach changed to one that asked organizations
to state their criteria in terms of outcome measures. ühile these are still
undergoing final review, the proposed new criteria for baccalaureate and
master's level programs in industrial hygiene are a combination of
general criteria expected in all types of engineering related programs,
and specific criteria for industrial hygiene programs.

Page 736

The general criteria for baccalaureate level programs require the

institution to evaluate and monitor students to determine if the program is
meeting its objectives and that students are meeting program
requirements.

Such programs must have detailed published educational objectives and

curriculum and processes that ensure the achievement of these
objectives as well as a system of ongoing evaluation that demonstrates
achievement of these objectives and uses the results to improve the
effectiveness of the program.

Programs must be able to demonstrate that graduates have:

> an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and
engineering-related applied sciences
>an ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret data
>an ability to formulate or design a system, process or program to meet
desired needs
>an ability to function on multi -disciplinary teams
>an ability to identify and solve engineering -related problems
>an understanding of professional and ethical re sponsibility
>an ability to communicate effectively
> the broad education necessary to understand the impact of solutions in
a global and societal context
> a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in life -long
learning
> a knowledge of contemporary issues
> an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern scientific and
technical tools necessary for professional practice.

Each program must have an assessment process with documented

results. Evidence must be given that the results are applied to the further
development and improvement of the program. The assessment process
must demonstrate that the outcomes important to the mission of the
institution and the objectives of the program, including those listed above,
are being measured.

The professional component requirements specify subject areas

appropriate to engineering -related programs, but do not prescribe specific
courses. The program's faculty must assure that the engineering -related
curriculum devotes adequate attention and time to each component,
consistent with the objectives of the program and institution. Students
must be prepared for engineering -related practice through the curriculum
culminating in comprehensive projects or experiences based on the
cumulative knowledge and skills acquired in earlier coursework.

Faculty
Rather than specifying specific numbers of faculty as it did in the past
ABET now will require that

 


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Continuing Education
A wide variety of opportunities exist for industrial hygienists who want to
remain technically current, receive training in previously unfamiliar
aspects of industrial hygiene, pursue academic coursework leading to a
more advanced degree, or earn certification maintenance points in order
to maintain CIH certification.

Page 737

A number of universities offer coursework leading to degrees. Also

available at such universities are usually short courses (a few days or
weeks long) on specific industrial hygiene topics. Summer institutes (1 -4
weeks long) concentrating on a particular area of industrial hygiene are
another continuing education opportunity.

NIOSH publishes an annual catalogue of all such training courses

nationwide at universities that are funded as NIOSH ERCs. Most ERCs
contain an industrial hygiene component that includes coursework
leading to academic degrees and short courses. The catalogue can be
obtained through the NIOSH publications dissemination office or at its
website. Between 1993 and 1998 NIOSH provided continuing education
for 184,000 professionals. A number of other not -for-profit and for-profit
training organizations provide short courses in industrial hygiene and
related topics. These include the National Safety Council and professional
industrial hygiene and safety societies as well as consulting firms. The
computerization of nearly all U. S. workplaces has engendered the
development of a wide range of self -paced educational activities,
including programs that can be delivered by CD -ROM or over the
Internet. Large numbers of web sites now address safety, industrial
hygiene, and environmental issues. There are also a variety of list -
servers on environmental and occupational health that deliver up -to-date
information to a computer subscription list. There are on -line discussion
groups and bulletin boards; for example the ACGIH sponsors "topic w alls"
that allow users to participate in posting questions and answers on
industrial hygiene topics, broken into the categories of Recognition,
Evaluation, and Control. New technologies also allow courses and
seminars to be delivered over the web or via vi deo conference.

SUMMARY
The need to control exposures to a rapidly rising number of chemicals
and hazardous agents and to comply with and enforce governmental
regulations and voluntary guidelines has brought about greater demand
for industrial hygienists. This demand exists in private industry, labor
unions, government, and academic organizations.

Individuals practicing industrial hygiene routinely work as a team; thus,

the physician, the nurse, the safety professional, and the industrial
hygienist are quite accustomed to working together. Other professions
are included as needed; these include toxicologists, health physicists,
epidemiologists, statisticians, professional trainers, and educators. A
team approach, using the knowledge and skills of all these professionals,
increases the effectiveness of programs to prevent occupational disease
and injuries and helps to anticipate future requirements.

The need continues for industrial hygienists to interpret the findings of

environmental investigations and to design and implement control
measures. The industrial hygienist must, therefore, have the generalist's
grasp of varied disciplines in order to interact with divergent groups in
developing and maintaining the most effective program.

Educational requirements for industrial hygienists will continue to expand

with the increasing need to monitor and control hazardous agents and to
comply with more stringent government regulations and voluntary
guidelines and standards such as those promulgated by the American
National Standards Institute and ACGIH. The training program for OSHA
CSHOs was also discussed.
Personnel from three professional specialties -²industrial hygiene, safety,
and environmental health ²will be working even more closely together in
the future, their responsibilities overlapping in many instances. The
separation between these professions has become increasingly blurred,
and melding may eventually lead to the creation of a single profession
whose scope is made up of what is currently recognized toda y as
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Receiver *üorker) Controls

Ú Training & Education

Ú Rotation
Ú Enclosure of üorker
Ú Personal Protective Devices
Ú Personal Monitoring Devices

Hierarchy of Controls
1.Engineering Controls ± wherever feasible engineering controls should
be used FIRST
2.Administrative Controls
3.PPE

Ventilation Controls
Ventilation is an important method for reducing employee exposures to
airborne contaminants
Not the only way
May not be most economical or most effective

Types of Ventilation
Natural
General
Dilution
Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)

Natural Ventilation
Natural movement of air entering and leaving openings such as windows,
doors, roof ventilators as well as through cracks and crevices of a
building
Heated air rises, cool air below

Ôeneral Ventilation
A method of improving or maintaining the quality of air in the work
environment with airflow
A room or an entire building is flushed by supplying and exhausting air
throughout the area
Ú Supply or forced ventilation (positive pressure)
Ú Exhaust or induced ventilation (negative pressure)
Ú Recirculation?

uilution Ventilation *uV)

DV can be either general ventilation or natural ventilation
Uncontaminated outside air + inside air = diluting and reducing the
concentration of air contaminants to acceptable levels to which a worker
can be safely exposed for eight hour s a day

Local Exhaust Ventilation

Capture or contain contaminants at their source before they escape into
the work room environment
System consists of one or more hoods, ducts, air cleaner and a fan
LEVs remove contaminants rather than just dilute them

Use of uilution Ventilation

Small quantities of contaminants released into the work room
Rate of contaminant release is reasonably constant to avoid inadequate
dilution during periods of peak contaminant release
No corrosion or other problems from the diluted contaminants in the work
room air
Sufficient distance from the worker to the contaminants source to allow
dilution to safe levels

Use of uilution Ventilation

To control vapors from low toxicity solvents
To control contaminants released over such a large area or in such a
manner that local exhaust is impossible, impractical or prohibitively
expensive

Use of uilution Ventilation

Should not be used to control emission of highly toxic air contaminants
e.g., formaldehyde or other carcinogenic chemicals
The exhaust outlet and air supply should be so located that there are no
³dead air spaces´

For all ventilation methods

Avoid re-entrance of the exhausted air

uilution Ventilation
Advantage uisadvantage
Simplicity Large volumes of dilution air needed
(increased HVAC costs )
Low original cost Employee exposures are difficult to control
near source
Use of Local Exhaust
The most effective means of controlling air contaminants is to capture
and remove the air contaminants at thei r source to prevent them from
being carried away by air currents into the breathing zones of the worker

System Components
Local exhaust consists of 4 parts:
Ú Hood ± point where contaminant is ³captured´
Ú Ducts
Ú Fan and motor
Ú Air cleaner device

Hoods
Hoods come in 3 main types
Ú Capturing hoods
Ú Enclosures
Ú Receiving hoods

Capturing Hoods
Placed alongside source (p. 609, 597)
Ú üelding
Ú Grinding
³Capture velocity´ calculated based on shape and contaminant source
³reach´ of most capturing hoods about 2 feet

Enclosure
Surround the contaminant
Lab chemical ³fume´ hoods and paint spray booths are examples

Receiving Hoods
Positioned so that it catches contaminants ³thrown´ at it such as furnace
or grinding wheel

Special Hood Types

Slot Hood
Ú By definition width is at least 5x height
Ú Used when uniform air velocity across face of hood is needed (lab
hood has slots)
Ú Creates more energy loss
Ú Turbulence

Special Hood Types

Canopy Hood
Ú Receiving hood over hot processes
Ú Cannot/should not be used when employees have to lean over the
 process

uucts
Can be made of galvanized steel, aluminum, stainless steel, plastic, wire -
wrapped fabric flexible duct
Ú ühere corrosion may be a concern, stainless steel or specialty
plastic should be used
Ú Flex duct should not be used where particulate settling can occur
Ú Lined ducts unacceptable
uucts
Q=VA
CFM = fpm x area (in square feet)
Larger ducts cost more, need smaller fan speed
Smaller ducts cost less, need greater fan speed

uucts
Friction occurs where air meets duct surface ± velocity near duct surface
is low
Turbulence occurs in the ducts due to changes in air velocity and
direction
Ú Measurements should be taken in several locations
~ pitot traverse -
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/silicacrystalline/dust/chapter_9.h
tml
~ p. 627
Ú Duct segment just before fan must be straight and uniform for fan
efficiency
~ 10 duct diameters rule of thumb

Exhaust Stack
High enough stack and discharge velocity to prevent re -entrainment of
contaminant and protect workers on roof
Ú Mushroom fan ??

Fans *p 615)
Radial blades (least efficient)
Forward-curved blades (moderate pressures with low noise levels)
Backward-inclined (most efficient)

Air Cleaners *Particulates)

Filters (baghouse)
Electrostatic precipitators (charged particles)
Cyclones
üet scrubbers
Ú Hazardous liquid waste?

Ôas and Vapor Removal

Absorption ± scrubbing
Adsorption ± activated carbon
Combustion ± burn off materials
Advantages/uisadvantages of Local Exhaust Ventilation
Can decrease heating and air -conditioning costs compared to dilution
ventilation (use less air flow)
Removal of contaminant is not 100% effective
Local exhaust systems can be used to conserve or reclaim heat or
reusable materials

Isolation
Potentially hazardous operations should be isolated to minimize exposure
to employees
Good for jobs requiring few workers when control by other methods is
difficult or not feasible
Isolation can be in terms of time, distance or shielding

Isolation
Remotely controlled equipment
Ú üorker does not have to be near equipment to operate
Ú üorker could be in enclosed or soundproof control booth with
clean air supply
Do hazardous tasks on swing shift with fewer employees present
Isolate work such as asbestos and lead abatement containments

Isolation
Enclosed equipment
Ú Glovebox
Closed systems
Ú Process safety

Administrative Controls
Reduction of work periods
Ú Useful where engineering controls not practical ± heat stress
Ú Not to be used for exposure to toxic materials

Administrative Controls
üet Methods
Ú Dust hazards can be minimized or greatly reduced
Ú May use a surfactant

Administrative Controls
Personal Hygiene
Ú Employees must have easy access to handwashing facilities
Ú Emergency showers/eyewash required where hazardou s,
extremely toxic, corrosive materials present
Ú Designated or suspected carcinogen use requires a ³designated
area´
Ú Eating, drinking, smoking, applying cosmetics or contact lenses
should be prohibited in areas where hazardous or biological
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Indoor Air Quality Procedure
Restricts concentrations to known contaminants of concern to some
specified acceptable level
Ú CO2
Ú Bioeffluents
Ú Ozone
Ú Formaldehyde
Ú Particulates
Ú Radon
Ú Lead
Ú CO
Ú ???

Carbon uioxide - ASHRAE

Outdoor ambient concentration of carbon dioxide is approximately 325 -
350 ppm
Ú indoor levels somewhat higher than outside, even in buildings with
few complaints about indoor air quality
If sufficient fresh air or other exchange does not occur, CO 2 can
accumulate, leading to a "stuffy" environment.
Comfort criteria are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation rate results in
indoor CO2 concentrations less than 700 ppm above the outdoor air
concentration.

Carbon uioxide - Others

NIOSH - Levels greater than 1000 ppm have been associated with
complaints including headaches, fatigue, nausea, eye irritation, and
throat irritation.
OSHA - proposed Indoor Air Quality rule stated that CO 2 concentrations
below 800 ppm generally indicate that the ventilation is adequate for
diluting occupant-generated contaminants.
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) - acceptable range of
CO2 as less than 850 ppm in the work place, as stated in their
publication,  
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ASHRAE
³For contaminants where standards or guidelines have not been
established, it has been customary to assume as a first guide that a
concentration of 1/10 TLV would not produce complaints in a non -
industrial population in residential, office, school, or other similar
environments.´

uemand Controlled Ventilation *uCV)

CO2 sensing is used as an occupancy indicator
Ú CO2 used as an indicator of IAQ/comfort
Ú Complaints likely when CO 2 > 1000 ppm (or >700 over basel ine)
More outside air provided when CO 2 levels above threshold

Chapter 24
The Safety Professional

Page 743

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SCOPE ANu FUNCTIONS OF THE SAFETY PROFESSIONAL

Safety 


profession, drawing its professionals fro m
many different fields such as safety management, education,
engineering, psychology, medicine, biophysics, chemistry, and labor.
Safety professionals are employed in nearly every industry and
government sector. Interestingly, many professionals in the fi eld did not
initially choose safety as a career, but instead became interested in
accident prevention and loss prevention while working in other
disciplines. Many have made the change to the safety profession after
recognizing the fact that a well -defined safety program promotes
management's objective of producing high -quality products at the lowest
cost.

The safety profession today is a sophisticated discipline; combining

engineering, chemistry, biology, behavioral psy chology, and a knowledge
about such topics as systems safety analysis, human factors engineering,
biomechanics, sad product safety (Figure 24 -1, 24-2). In addition, the
safety professional must possess a thorough knowledge of a facility's
equipment, property, manufacturing processes, and empl oyees. In many
facilities the safety professional must be able to work with employees with
varying linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The safety professional must
display tact, diplomacy, persuasiveness, and persistence .
Page 744

In short, today's safety professional must wear many hats and play many
roles. The safety professional should serve as a counselor to the
organizations chief executive. The safety professional must be able to
enter the boardroom of an organization as an equal; to do this, he o r she
must understand the basic technology of the industry.

An increasing number of institutions of higher education offer degrees in

safety engineering and/or safety manage ment. Such courses are
essential to the continuing develop ment of safety and health
professionals. There are more than 125 colleges and universities that
offer degrees in safety management, occupational safety, environmental
protection, or a related field. A list of these schools is available from the
American Society of Safety Engineers at: ASSE, 1800 E. Oakton St., Des
Plaines, IL 60018-2187.

In its broadest sense, occupational health has come to mean not only
freedom from disease but from injury as well. Because of this, the safety
professional has become more closely aligned wi th the industrial
hygienist and the field of occupational medicine. It is rare to find a safety
professional who does not also practice some traditional industrial
hygiene or vice versa.

There is no question that accidents are painful and costly to the wo rker,
the worker's family, and to society. (The term 
as used here is
defined to mean any unexpected event that interrupts the work sequence
or process and that may result in injury, illness, or property damage to the
extent that it causes loss.) Accidents produce economic and social loss,
impair individual and group productivity, cause inefficiency, upset
employee morale and public image, and generally retard progress. Also,
in today's world, an organization with a poor 
program often finds it
difficult to compete.
Dedicated safety professionals continue to be accident prevention's most
valuable asset. Their ranks have grown to the point where membership in
the American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) is now more than
30,000. This organization, dedicated to the interests and professional
development of safety engineers, has approximately 150 chapters in the
United States and Canada, and it has mem bers worldwide. There are
many other qualified safety pro fessionals in addition to the ASSE
members, who, together with thousands of specialists and technicians,
carry out a limited scope of activities within the occupational safety and
health field.

Figure 24-1. The scope of the professional safety position are reprinted
with permission from the American Society of Safety Engineers website,
www.asse.org
SCOPE OF A SAFETY PROFESSIONAL

To perform their professional func tions, safety professionals must have

education, training and experience in a common body of knowledge.
Safety professionals need to have a fundamen tal knowledge of physics,
chemistry, biology, physiology, statistics, mathematics, computer science,
engineering mechanics, industrial processes, business, communication
and psychology. Professional safety studies include industrial hygiene
and toxicology, design of engineering hazard controls, fire protection,
ergonomics, system and process safety, safety and health program
management, accident investigation and analysis, product safety,
construction safety, education and training methods, measurement of
safety performance, human behavior, environmental safety and health,
and safety, health and environmental laws, regulations and standards.
Many safety professionals have backgrounds oradvance d study in
other disciplines, such as management and business administration,
engineering, education, physical and social sciences and other fields.
Others have advanced study in safety. This extends their expertise
beyond the basics of the safety profession.

Because safety is an element in all human endeavors, safety

professionals perform their functions in a variety of contexts in both public
and private sectors, often employing specialized knowledge and skills.
Typical settings are manufacturing, insurance, risk management,
government, education, consulting, construction, healthcare, engineering
and design, waste management, petroleum, facilities man agement, retail,
transportation and utilities. üithin these contexts, safety professionals
must adapt their functions to fit the mission, operations and climate of
their employer.

Not only must safety professionals acquire the knowledge and skills to per -
form their functions effectively in their employment context, through
continuing education and training they stay current with new technologies,
changes in laws and regulations, and changes in the workforce, workplace
and world business, political and social climate.

As part of their positions, safety professionals must plan for and man age
resources and funds related to their functions. They may be respon sible
for supervising a diverse staff of professionals.
By acquiring the knowledge and skills of the profession, developing the
mind set and wisdom to act responsibly in the employment context, an d
keeping up with changes that affect the safety profession, the safety
professional is able to perform required safety pro fessional functions with
confidence, competence and respected authority .

Page 745

FUNCTIONS OF A SAFETY PROFESSIONAL

The major areas relating to the pro tection of people, property and the
environment are:
A. Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous conditions and practices.
B. Develop hazard control designs, methods, procedures and programs.
C. Implement, administer and adviseothers on hazard control programs.
D. Measure, audit and evaluate theeffectiveness of hazard
controlprograms.
The major areas relating to the pro tection of people, property and the
environment are:
A. Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous conditions and practices.
B. Develop hazard control designs, methods, procedures and programs.
C. Implement, administer and adviseothers on hazard control programs.
D. Measure, audit and evaluate theeffectiveness of hazard
controlprograms.
A. Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous conditions and
practices
This function involves:
1. Developing methods for
> Anticipating and predicting hazards from experience, his torical data and
other information sources.
> Identifying and recognizing hazards in existing or future systems,
equipment, products, software, facilities, processes, operations and
procedures during their expected life.
> Evaluating and assessing the probability and severity of loss events
and accidents which may result from actual or potential hazards.

 Applying these methods and con ducting hazard analyses and inter -
preting results.
 Reviewing, with the assistance of specialists where needed, entire
systems, processes, and operations for failure mode s, causes and
effects of the entire system, process or operation and any subsystem or
components due to:
>System, subsystem, or component failures.
> Human error.
> Incomplete or faulty decision making, judgments or admin istrative
actions.
> üeaknesses in proposed or existing policies, directives, objectives or
practices.
4. Reviewing, compiling, analyzingand interpreting data from acci dent and
loss event reports and
other sources regarding injuries, illnesses, property damage, envi -
ronmental effects or public
impacts to:
> Identify causes, trends and relationships.
> Ensure completeness, accu racy and validity of required information.
> Evaluate the effectiveness of classification schemes and data collection
methods.
> Initiate investigations.
 Providing advice and counsel about compliance with safety, health and
environmental laws, codes, regulations and standards.
 Conducting research studies of existing or potential safety and health
problems and issues.
 Determining the need for surveys and appraisals that help identify
conditions or practices affecting safety and health, including those
which require the services of specialists, such as physicians, health
physicists, industrial hygienists, fire protection engineers, design and
process engineers, ergonomists, risk managers, environmental profes-
sionals, psychologists and others.
 Assessing environments, tasks and other elements to ensure that
physiological and psychological capa bilities, capacities and li mits of
humans are not exceeded.
B. uevelop hazard control methods, procedures and programs
This function involves:
1. Formulating and prescribing engi neering or administrative
controls,preferably before exposures, acci dents, and loss events occur,
to:
> eliminate hazards and causes of exposures, accidents and loss
events.
#reduce the probability or sever ity of injuries, illnesses, losses or
environmental damage from potential exposures, accidents, and loss
events when hazards cannot be eliminated.

 Developing methods, which inte grate safety performance into the

goals, operations and productivity of organizations and their manage -
ment and into systems, processes, operations or their components.
 Developing safety, health and environmental policies, procedures,
codes and standards for integration into operational policies of organi -
zations, unit operations, purchas ing and contracting.
 Consulting with and advising indi viduals and participating on teams:
#engaged in planning, design, development and installation or
implementation of systems or programs involving hazard controls.
> engaged in planning, design, development, fabrication, test ing,
packaging and distribu tion of products or services regarding safety
requirements and application of safety prin ciples which will maximize
product safety.
 Advising and assisting human resources specialists when applying
hazard analysis results or dealing with the capabilities and limita tions of
personnel.
 Staying current with technological developments, laws, regulations,
standards, codes, products, methods and practices related to hazard
controls.

Figure 24-2 The functions of the professional safety position are

reprinted with permission from the ASSE website ( www.asse.org).
Page 746
C. Implement, administer and advise others on hazard controls and
hazard control programs
This function involves:
 Preparing reports, which communicate valid and comprehensive rec-
ommendations for hazard controls which are based on analysis and
interpretation of accident expo sure, loss event and other data.

 Using written and graphic mate rials, presentations and other

communication media to recommend hazard controls and hazard control
policies, procedures and programs to decision making personnel.
3. Directing or assisting in planning and developing educational and
training materials or courses. Conducting or assisting with courses
related to designs, policies, procedures and programs involoving
hazard recognition and control.
 Advising others about hazards, hazard controls, relative risk and
related safety matters when they are communicating with the media,
community and public.
 Managing and implementing haz ard controls and hazard control
programs, which are within the duties of the individual's profes sional
safety position.
D. Measure, audit and evaluate the effectiveness of hazard controls
and hazard control programs
This function involves:
1. Establishing and implementing techniques, which invol ve risk analysis,
cost, cost-benefit analysis, work sampling, loss rate and similar
methodologies, for periodic and systematic evaluation of hazard control
and hazard control program effectiveness.

 Developing methods to evaluate the costs and effect iveness of hazard

controls and programs and measure the contribution of com ponents of
systems, organization, processes and operations toward the overall
effectiveness.
 Providing results of evaluation assessments, including recom mended
adjustments and changes to hazard controls or hazard control programs,
to individuals or organizations responsible for their man agement and
implementation.
 Directing, developing, or helping to develop management accounta -
bility and audit programs which assess safety perfo rmance of entire
systems, organizations, processes and operations or their compo nents
and involve both deterrents and incentives.

Figure 24-2 More functions of the professional safety position are from
the ASSE website
(www.asse.org).

In 1968, the ASSE was instrumental in forming the Board of Certified

Safety Professionals (BCSP). Its purpose is to provide the professional
status of a Certified Safety Pro fessional (CSP) to qualified safety
professionals by certification after they have met strict education and
experience requirements and passed an examination. As of late 2001,
approximately 10,000 CSPs and approximately 1,200 Asso ciate Safety
Professionals (ASPs) had been certified by the BCSP. The ASP
designation is awarded to those who pass the Safety Fundamentals
Examination, the initial exam of the certification process, and indicates a
recognition of a person's progress toward certification.

In 1985, the BCSP and the American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH)
began joint sponsorship of a certification program for occupational safety
and health technologists (OHSTs). This designation is not intended for
those who are certified industrial hygienists (CIHs) or CSPs, nor is it
intended for those eligible to take e ither the CIH or CSP examination. Its
purpose is to recognize technologists in the fields of safety and health.

There has been an orderly development of safety knowl edge, which,

when applied with sufficient skill and judg ment, has produced significant
reductions in occupationaldisease and in many types of accidents and
accidental injuries. However, the tremendous increase in scientific
knowledge and technological progress has added to the com plexities of
safety work.

The focus on the control of industr ial disease and accident prevention
has oscillated between environmental con trol or engineering and human
factors. Some important trends in the pattern of the safety professional's
development have emerged.

#First, increasing emphasis on analyzing the l oss potential of the activity

with which the safety professional is con cerned; such analysis requires
greater ability to predict where and how loss - and injury-producing events
will occur and to find the means of preventing such events.
> Second, increased development of factual, unbiased, and objective
information about loss-producing problems and accident causation, so
that those who have ultimate decision -making responsibilities can make
sound decisions.
#Third, increasing use of the safety professio nal's help in developing safe
products. The application of the princi ple of accident causation and
control to the product being designed or produced has become more
importantbecause of product liability cases; legal aspects in the gen eral
field of safety and health, including negligent design; and the obvious
impact that a safer product has on the overall safety and health of the
environment.

Page 747

CAREERS IN SAFETY
Protecting America's work force, the general public, and the environment
from injury and illness in today's age of tech nological and scientific
advancement has become one of the most challenging and rewarding
career fields available. It is here that the safety professional brings to
bear technical knowledge, skill, and expertise along wit h management
abilities developed through years of education and practical experience.

There are many career options that one may pursue as a safety
professional. The safety professional has the responsi bility for studying
materials, structures, codes, and operations in order to find the best way
to use resources to control hazards, those things which can lead to
accidents, illness, fires, explosions, etc. "Resources" may mean tools,
equipment, machinery, buildings, or any other items that can pre vent
hazards. "Accidents" may cause injuries to people or damage to property
and the environment as well as other adverse effects.

Safety managers recognize and devise methods to con trol hazards using
the management skills and techniques needed to administer a
department or facility. The safety manager may direct the safety program
of a large plant, corporation, or a department within local, state or the fed -
eral government.

One very common career within the safety profession is that of a loss
control representative for an insurance organi zation. These professionals
help organizations, which areinsured or seeking to be insured identify
risks within their operations and reduce the possibility of accidents, fires,
and other losses.

The broad field of safety is concerned with the interaction between

people and the physical, chemical, biological, and psychological forces
which affect their well-being. It is necessary to realize that all of these
forces influence or affect people simultaneously; therefore the saf ety
professional cannot study one area without considering the effects of the
others.
The largest employers of safety professionals are manufac turing, service
industries, construction, insurance, consult ing firms, and the government.

uEFINITION OF A SAFETY PROFESSIONAL

ühat, then, is a safety professional? The Board of Certified Safety
Professionals of the Americas, Inc., has identified a 
 

as a person engaged in the prevention of accidents, incidents, and
events that harm people, property, or the environment. They use
qualitative and quantitative analysis of simple and complex products,
systems, operations, and activities to identify hazards. They evaluate the
hazards to identify what events can occur and the likeli hood of
occurrence, severity of results, risk (a combination of probability and
severity), and cost (Figure 24-3). They identify what controls are
appropriate and their cost and effectiveness. Safety professionals make
recommendations to managers, designers, employers, go vernment
agencies, and others. Controls may involve administrative controls (such
as plans, policies, procedures, training, etc.), engi neering controls (such
as safety features and systems, failsafe features, barriers, and other
forms of protection), and personal protective equipment (PPE). Safety
professionals may manage and implement controls.

HAZARu IuENTIFICATION CHECKLIST TYPE 1²SAFETY

1 A INTERNAL ENERÔY RELEASE
1A1 ENERGY SOURCES POTENTIAL (PRESSURE VESSEL)
KINETIC (CENTRIFUGE)
CHEMICAL (FUEL, EXPLOSIVES)
1A2 UNSAFE CONDITIONS (INCLUDES HARDüARE
UNRELIABILITIES)
1A3 HUMAN ERROR (CONSIDER PROGRAM OR TRAINING
DEFICIENCY)
1£ EXTERNAL ENERÔY uAMAÔE
1B1 SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTS (SHOCK,
TEMPERATURE,CONTAMINATION)
1B2 NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS (LIGHTNING, EARTHQUAKE,
HURRICANE)
1C PHYSIOLOÔICAL uAMAÔE
1C1 TOXIC SOURCES (POISON GASES, X-RAYS, NOISE)
1C2 DEPRIVATIONS (ANOXIA, STARVATION, DEHYDRATION)

Figure 24-3 Hazard evaluation and abatement checklists are very useful
in pinpointing safety and health hazards. (Adapted from üorkplace Injury
and Illness Prevention, CS -1A. Cal. OSHA Consultation Service.)

Page 748

Figure 24-4 Personal protective equipment is commonly used to protect

employees from potentially hazardous operations

Besides knowledge of a wide range of hazards, controls, and safety

assessment methods, safety professionals must have knowledge of
physical, chemical, biological and behavioral sci ences, mathematics,
business, training and educational techniques, engineering concepts, and
particular kinds of operations (construction, manufacturing, transportation,
etc.).

Accident Prevention Activities

The basic accident prevention activities (in descending order of
effectiveness and preference) are as follows:
> Eliminate the hazard from the machine, method, mate rial, or facility
structure.
#Control or contain the hazard by enclosing or guarding it at its source or
exhausting an airborne hazard away from the operator.
#Train operating p ersonnel to be aware of the hazard and
to follow safe job procedures to avoid it.
>Prescribe personal protective equipment for personnel to shield them
from the hazard (Figure 24-4).
It is beyond the scope of this section to describe com pletely all accident
prevention activities of safety profession als at each operation. However,
the primary responsibilities are outlined here:

}
Provide advisory services on safety and health problems and other

matters related to accident prevention.
}
Develop a centralized program to control hazards.
}
Keep informed of changes in federal, state, and local safety codes,
and communicate such information to management.
}
Develop and apply safety standards both for production facilities
(equipment, tools, work methods, and safeguarding) and for
 products, based on applicable legal and voluntary codes, rules,
and standards.
}
üork closely with the engineering, industrial hygiene, medical, and
purchasing departments during the devel opment and construction
of new equipment and facilities. See that a procedure is
established to ensure that only safe tools, equipment, and supplies
are purchased; advise the purchasing department on acceptable
supplies and materials; and review and approve purchase requisi -
tions for personal protective equipment and safety items.
}
Develop, plan, and implement the safety and health inspection
program carried out by the operating supervi sors and field safety
personnel to identify potential haz ards, both in the workplace and
in the use of the organization's products. Inspect all new
equipment in conjunction with engineering, operating, and
personnel representatives for adequate safeguards and freedom
from major safety and health hazards.
}
Guide operating supervision in accident investig ation to determine
the accident's cause and to prevent recurrence. Review
nondisabling-injury accident reports on a sample basis to check
the thoroughness of the accident investi gation and corrective
actions taken.
}
Collect and analyze data on illness and accidents for the purpose
of instituting corrective action and to determine accident trends
and provide targets for corrective action. Maintain such files as
those of inspection records, employee training, OSHA injury and
illness logs, a hazard log, and files of complaints and suggestions.
}
Ensure education and training of employees in general and
specific safety and health principles and techniques (Figure 24 -5).
Maintain supervisory contacts for new instructions, follow -up, and
general safety and health motivation.
}
Cooperate with medical personnel on matters of employee health
and fitness to work, and with industrial hygiene or environmental
quality control personnel on industrial hygiene problems.
SAFETY ANu HEALTH PROÔRAMS
Management usually places administration of the accident prevention or
safety and health program in the hands of a safety professional whose
title is safety director, manager ofsafety, or loss control manager.

Page 749

Figure 24-5. Educating employees about the importance of general health

and safety principles and techniques is one of the mainstays of an
effective health and safety program.

Full staff responsibility for the safety activities should be assigned to one
person. The decision concerning proper placement of responsib ility
should be based on the size of the organization and the nature of the
hazards involved in its operation.
Employment of full-time safety professionals is increasing for the
following reasons:
>The passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH A) of 1970
requires that certain safety standards be met and maintained.
> A better understanding of the safety professional's serv ices and
functions is developing. To administer a safety program effectively, the
individual in charge must be highly train ed and/or have many years of
experience in the safety field.
A safety and health program is not something that is imposed on
organization operations as an afterthought. Safety, an integral part of
organization operations, must be built into every process o r product
design and into every operation and procedure.

The prevention of accidents, illness, and injuries is basi cally achieved

through control of the working environment and control of people's
actions. The safety professional can assist management to implement
such control.

An organization with an effective health and safety pro gram has a

working environment in which operations can be conducted safely,
economically, and efficiently, with a mini mum of employee, customer, and
public complaints.

STAFF VERSUS LINE STATUS

In general, the safety and health program is administered by safety
professionals or other persons holding line posi tions in a small company,
or staff positions in a large organization. In large corporations, the safety
professionals and their organizations usually have staff status
andauthority. The exact organizational status of the safety staff is
determined by each firm in terms of its own operating policies.
The safety and health program as a staff function should have the
following objectives:
>- To establish staff credibility to advise and counsel regard ing safety or
health matters >- To keep all affected personnel adequately
informedregarding safety or health matters
>- To ensure that responsibility and accountability f or safety are properly
assigned with every staff group and operat ing management
>- To program activities that support harmonious supervi sor/employee
interaction on safety or health matters
>- To establish and reinforce consistent attention to preven tive practices
and actions

Sometimes the safety professional is delegated authority that is usually

reserved for line officials. On fast-moving and rapidly changing
operations; operations on which delayed action would endanger the lives
of workers or others, as in construction and demolition work, fumigation,
and chemical processes or processes with other dangerous substances;
or emergency work, it is common to find that the safety pro fessional has
authority to order immediate changes, includ ing the shutting down of
specific equipment or operations.
COuES ANu STANuARuS
The safety professional must be familiar with codes and stan dards
applicable to equipment, material, environmental con trols, and energy
sources. Only by knowing which codes and standards apply can the
safety professional give valid advice regarding organization standards for
purchasing specifications. The safety professional must know how to
meet government agency regulatory requirements (such as those of
OSHA, EPA, and the Mine Safety and Health Administration [MSHA], but
there are also many other guidelines and consensus standards that
provide state-of-the-art models. Therefore, the safety professional should
be familiar with the following:
> Codes and standards approved by the Ameri can National Standards
Institute (ANSI) and other standards and spec ifications groups (see
Bibliography).
> Codes and standards adopted or set by federal, state, and local
government agencies. This is particularly important where local or state
codes are more stringent than federal codes.
> Codes, standards, and lists of approved or tested devices published by
such recognized authorities as Underwrit ers Laboratories, Inc., and the
National Fire Protection Association.
> Safety practice recommendations of such organizations as the National
Safety
Council, American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE), American
Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), American Industrial Hygiene
Association
(AIHA), insurance carriers or their association s, and trade and industrial
organizations.

Page 750

Figure 24-6. As a production process is being planned, staff from engineering,

production, and safety meet to review draw ings and plans to incorporate
safety and health features.

Policies and Procedures

One of the main tasks confronting the safety professional is the development
and implementation of organization safety and health policies and procedures.
Policies and procedures are necessary to ensure that OSHA and organization
requirements for safety and health are carried out uniformly within an
organization. Examples of policies and proce dures that many companies
would have in a safety and health program might include visitor safety,
accident investigation, safety meetings, new employee sa fety and health
orientations, first aid/CPR, reporting injuries and illnesses, hazard
communication, confined spaces, materials handling and lifting, personal
protective equipment including respira tory protection, bloodborne pathogens,
ergonomics, and fleet/vehicle safety.

Because safety and health policies and procedures often affect a number of
departments and have far-ranging effects in terms of operations and costs,
they must be reviewed by management as well as the safety professional.

Policies and procedures generally begin with a purpose statement. In other

words, what is the policy and procedure intended to accomplish? The purpose
statement is often followed by general requirements and a procedure,
including designation of individuals or position s along with their spe cific tasks
or action steps.

An important duty of the safety professional should be that of checking plans

for new or remodeled facilities and new, rebuilt, or rearranged equipment;
changes in material used in product or processes a nd material-storage and
handling procedures; and plans for future products (Figure 24 ²6). Many
companies do not permit a drawing or specification to be used until it has
been approved by the safety professional. This important function must be
done early enough to afford an opportunity to discover health and safety
hazards and to correct conditions that might other wise be built into the facility
and its equipment and that would later result in injuries or other casualty
losses. There is also the opportunit y at this planning stage to build in safety or
fire protection features and to provide adequate space for exit aisles, janitor
closets, waste-collection equipment, and other commonly overlooked
functions.

The safety professional should also make sure tha t organization policies and
applicable standards are followed in pur chase specifications for new materials
and equipment and for modification of existing equipment. Some companies
have arranged for the purchasing department to notify the safety departmen t
when new materials or equipment are to be purchased, or when there is a
new supplier of safety-related materials. For instance, when a new chemical is
requested, the safety department should ensure that any applicable Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is obtained from the manufacturer.

The engineering department, with the help of the safety professional, should
check with the purchasing department to determine the necessary safety and
health measures to be built on or into a machine before it is purchase d.
Purchasing agents in an industrial facility are necessarily cost -conscious.
Consequently, the safety professional must know the occu pational disease
and accident losses to the organization in terms of specific machines,
materials, and processes. If the professional is to recommend the expenditure
of several thousand dollars for protection of health or other safeguards to be
used throughout the facility, for instance, there should be valid evidence that
the investment is justified.

Because of highly competitive marketing, manufacturers of machine tools and

processing equipment often list safety devices, such as guards and noise
enclosures designed for the protection of operators, as separate auxiliary
equipment. The supplier may not know the ultimate use of the product. The
actual needs for guards and automatic controls depend on the proximity of the
operator to the equipment and vary from one installation to another. The
safety professional must evaluate each installation and be in a position to
satisfy the purchasing agent of the need for health and safety equip ment to be
included in the original order, or to recommend the issuance of additional
purchase orders to provide adequate protection to the operator.
In many organizations, safety and health fun ctions are placed in three
coordinate departments:

> The engineering department, where plans and specificationsare prepared

for all machinery and equipment purchased
> The safety and health department, where plans and spec ifications are
carefully checked for safety and health
>The purchasing department, which has much latitude in making selections
and determining standards of quality, efficiency, and price .

Page 751

Note that even in smaller organizations, someone must be responsible for

these three functions for an effective safety and health program.

Engineering
The ultimate objective of an organization's engineering pro gram is to design
equipment and processes and to plan work procedures so that the
organization can produce the best product with the highest quality at the
lowest cost. It is the safety professional's job to see that engineering
personnel are acquainted with the particular safety and health hazards
involved and to suggest methods of eliminating these hazards.

The goal is to design safe and healthful environments and equipment and to
set up job procedures so that employee exposure to the hazards of illness
and injury are either eliminated or controlled as completely as possible. This
can be accomplished when safety and health are fa ctors incorporated into the
design of the equipment or the planning of the process, along with adequate
training and supervision.

The most efficient time to engineer safety and health haz ards out of the
facility, product, process, or job is before build ing or remodeling, while a
product is being designed, before a change in a process is put into effect, or
before a job is started. Every effort, therefore, should be made to find and
remove potential safety and health hazards at the blueprint or planning s tage.

Machine and Equipment uesign

The machine manufacturer, like any other business, wants to have satisfied
customers. If the machines cause accidents, customers are dissatisfied. If a
customer's order for a machine specifies that the machine must meet specific
regulations of OSHA (or another agency) and have safety built into it, the
manufacturer's designers will regard such a specification as a design
requirement that they must meet. If only a general statement such as "must
meet OSHA standards" is used, the manufacturer does not know which
standards apply, and the equipment may not be properly guarded.

In many instances, guards added to a machine after it has been installed in a

facility are easily removed, and often are not replaced. If a guard or en closure
is an aid to production and efficiency rather than a hindrance, however, it is
unlikely that the machine would be operated without having the guard in
place. Machine safety must be improved without hindering the worker or
reducing the efficiency of the equipment. (See Bibliography for more
information.)

The best solution lies in a basic guard design that elimi nates the safety and
health hazard and, if possible, increases efficiency. There can be little
prospect for safe operation of a machine unle ss the idea of building safety
and health measures into the machine's function is applied right on the draw -
ing board for the establishment that is going to use the equipment.

Purchasing
The safety professional is responsible for generating and documenti ng safety
and health standards to guide the pur chasing department. These standards
should be set up so that the safety and health hazards associated with a
particular kind of equipment or material being purchased are elimi nated or, at
the very least, substantially reduced.

The purchasing staff, although not directly involved with educational and
enforcement activities, is vitally concerned with many phases of engineering
activities. They select and purchase the various items of machinery, tools,
equipment, and materials used in the organization, and it is to a consid erable
degree their responsibility to see that safety has received adequate attention
in the design, manufacture, and particulars of shipment of these items.

The safety professional should be well prepared to advise the purchasing

department when required to do so. The pur chasing staff can reasonably
expect the safety professional to offer the following:

}
Specific information about safety and health hazards thatcan be

eliminated by change in design or application ofguarding by the
manufacturer
}
Information about equipment, tools, and materials that can cause
injuries if misused
}
Specific information about health and fire hazards at the facility's
worksites
}
Information on federal and s tate safety and health rules and regulations
}
Information on accident experience with machines, equipment, or
materials that are about to be reordered

SAFETY ANu HEALTH CONSIuERATIONS

In purchasing items such as lifting devices and automatic packagin g, chemical
processing, or storage equipment, safety and health concerns are extremely
important. For example, extreme caution must be observed in the purchase of
personal protective equipment, including eye protection, respirators, gloves,
and the like; of equipment for the move ment of suspended loads, such as
ropes, chains, slings, and cables; of equipment for the movement and storage
of materials; and of miscellaneous substances and fluids for cleaning and
other purposes that might constitute or aggra vate a fire or health hazard.
Adequate labeling that identi fies contents and calls attention to safety and
health hazards should be specified. This labeling must comply with state or
federal hazard communication (right -to-know) standards. Because the rules
and regulations of federal and state agencies keep changing, the safety
professional must keep up to date on both employee and community right -to-
know regulations.

Many commonly unsuspected safety and health hazards must be considered

when very ordinary items such as common hand tools, reflectors, tool racks,
cleaning rags, and paint for shop walls and machinery are purchased. Among
the factors to be considered are maximum load strength; long life
withoutdeterioration; sharp, rough, or pointed characteri stics of articles; need
for frequent adjustment; ease of maintenance; and ergonomic factors that
result in excessive fatigue. ühere toxic chemicals are involved, disposal of
residue, scrap, and shipping containers must be considered. Safety
professionals who are in day-to-day contact with the operating problems must
give such information to the purchasing agent.

Page 752

SAFETY ANu HEALTH INSPECTIONS

Safety inspections are one of the principal means of locat ing potential causes
of accidents and illness and help determine what safeguarding is necessary to
protect against safety and health hazards before accidents and personal
injuries occur.

Just as inspections of a process are important functions in quality control,

safety and health inspections are i mportant in accident control (Figure 24 ²7).

Inspections should not be limited to a search for unsafe physical conditions

but should also try to detect unsafe or unhealthful work practices. Finding
unsafe conditions and work practices and promptly correcting them is one of
the most effective methods of preventing accidents and safeguard ing
employees. Management can also show employees its inter est and sincere
effort in accident prevention by correcting unsafe conditions or work practices
immediately. Inspections help to "sell" the safety and health program to
employees. Each time a safety professional or an inspection committee passes
through the work area, management's interest in safety and health is
advertised. Regular facility inspections encourage individual employees to
inspect their immediate work areas.

In addition, inspections facilitate the safety professional's contact with

individual workers, thereby making it easier to obtain their help in eliminating
accidents and illnesses. Theworkers can often point out unsafe conditions that
might otherwise go unnoticed and uncorrected. ühen employee suggestions
are acted on, all employees are made to feel that their cooperation is
essential and appreciated.

Safety and health inspections should not be conducted pri marily to find out
how many things are wrong, but rather to determine whether everything is
satisfactory. Their purpose should be to discover conditions that, if corrected,
will bring the facility up to accepted and approved safety and health standards
and result in making it a safer and mo re healthful place in which to work.
ühen observed, inspectors should tactfully point out any unsafe work
procedures to the employees involved. They should be certain to indicate the
hazards. Inspectors may need to recommend new or continuing safety and
health training for supervisors and employees.

Inspection of üork Areas

Before the facility walk-through inspection, it is advisable to review reports of
all accidents (including noninjury acci dents and near misses, if possible) for
the previous several years, so that special attention can be given to the
conditions and locations known to be safety -sensitive.
Most facilities make use of irregularly scheduled inspec tions, which can
include an unannounced inspection of a particular department, piece of
equipment, or small work area. Such inspections made by the safety
department tend to keep the supervisory staff alert to find and correct unsafe
conditions and operating practices before they are found by the safety
inspector.

The need for intermittent insp ections is often indicated by accident report
analysis. If the analysis shows an unusual number of accidents for a particular
department or location or an increase in certain types of injuries, an inspection
should be conducted to determine the reasons for theincrease and to find
out what corrections are necessary. All results of inspections must be
discussed with operating supervision if any gain is to be made.

Page 753

Supervisors should constantly ensure that tools, machines, and other

department equipment are maintained properly and are safe to use. To do this
effectively, they should use systematic inspection procedures and can
delegate authority to others in a department.

Inspection programs should be set up for new equipment, materials,

procedures, and processes. A process should not be put into regular
operation until it has been checked for haz ards; additional safeguards have
been installed, if necessary; and safety instructions or procedures have been
developed. This is also a good time t o make a complete job safety analysis
(JSA) of the operation. It takes less time and effort now than if done later.

Safety Inspectors or Technicians

Inspectors should know how to locate safety and health haz ards and should
have the authority to act and make recommendations. A good safety inspector
must know the organization's accident experience, be familiar with accident
potentials, have the ability to make intelligent recommenda tions for corrective
action, and be diplomatic in handling sit uations and personnel.

Safety inspectors must be equipped with the proper per sonal protective
equipment, protective clothing, and other required equipment to carry out
duties. It would be difficult for a safety inspector to persuade an employee to
wear eye protection or safety shoes if the inspector does not wear them, or to
require workers to use respirators unless the inspector sets the example and
uses one in a hazardous environment. It is essential that inspectors practice
what they preach.

Safety Professionals
The safety professional has a productive role during safety inspections,
coordinating the safety program and teaching by first -hand contact and on-
the-spot examples.

The number of safety professionals and inspectors needed for adequate

safety inspection activities depends a great deal on the size and complexity of
the facility and the type of industry involved. Large companies with well -
organized safety programs usually employ a staff of full-time safety
professionals and inspectors who work directly under a safety director or safety
supervisor. Some large companies also have specially designated employees
who spend part of their time on inspections, and some have employee
inspection committees.

The safety professional should be fully in charge of devel oping safety

inspection activities and should receive the reports of all inspectors. Special
departmental inspectors should either make safety inspections personally or
supervise the inspectors in their work. Although safety professionals often
have a considerable amount of office work to do, they should get out into the
production and maintenance areas as often as possible and make general as
well as specific safety inspections. If there is more than one facility involved,
there should be a plan to make at least an annual inspection sur vey of each
facility.

Third-Party Inspections, or Audits

The value of a third-party inspection of policies, procedures, and practices as
well as an inspection of the physical facility and equipment is increasingly
evident. The advantages of such audits are as follows:
> Objectivity of the inspecting party is less likely to lead tobiased findings or
their reporting.
> Results of external audits are usually directed to a higherlevel of decision -
making authority and thus are morelikely to be acted on promptly.
> Performance of the audit does not have to depend on thetime or
convenience of organization staff.
> Professionals contracted for such audits usually havemuch expertise in a
given industry.

Many businesses currently find that an annual audit and inspection of their
facilities to assess the state of their safety, health, and environmental affairs is
as important as the traditional financial audit. Results of these third -party
audits are often included in the organizat ion's annual report. More information
on third-party audit services is often available from insurance carriers,
independent safety/health consult ing firms, OSHA Consultation Services, or
the National Safety Council.

ACCIuENT ANu OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESS INVESTIÔATIONS

Purpose of Investigations
Investigation and analysis are used by safety professionals to prevent
accidents, both those that could result in injury to per sonnel and those that do
not. The investigation or analysis of an accident can produce information that
leads to countermeasures to prevent accidents or reduce their number and
their severity. The more complete the information, the easier it is for the safety
professional to design effective control methods. For example, knowing that 40
percent of a facility's accidents involve ladders is useful, but it is not as useful
as also knowing that 80 percent of the ladder accidents involve broken rungs.
An investigation of every disabling injury or illness must be made. Incidents
resulting in nondisabling injuries or no injuries and "near accidents" should
also be investigated to evaluate their causes in relation to injury -producing
accidents or breakdowns, especially if there is frequent recur rence of certain
types of nondisabling injurie s or if the frequency of accidents is high in certain
areas of operations.

The consequences of certain types of accidents are so dev astating that any
hint of conditions that might lead to their occurrence warrants an investigation.
In such cases, any change from standard safety specification that has been
made warrants a thorough investigation.

Page 754

For purposes of accident prevention, investigations must be fact -finding, not

fault-finding; otherwise, they may do more harm than good. However, this i s
not to say that responsibility should not be fixed when personal failure or
negligence has caused injury, or that such persons should be excused from
the consequences of their actions.

Types of Investigations
There are several accident investigation and analysis techniques available.
Some of these techniques are more compli cated than others. The choice of a
particular method depends on the purpose and orientation of the investigation.

The accident investigation and analysis procedure focuses primarily on

unsafe circumstances surrounding the occurrence of an accident, and it is the
most often-used technique. Other similar techniques involve investigation
within the framework of defects in man, machine, media, and management
(the "four Ms"), or education , enforcement, and engineering (the "three Es of
safety") should be analyzed.

Accident investigation techniques involve classifying the data about a group of

accidents into different categories for analysis. This is known as the statistical
method of analysis. Control methods are designed on the basis of most
frequent patterns of occurrence.

Other techniques are discussed later in this chapter under the systems
approach to safety. Systems safety stresses an enlarged viewpoint that takes
into account the interrelationships between the various events that could lead
to an accident. Because accidents rarely have a single cause, the systems
approach to safety can lead to the discovery of more than one place in a
system where effective controls can be introd uced. This allows the safety
professional to choose the control methods that best meet criteria for such
factors as effectiveness and speed of installment. Systems safety tech niques
also have the advantage of application before acci dents or illnesses occur,
and can be applied to new procedures and operations.

üho Conducts the Investigation?

Depending on the nature of the accident and other condi tions, the
investigation can be conducted by the supervi sor, the safety engineer or
inspector, the workers' safety and health committee, the general safety
committee, the safety professional, or a loss control specialist from the
insurance organization or other external source. Also, OSHA requires that
fatalities and/or accidents resulting in serious injury be r eported to them.
Depending on the circumstances surrounding the fatality, serious injury, or ill -
ness, an OSHA inspection may result and should be anticipated by the
employer. Regardless of who conducts the initial investigation, a
representative of the organization's safety department should verify the
findings and direct a written report to the proper official or to the gen eral
safety committee.

The safety professional's value and ability are best shown in the investigation
of an accident. Specialized training and analytical experience enable the
professional to search for all the facts, both apparent and hidden, and to
submit an unbiased report. The safety professional should have no interest in
the investigation other than to get information that ca n be used to prevent a
similar accident.

During an investigation, methods to prevent a recur rence can be identified,

but decisions about the specific course to take are best made after all the
facts are well-established. There are usually several alterna tives; all must be
fully understood in order for the most effective decision to be made. The
safety professional should present every valid, feasible alternative to
operating management for their consideration. At this stage, input from
employees can be highly beneficial in determining the best corrective
measure.

RECORu KEEPINÔ ANu REPORTINÔ

The üilliams-Steiger OSHAct of 1970 requires employers to maintain records
of work-related employee injuries and illnesses, as well as many inspection
reports of high-injury-potential equipment. In addition, many employers are
also required to make reports to state compensation authorities.

Safety professionals are faced with two tasks: maintaining those records
required by law and by their management, and maintaining records that are
useful in an effective safety pro gram. Unfortunately, the two are not always
synonymous. A good record-keeping system necessitates more data than
those called for in almost all OSHA -required forms. In general, OSHA and
related safety records need to be "readily available." How the employer
chooses to maintain those records (i.e., hard (paper) copy, computerized) is
generally a business decision.

Many different safety records must be maintained, and OSHA has established
how long many of these records must be maintained by the employer.

Records that must be generated and maintained include records of

inspections; accident investigations; general and specific training; medical and
exposure monitoring results; the OSHA log of injuries and i llnesses; fatality
and serious injury and illness reports to OSHA; insurance records such as the
employer's and doctor's first reports of injury and ill ness; and respirator-fit test
and other personal protective equipment records addressing the
maintenance, use, selection, inspection, and storage of such equipment.

Records of accidents, injuries, and illnesses and the train ing experience of the
people involved are essential to effi cient and successful safety programs, just
as records of production, costs, sales, and profits and losses are essential to
efficient and successful operation of a business. Records sup ply the
information necessary to transform haphazard, costly, ineffective safety and
training efforts into a plannedsafety and health program t hat enables control
of both conditions and acts that contribute to accidents. Good record keeping
is the foundation of a scientific approach to occupa tional safety.

Page 755

Uses of Records
A good record-keeping system can help the safety profes sional in the
following ways:
> It provides safety personnel with the means for an objec tive evaluation of
the magnitude of occupational illness and accident problems and with a
measurement of the overall progress and effectiveness of the safety and
health program.
> It helps identify high -hazard units, facilities, or depart ments and problem
areas so that extra effort can be made in those areas.
> It provides data necessary for an analysis of accidents and illnesses that
can point to specific circumstances of occurrence, which can then be attacked
by specific countermeasures.
> It can create interest in safety and health among supervi sors by furnishing
them with information about the acci dent and illness experience of their own
departments.
> It provides supervisors and safety committees with hard facts about their
safety and health problems so that their efforts can be concentrated.
> It helps in measuring the effectiveness of individual countermeasures and
determining whether specific programs are doing the job that they were
designed to do.
> It can help establish the need for, and the content of, employee and
management training programs that can be tailored to fit the particular needs
of that organization or facility.
Accident Reports and Illness Records
To be effective, preventive measures must be based on com plete and
unbiased knowledge of the causes of accidents and the knowledge of the
supervisor and employee about the operation. The primary purpose of an
accident report, like the inspection, is to obtain information, not to fix blame.
Because the completeness and accuracy of the entire acci dent record system
depend on information in the individual accident reports and the employee
training history, it is important that the forms and their pur pose are understood
by those who must fill them out. Essential training or instruction by the safety
professional should be given to those who are responsible for generating the
information. (Illustrations of typical forms are given in the latest editions of the
National Safety Council's )

) 
 
$


9
K
 
vol. 1: ) 
K
  
and the
.  D
.
$²see Bibliography.) Photographs, videotapes, and
drawings of the accident or a depiction of the accident can be extremely
useful.

THE FIRST-AIu REPORT

Collecting injury or illness data generally begins in the first -aid department.
The first-aid attendant or the nurse fills out a first -aid report for each new
case. Copies are sent to the safety department or safety committee, the
worker's first-line supervisor, and other departments as management
designates.

The first-aid attendant or the nurse should know enough about accident
analysis and illness investigation to be able to rec ord the principal facts about
each case. Note that the questioning of the injured or sick person must be
complete enough to establish whether the incident is or is not work -related.
Current emphasis on chemical air contaminants makes it necessary to includ e
or exclude exposure to known health hazards. First -aid reports can be very
helpful to the safety or industrial hygiene personnel. The organization's
physician who treats injured employees should be informed of the basic rules
for classifying cases because, at times, the physician's opinion of the severity
of an injury is necessary to record the case accurately.

THE SUPERVISOR 'S ACCIuENT REPORT FORM

This should be completed as soon as possible after an accident occurs, and
copies sent to the safety department and to other designated persons.
Information concerning unsafe or unhealthful work conditions and improper
work practices is important in the prevention of accidents, but information that
shows why the unsafe or unhealthful conditions existed can be even more
important. This type of information is particularly difficult to get unless it is
obtained promptly after the accident occurs. If the information is based on
opinion, not on proven facts, it is still imp ortant, but should be so identified.
Generally, analyses of accidents are made only periodi cally, and often long
after the accidents have occurred. Because it is often impossible to accurately
recall the details of an accident, this information must be re corded accurately
and completely at once or it may be lost forever.
INJURY ANu ILLNESS RECORu OF AN EMPLOYEE
The first-aid report and the supervisor's report contain infor mation about the
agency of injury (type of machine, tool, or material), the type of accident, and
other factors that facilitate the use of the reports for accident prevention.
Another form must be used to record the injury experience of indi vidual
employees.

The employee training record card should have space to record injury
information such as the date, classification, days charged, and costs.

Much can be learned about accident causes from studying employee injury
records. If certain employees or job classifications have frequent injuries or
illnesses, a study of the work environment, job training, safety and health
training, work practices, and the instructions and supervision given them may
reveal more than a study of accident locations, agencies, or other factors.

Page 756

EuUCATION ANu TRAININÔ

It is critical that safety and health training begins at the time of hiring, before
the employee actually starts work on a particular task. Employees who are
new to an organization, a task, or use of a material are at greatest risk for
injuries and illnesses. An effective safety and he alth training program includes
a carefully prepared and presented introduction to the organization.

New employees immediately begin to learn and form atti tudes about the
organization and their job, boss, and co workers, whether or not the employer
offers a training program. To encourage a new employee to form positive atti -
tudes, it is important for the employer to provide a sound basis for them, and
providing safety and health information is vital. Training about exposure to
chemical hazards in the workplace is now mandated by state and federal
hazard communication standards (right-to-know laws). (See Chapter 28,
Government Regulations, for more information on these and other relevant
regulations and standards.) In fact, most new OSHA regulations genera lly
have a training require ment written into the standard.

An effective accident prevention and occupational health hazard control

program is based on proper job performance. ühen people are properly
trained to do their jobs, they do them safely. This me ans that supervisors
must know what employee training needs to be given, which means knowing
the requirements of the job; know how to train an employee in the safe way of
doing a job; and know how to supervise. It also means the safety professional
should be familiar with good training techniques. Although the professional is
not always directly involved in the training effort, he or she should be able to
recognize the elements of a practical train ing program.

A training program is needed for new employee s, when new equipment or

processes are introduced, when proce dures are revised or updated, when
new information must be made available, when employee performance must
be improved, when new or unexpected hazards are uncovered, and on a
periodic basis to refresh employees' knowledge of the material. Employees
with longer tenure also need train ing so that they have the same information
about new equipment, products, or organizational policies that new
employees are receiving.

Many supervisors acquired their present positions in organizations where

some sort of safety and health program already existed, and their
understanding of the program is firmly established. However, a safety
professional undertaking the safety training of supervisors almost invariabl y
finds that the first major job is to get supervisors at all levels to understand
and accept their role in accident and illness pre vention. This job cannot be
done in a single meeting or through a single communication.

Simply getting supervisors to agree in theory that responsibility for safety and
health is one of their duties is not enough. They must come to understand the
many waysin which they can prevent illness and accidents, and they must
become interested in improving their safety perform ance. For a safety and
health program to be effective, all lev els of management must be firmly
committed to the program and express that commitment by action and exam -
ple. Management is ultimately responsible for the safety and health of the
employees. Much of the effort put into an industrial safety and health program
by a safety professional is, therefore, directed toward educating and
influencing management.

Employee Training
The training of an employee begins the day the employee starts the job. As
observed earlier in this chapter, whether or not the firm has a formal safety
and health orientation pro gram, the employee starts to learn about the job and
to form attitudes about many things ²including safety and health ²on the first
day.

The safety professional assists supervisors in instructing employees in the

safe way of doing each job. Accidents can be prevented only when these
recommended procedures are based on a thorough analysis of the job and
when the procedures are followed. This is why a complete job safety analysis
is so valuable (Figure 24-8). It provides a baseline for future comparison, and
it details all necessary safety ele ments of the various job tasks.

The safety professional can provide supervisors with methods for observing
all workers in the performance of their tasks to establish the job safety
requirements, and should participate in follow -up observations to reinforce the
supervisors' training. In this way, supervisors are informed of any weakness in
the organization's safety and health program and will have a common
reference point for monitoring these problems.

TRAININÔ TIPS
> Train small groups whenever possible. Employees seem to learn more and
are more apt to ask questions in small training groups.
> Consider providing two levels of training, one for the supervisor and another
for the workers. Generally, supervisory training needs to be more
comprehensive than that given to workers.
#Consider using outside trainers. Oftentimes employees perceive outside
trainers and consultants as having a higher level of credibility.
> Make use of commercially available audiovisual informa tion (video tapes,
slides, and films). It is important to screen these commercial products,
because they are often very generic and must be supplemented with site -
specific information and discussions. Many trade associations have produced
audiovisual information for their member companies.
> Keep records of employee attendance. Note the date, subjects covered,
instructor, and training aids used (suchas videos, Inte rnet training modules),
and make a list of attendees (with their signatures if possible). A copy of any
tests given and of the agenda should be kept on file as well.

Page 757

> üith the development and popularity of internet train ing, it is important to
consider that much of this training is very good, however, fairly generic in
nature. Employees must be trained and informed in general and specific
safety and health measures necessary to do their jobs safely.
> Make the training as participatory as possible. Encourage discussions, use
training aids, and practice the use of equipment and procedures discussed in
the training.

Maintaining Interest in Safety

A prime objective of a good safety and health program is to maintain interest
in safety in order to prevent accidents. It is, however, as difficult to determine
the degree of success achieved by an interest -maintaining effort as part of a
safety program as it is to isolate the effectiveness of an advertising campaign
separate from an entire marketing program. The reason is that companies
with sound basic safety and health programs generally have working
conditions that are safe, employees who are well trained and safety minded,
and high-caliber supervision.

Safety and Health Rule En forcement

Obeying safety and health rules is actually a matter of educa tion; employees
must understand the rules and the importance of following them. In helping an
employee understand, the possibility of language barriers should be
considered. Language barriers are caused not only by national origins but
also, and more often, by the jargon of a particular profession or industry. A
considerable amount of confusion can occur when a new employee comes
from a different industry or field of work.

Role of the Supervisor

Supervisors are the key people in any program designed to create and
maintain interest in safety and health, because they are responsible for
translating management's policies into action and for promoting safe and
healthful work practices directly among the employees. The supervisors'
attitudes toward safety and health are a significant factor in the success of not
only specific promotional activities but also the entire safety and health
program, because their views will be reflected by the em ployees in their
departments.

How well a supervisor meets this responsibility is deter mined to a large extent
by how well the supervisor has been trained, and training and educating the
supervisor in matters of safety and health is the responsibility of the safety
professional.

Supervisor Training
Supervisors are often responsible for providing safety and health training to
employees. They may be the primary safetytrainers and have the final
responsibility for the effectiveness of training. If the emplo yer chooses to put
the responsibility of training on supervisors, the employer must clearly com -
municate that this is a discrete responsibility. Just as impor tant, the employer
must ensure that the supervisor has the time, interest, and training necessary
to provide adequate employee training .

Generally speaking, the supervisor needs training at a level equal to or

exceeding the training given to labor. Several recent OSHA regulations have
been adopted that require employers to provide additional trainin g to
supervisors. To illustrate, supervisors who supervise hazardous waste cleanup
workers are required (29 '

1910.120) to take an additional 8 hours of
management/supervisor training covering such topics as the employer's safety
and health program, employee training program, personal protective
equipment, and health hazard -monitoring procedures and techniques.

Many community colleges, independent training groups, and Internet training

sites offer supervisory safety and health courses to better prepare s upervisors
for their safety and health tasks. Also, many organizations offer "train the
trainer" courses.

The supervisor who is sincere and enthusiastic about acci dent prevention can
do much to maintain interest because of a direct connection with the wo rker.
Conversely, if the supervisor only pays lip service to the program or ridicules
any part of it, this attitude offsets any good that might be accom plished by the
safety professional.

Some supervisors may be reluctant to change their mode of operation and

slow to accept new ideas. It is the safety professional's task to sell these
supervisors on the benefits of accident prevention, and to convince them that
promotional activities are not "frills" but rather projects that can help them do
their job more easily and prevent illness and injuries. Also, safety has a direct
relation to production and quality .

Setting a good example by wearing required personal pro tective equipment is

an excellent way in which supervisors can promote the use of thi s equipment
and demonstrate interest in safety. Teaching safety and health principles to
supervisors is an important function of the safety profes sional; safety posters,
a few warning signs, or merely general rules are not enough to do this job.

The safety professional should educate supervisors so that working conditions

are kept as safe and healthful as possible and that the workers follow safe
procedures consistently, as a routine part ofgood job performance.
Supervisors are entitled to all of the hel p the safety professional can give
through supplies of educational material for distribution and frequent visits to
the jobsite, as circumstances permit. Supervisors should also receive
adequate recognition for independent and original safety activity.

Supervisors can be very effective by giving facts and persona l reminders on

safety and health to employees as part oftheir daily work instructions. This
procedure is particularlynecessary in the transportation and utility industries,
where the work crews are on their own.

Page 758

Figure 24-8. A job safety analysis form is used to record information that will
be used as a baseline for future comparison andIncludes information on all
necessary safety elements of the various job tasks.

Page 759

In any case, supervisors should be encouraged to take every opportunity to

exchange ideas on accident prevention with workers, to commend them for
their efforts to do the job safely, and to invite them to submit suggestions for
better ways to do the job that will p revent injuries or illness.

Figure 24-9. A job safety analysis (JSA), even a simple one, breaks the job
into steps and identifies hazards leading to the recommended action or
procedure. Here is an employee performing a castings grinding operation.

Job Safety and Health Analysis

Job safety and health analysis (Figures 24-8 and 24-9) is a process used by
safety professionals and supervisors to review job methods and uncover
hazards. Once the safety and health hazards are known, the proper controls
can be developed. Some controls are physical changes that control the
hazard, such as enclosures to contain an air contaminant or a guard placed
over exposed moving machine parts. Others are job procedures that eliminate
or minimize the hazard, forexample, safe stacking of materials. Procedure
controls require training and supervision.

£ENEFITS OF A JO£ SAFETY ANALYSIS

The principal benefits that arise from job safety analysis a re the establishment
of the following practices:
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Individuals are given training in safe, efficient procedures.
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New employees are instructed on safety and health procedures.
}
Preparations are made for planned safety and health observations.
}
"Prejob" instructions are given on irregular jobs.
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Job procedures are reviewed after accidents occur.

New employees must be trained in the basic job steps. They must be taught
to recognize the safety and health haz ards associated with each job step and
learn the necessary precautions. There is no better guide for this training than
a well-prepared job safety analysis used with the job instruc tion training
method.
All supervisors are concerned with improving job meth ods to increase safety,
reduce costs, and step up production. The job safety analysis is an excellent
starting point for questioning the established way of doing a job.

RISK MANAÔEMENT A Five-Step Program

Companies find they must control accidents if they are to continue to do
business in a highly competitive market. One large organization uses an
approach consisting of five closely related, logically ordered steps for a
coordinated program. These steps are hazard identification, hazard
elimination, hazard protection, determining the maximum possible loss, and
loss retention.

HAZARu IuENTIFICATION
To prevent accidents and control losses, first identify all safety and health
hazards to determine those areas or activities in an operation where losses
can occur. This requires studying processes at the research stage, reviewing
design during engineering, checking pilot facility operations and start -up, and
regularly monitoring normal production.

HAZARu ELIMINATION
Toxic, flammable, or corrosive chemicals can sometimes be replaced by safer
materials. Machines can be redesigned to elim inate danger points. Facility
layouts can be improved by eliminating such hazards as blind corners and
limited-visibility crossings.

HAZARu PROTECTION
Hazards that cannot be removed must be protected against. Familiar
examples include mechanical guards to keep fingers from pinch points, safety
shoes to safeguard toes against dropped objects, and ventilation systems to
control the buildup of air contaminants. Industry is concerned with all losses,
injury to personnel, damage to products, and destruc tion of property.

Page 760

MAXIMUM POSSI£LE LOSS

This step involves the determination of the maximum loss that could occur if
everything went wrong. For example, entire buildings or areas can be lost as
the result of a fire or explosion. The amount that an organization could lose
under the most adverse conditions can be estimated.

Loss RETENTION
Having some idea of the amount that could be lost under a combination of
unfavorable circumstances, one can then determine what portion of such a
loss an organization is willing to bear itself. Industrial companies can afford to
retain a portion of each loss. The remaining loss potential is then insured
through the organizations insurance carrier. This proves a good incentive for
management to institute strong safety and health programs. These activities
can be consolidated in one department such as a risk management
department, bringing together the safety professional, fire protection manager,
security and facility protection man ager, occupational physician, occupa tional
health nurse, industrial hygienist, environmental manager and insurance
manager. The administrator of a total loss control program does not need to
know all the details of each function, but should be able to develop an
atmosphere in which there is harmonious cooperation and mutual
understanding. Primary concerns are the control of occupational disease and
personnel safety.

uamage Control
There should be a damage control program for investigating all accidents, not
just those that produce injuries. This approach of studying accidents instead
of injuries recognizes that a so-called no-injury accident, if repeated in the
future, could result in personal injury, property damage, or both.

Ferreting out the causes of accidents reveals what unsafe condit ions and/or
work practices were responsible for the accident.

Three basic steps are successfully used to reduce property damage (and
injuries): spot-checking, reporting by repair control centers, and auditing.

SPOT-CHECKINÔ
Spot-checking consists of observing and taking notes to per mit damage
estimates by comparing total costs for a repair period with those found during
sample observations.

REPORTINÔ £Y REPAIR CONTROL CENTERS

This step involves developing a system in which the repair or cost control
center records property damage. The system should be designed to require
the least possible amount of paperwork. No one system works in all
companies, because repair cost-accounting methods vary greatly from
organization to organization, and even from fac ility to facility within a single
organization.

Figure 24-10. A system analysis can show how people, tools, and the environment
can combine to produce an accident.

AUuITINÔ
An effective reporting program necessitates complete audit ing. Safety
personnel should receive a copy of every original work order processed
through the maintenance, planning, and cost control center. Safety
professionals make on-the-spot checks to see if accidental damage was
involved.

SYSTEMS SAFETY
Recently, safety professionals have increasingly been exploring systems
approaches to industrial accident prevention. Safety professionals are asked
to find ways of implementing systems safety techniques. And although
complete system safety analysis requires specially trained engineers and
rather sophisticated mathematics, safety professionals find that some
knowledge of these techniques can directly benefit them when it comes to
codifying and directing their safety and health programs .

Through a system analysis, a safety professional can clar ify a complex

process by devising a chart or model that pro vides a comprehensive, overall
view of the process, showing its principal elements and the ways in which
they are interrelated (Figure 24-10).

Having established the concept of a system, the next step is the analysis of
systems. Progress in the analysis of complex systems enables safety
professionals to solve problems in accident prevention and the control of
occupational illness.

Methods of Analysis
There are four principal methods of analysis: failure mode and effect, fault
tree, THERP (technique for human error prediction), and cost -effectiveness.
Each has variations, and two or more can be combined in a single analysis.

PAGE 761

FAILURE MOuE ANu EFFECT

In this method the failure or malfunction of each component is considered,
including the mode of failure (such as a switch jammed in the on position).
The effects of the failure are traced through the system, and the ultimate
effect on task performance is evaluated.

FAULT TREE
In this method an undesired event is selected, and all the possible
occurrences that can contribute to the event are dia grammed in the form of a
tree. The branches of the tree are continued until independent events are
reached. Probabilities are determined for the independent events, and, after
simplifying the tree, both the probability of the undesired event and the most
likely chain of events leading up to it can be computed.

THERP
This is a technique for human error prediction, developed by Scandia
Corporation, that provides a means for quantita tively evaluating the
contribution of human error to the degradation of product quality. It can be
used for human components in systems and thus can be combined ei ther with
the failure mode and effect or the fault -tree method.

COST-EFFECTIVENESS
In the cost-effectiveness method, the cost of system changes made to
increase safety and health measures is compared with either the decreased
costs of fewer serious failures or with the increased effectiveness of the
system to perform its task, in order to determine the relative value of these
changes. Ultimately, all system changes have to be evaluated, and this
method makes such cost comparisons explicit. Moreover, cost-effectiveness
analysis is often used to help make decisions concerning the choice of one of
several systems that can perform the same task.

In all of these analytical methods, the main point is to measure quantitatively

the effects of various failures within a system. In each case, probability theory
is an important element.

The systems approach to safety can help to change the safety profession
from an art to a science by codifying much of safety and health knowledge. It
can help change the application of safety measures from piecemeal problem
solving (such as putting a pan under a leak) to a safely designed oper ation
(preventing the leak itself).

The safety professional determines what can happen if a component fails or

the effects of malfunction in the various elements of the system, and provides
solutions before the accident occurs instead of after the damage has been
done.

SAFETY PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATION

Employers, employees, and the public deserve some assur ance that the
individuals practicing safety are professionalsand are able to provide the
safety expertise that, in turn, should provide adequate protection.

Usually, a candidate for professional status must complete a specified course

of study, which is followed by practical experience in t hat field. The applicant
must pass an examination to prove mastery of a specific body of knowledge.
Finally, a board composed of members of the profession reviews that
candidate's qualifications and grants professional certification.

Professional regulation usually results from the need to protect the public from
potential harm at the hands of unqualified persons. Clearly, there was a need
for professional regulation in the field of industrial safety, and the Board of
Certified Safety Professionals was created to fill this need.

The Board of Certified Safety Professionals of the Ameri cas was incorporated
in Illinois in 1969 to establish criteria for professional certification, accept
applications, evaluate the credentials of candidates, and issue certifi cates to
those who met the requirements.

One method of determining professional abilities is to compare education and

experience against a predetermined set of requirements. Once these criteria
have been established, each application showing a candidate' s education and
experience is evaluated against that base. The applicant may be found to be
eligible to go to the next step ²to take the certification examinations; upon
successful completion of the examinations, the candidate is granted
certification as a certified safety professional, or CSP.

Ôeneral Qualifications
To qualify for the  
.
 
title one must:
#apply to the Board of Certified Safety Professionals
(BCSP)
> meet an academic requirement >- meet a professional safety experience
requirement
#pass the Safety Fundamentals Examination
#pass the Comprehensive Practice Examination

APPLICATIONS
Details for preparation and application are available at BCSPs web site at
www.BCSP.org.

THE ACAuEMIC REQUIREMENT

The model educational background for a safety professional and a candidate
for the  
.
 
is a bachelor's degree in safety from a
program accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology.

Because many people enter the safety profession from other educational
backgrounds, candidates for the CSP may substitute other degrees plus
professional safety experience for an accredited bachelor's degree in safety.

THE EXPERIENCE REQUIREMENT

In addition to the academic requirement, .
candidates must have four
years of professional safety experience.

Page 762

Thefour years are in addition to any experience used to meet the academic
requirement. Professional safety experience must meet all of the following
criteria to be considered acceptable by the Board of Certified Safety
Professionals:

#The professional safety function must be the primary function of the position.
Collateral duties in safety are not considered th e primary function.
> The positions primary responsibility must be the preven tion of harm to
people, property, and the environment, rather than responsibility for
responding to harmful events.
> The professional safety function must be at least 50 per cent of the position's
duties.
> The position must be full item (defined by BCSP as at
least 35 hours per week).
> The position must be at the professional level. This is deter mined by
evaluating the degree of responsible charge and reliance by peers, employers,
or clients on the person's ability to defend analytical approaches used in
professional practice and the recommendations made for controlling hazards
through engineering and/or administrative approaches.
> The position must have breadth of duties. This is determined by evaluating
the variety of hazards about which a candidate must advise and the range of
skills involved in recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards. Examples of
skills are analysis, synthesis, design, investigation, planning, administration,
and communication.
SAFETY FUNuAMENTALS EXAMINATION
The first examination is the Safety Fundamentals Examina tion. It covers basic
knowledge appropriate to professional safety practice. Candidates who meet
the academic standard (achieve 48 points through an associate or bachelor's
degree plus experience) may sit for the Safety Fundamentals Exam ination.
Upon passing the Safety Fundamentals Examina tion, candidates receive the
)
.
 
+).,
title to denote their progress toward the
.

Some candidates who have been examined through other acceptable

certification and licensing programs and currently hold such certifications or
licenses may waive the Safety Funda mentals Examination. The following
certifications or licenses are accepted by the Board of Certified Safety
Professionals:
> Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) from the American
Board of Industrial Hygiene.
#Certified Health Physicist (CHP) from the AmericanBoard of Health Physics.
> Professional Engineer (PE) from the engineering regis tration board for any
U.S. state or territory.
> National Diploma in Occupational Safety and Health bythe British National
Examination Board for OccupationalSafety and Health (NEBOSH).
> Canadian Registered Safety Professional (CRSP) from the
Association of Canadian Registered Safety Professionals.
#Member, Singapore Institute of Safety Officers (SISO).
> Chartered Engineering (Ceeng) from the EngineeringCouncil (UK).

COMPREHENSIVE PRACTICE EXAMINATION

All CSP candidates must acquire 96 points and pass the sec ond examination,
the Comprehensive Practice Examination. To take this examination, a
candidate must meet both the academic and experience requirements and
have passed or waived the Safety Fundamentals Exam ination. The total credit
for academic degrees at all levels plus the months of professional safety
experience must equal or exceed 96 points. After passing the Comprehensive
Practice Examination, a candidate receives the  
.
 

title.

Once candidates apply for the CSP, they must meet certain time limits as they
progress toward the CSP. The section below explains candidate time limit
rules. Failure to meet time lim its may result in a terminated application. A
candidate will then ha ve to reapply and begin the process once again.

CANuIuATE TIME LIMIT RULES

Three-year rules Three-year time limits apply to several
steps in the CSP candidate process.

 If you are eligible for the Safety Fundamentals Examina tion, you must sit
for the examination at least every three years The three years are
computed from the date you become eligible or from the date you last took the
examination and failed to achieve a passing score.

 If you are eligible for the Comprehensive Practice Examination, you must
pass the examination and earn your CSP within three years of becoming
eligible The Comprehensive Practice Examination eligibility date occurs when
you reach 96 points through education and professional safety experience
and have either passed or waived the Safety Fundamentals Examination. If
you passed the Safety Fundamentals Examination prior to October 1, 1994,
you fall under a different rule (contact the BCSP staff).
If you are eligible for the Comprehensive Practice Exam ination and cannot
achieve the CSP before your three -year time limit expires, you may pay a fee
and obtain a one-time, one-year extension to your time limit.
For more information on the Board of Certified Safety Professionals and the
certification process you are encouraged to contact them at:
Board of Certified Safety Professionals
208 Burwash Avenue
Savoy, IL 61874-9571
Phone: (217) 359-2686
Fax: (217) 359-0055
üeb Site: www.BCSP.org
THE FUTURE OF SAFETY AS A PROFESSION
Problems, both predictable and unpredictable, can be expected to have an
impact on the safety professional in the future. Some of these problems will
call for reapplication of established safety techniques. Others will call for
radical departures and the creation of new methods and new organi zational
forms.

Page 763

To be able to discriminate between the two solutions will be, perhaps, the
safety professional's greatest test.

The field of occupational safety continues to progress and improve, largely

through the continued application of tech niques and knowledge that have
been slowly and painfully acquired over the years. There appears to be no
limit to the progress possible through the application of the universally
accepted safety techniques of educati on, engineering, and enforcement.

Large and serious problems remain unsolved. A number of industries still

have high accident rates. There are still far too many instances in which
management and labor are not working together or have different goals for
the safety program.

Resources available to the safety professional have increased incredibly and

with the development of the Inter net will do so at an ever-increasing pace. An
impressive body of knowledge, a corps of able professional safety people, a
high level of prestige, and strong organizations for coopera tion and exchange
of information will fuel the future for the safety profession.

üell-trained workers are in high demand in practically all phases of safety.

Growth in the trade and service indust ries and the expanding safety needs of
educational institutions, construction, transportation, insurance, and
governmental groups should further accentuate the demand for safety
workers.

Obviously, there is a need in safety work for people with varying de grees of
education and experience. The range of opportunities extends from what
could be considered para -professional to the highly trained and skilled
professional at the corporate management level, and includes safety educa -
tors and government safety inspectors and researchers.

The safety professional will also need diversified educa tion and training to
meet the challenges of the future. Growth in the population, the
communication and information explosion, problems of urban areas and future
transportation systems, and the increasing complexities of everyday life will
create many problems and may extend the safety professional's creativity to
the maximum to successfully provide the knowledge and leadership needed
to conserve life, health, property, a nd the environment.

Training of the future safety professional can no longer be limited to the on -

the-job experience but must include specialized undergraduate -level training
leading to a bachelor's or higher degree. Refresher and continuing education
is also necessary and will be just as important in the years ahead.

The type of training needed will depend on the individ ual job requirements.
This presents some difficulties for those preparing to enter the safety and
health occupations. Some authorities view the safety and health specialist as
a behaviorist and therefore would direct training toward the behavioral
sciences, for example, psychology. Others see the specialist as a technician
able to handle the technical problems of hazard control, and reco mmend a
heavy background in engineering. Still others believe the safety worker's
background should include both the engineering and behavioral aspects.
Future application of this knowledge in all aspects of our civilization ²whether
to industry or transportation, at home or in recreation ²makes it imperative
that those in this field be trained to use scientific principles and methods to
achieve adequate results. The knowledge, skill, and ability to inte grate
machines, equipment, and environments with human s and their capabilities
will be of prime importance.

SUMMARY
The work of the safety professional follows a pattern. Before taking any steps
in the containment of injury, illness, or acci dents, the safety professional first
identifies and appraises all existing safety and health hazards, both immediate
and potential. Once having identified the hazards, the necessary accident -
prevention procedures are developed and put into operation. However, this is
not enough; safety and health information must be comm unicated to both
management and workers. Finally, the safety professional must evaluate the
effectiveness of safety and health control measures after they have been put
into practice. If conditions warrant, the safety professional can recommend
changes in materials or operational procedures or, possibly, that additional
enclosures or safety equipment be added to existing machinery.

Accurate records are essential in the search for the cause of an illness or an
accident, and can aid in finding the means to prevent future similar incidents.
ühen studying records to determine the cause or causes of accidents, the
records of other companies with similar operations should not be overlooked.
Upon determining the cause, the safety professional will have a firm bas is on
which to propose preventive measures.

Preventive measures are obviously better than corrective measures taken

only after an accident has occurred. This means that one of the most valuable
functions of the safety professional is to examine the specif ications for
materials, job procedures, new machinery and equipment, and new struc tures
from the standpoint of safety and health well before installation or
construction. In some cases, the safety professional can even help draft the
necessary specifications.

As part of the overall safety and health program, the safety professional
should recommend policies, codes, safety standards, and procedures that
should become part of the opera tional policies of the organization.
The safety professional draws on specialized knowledge in both the physical
and social sciences and applies the princi ples of measurement and analysis
to evaluate safety performance. The safety professional should have a
fundamental knowledge of statistics, mathematics, physics, chemist ry,
industrial hygiene, environmental sciences, and engineering.

The safety professional should be a well -informed specialist who

coordinates the safety and health program and supplies the ideas
and inspiration while enlisting the wholehearted support of
management, supervision, and workers.

Chapter 25 The Occupational Medicine Physician

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HISTORY
From very early days physicians have noted the importance of
occupation in the causation of disease and injury. Bernardino
Ramazzini in 1713 described the diseases that afflict scribes and
notaries in a supplement to his :
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During the 1700s to 1800s in the United States, medicine itself was
undergoing rapid change. Before 1900 many "doctors" had no formal
training, and practiced a variety of healing arts and techniques, few based
on science. Medical training was not standardized and licensing of
medical professionals was "lax." During the late 1800s however state
licensing laws were passed requiring a degree from a medical school and
passing a formal examination. The American Medical Association
(AMA), initiated in /E1I
became a  
 

 
 
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Education, which began "grading" medical schools. In
1910 the council's Flexner Report was harshly critical of the country's 131
medical schools, recommending closure of 99 of them, although
eventually 70 survived (Kaiser Permanente, 1995).

Scientific breakthroughs in the late 1800s spurred much of this change.

Use of anesthesia, aseptic technique, devel opment of diagnostic
instruments such as the stethoscope and ophthalmoscope, tests such as
x-rays and electrocardiograms, identification of organisms causing
diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis and development of vaccines
for use against them, combined with standardized population -based
tests for vision, height/weight, and IQ, all contributed to "the scientific
practice of medicine"(Kaiser Permanente, 1995). Hospitals, previously
considered dangerous disease -ridden places to die, became centers of
the new practice of medicine.

Simultaneously, the United States was moving from an agricultural

society to an industrial one. Beginning in the 1860s, railroads and mining
companies began employing physicians, paying them through payroll
deductions or salaries. The organization doctor was hired to treat victims
of industrial accidents, keeping them working and hopefully preventing
lawsuits. üorkers' compensation laws did not exist until the early 1900s,
when states began adopting laws set -ing up no-fault compensation
systems to both care for the injured workers and confine benefits within a
no-fault sysem, preventing legal action (Kaiser Permanente, 1995).

Company doctors treated injuries, performed medical examinations, and

often provided nonindustrial care to workers' families, especially in
remote areas. They were sometimes viewed with suspicion by not only
the workers, but also other medical practitioners. In 1908, a Sears
Robuck physician resigned his position because he was excluded from
membership in the Chicago Medical Society on the grounds that his
reduced-rate services, provided toemployees' families, constitut ed "an
unethical invasion of private practice"(Kaiser Permanen, 1995).

The American Association of rldustrial Physicians (laterrenamed the

American Occupational Medicine Association [AOMA]) was founded in
1916 and focused mostly on physical examinations and dealing with
physical trauma. The American Academy of Occupational Medicine
(AAOM) was founded in 1946, with membership limited to
physicians who devoted full time t o the field of occupationalmedicine
(Goldwater, 1973; üelter, 1988). These physicians were concerned
about preventing injury and illness, especially from toxic exposures. The
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was established two years
later, and in 1956 was reorganized into three parts: Public Health,
Aviation Medicine (now Aerospace Medicine), and Occupational
Medicine. This provided an avenue for Board Certification as a


 


 
first time.
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membership in the
AAOM and the AOMA (later to merge into one group, the American
College of Occupational Medicine) remained composed primarily of
organization-based physicians. However, occupational he alth hazard
were growing; the post üorld üar II industrial boom brought thousands
of new chemicals into existence for which neither human beings nor our
Earth's ecology had developed any evolutionary defenses. Even
asbestos, silica, and other compounds, which are naturally part of our
planet, were being transformed into new products, with exposures
causing epidemics of disease among workers in mining and production
operations. Growing public concern about these problems combined
with the civil rights and antiwar activities of the 1960s and 1970s spread
into the issue of occupational exposures, with unions and community
organizers forming local Committees on Occupational Health and
Safety (COSH) groups across the country. Many of physicians in the
COSH groups joined the American Public Health Association
Occupational Health Section, par tly because of organizational political
views and because all members of the occupational health team
including nurses, industrial hygienists, and safety personnel, could be
members of the same organization.

In 1970 the Occupational Safety and Health Act was passed by

Congress, mandating a safe a nd health workplace for all employees.
üith passage of this legislation came significant additional resources for
industrial hygiene and occupational health nursing programs and
 
 
  

 

 viously limited
to a very few corporate and academic centers.

Meanwhile, occupational medicine has grown as a field, encompassing

environmental issues as well. The ACOM transformed into the American
College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM). Twenty-
six occupational medicine residency programs exist at major universities
across the United States, gradua ting approximately 75 physicians per
year, a figure which unfortunately is barely keeping up with those retiring
or otherwise leaving the field.

Page 767

Over 7,000 doctors are members of ACOEM; approximately 11,500 of

them board-certified as specialists.

The practice of occupational medicine has also chang ed dramatically

within the last three decades since the OSHAct was passed.
Corporate downsizing and contracting out has resulted in the demise of
the corporate medical department in many companies, although it still
exists. üork with or for unions grew out of the COSH group model of the
1970s and provides a focus for some occupa tional health professionals,
with the more recent environmental activism also attracting full time or
volunteer occupational and environmental health physicians.
Occupational medicine is now a sub-specialty of the medicine division or
its own department in many large medical group practices, hospitals, and
universities. Freestanding occupational health clinics, often combined
with urgent-care centers, offer another practice setting. Private
consulting firms and international work are two growing sectors of
occupational medicine practice. Academic, occupational, and
environmental health departments are a major development since the
1970s and offer clinical and other I research opportunities, all of
which will be discussed in the following sections. It is important for
the industrial hygiene or safety professional working with the
occupational medicine physician to understand the background, training,
and ethical focus not only of the individual physi cian, but also the
organizational context within which the doctor is working.

CREuENTIALS ANu PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

All physicians graduating medical school after 1984 are required to take
a formal occupational medicine residency or fellowship program in order
to become eligible to take the Occupational Medicine Board
Examination. The program encompasses two years, usually after a full or
partial residency in another field, such as internal medicine. The pro gram
content includes significant public health training in toxicology,
epidemiology, and statistics (usually leading to a Masters in Public
Health), and a practicum year of clinical, research, and corporate
placements, and public sector agency rotations. Most of the academic
occupational medicine resi dency programs have a very heavy focus on
toxicology and epidemiology. More recently, increased interest in
cumulative trauma disorders has led to research and clinical work on
musculoskeletal injuries in a number of centers.

Physicians graduating medical schools before 1984 can "grandfather" in

and become board-eligible in occupational medicine by working in the
field full time for five years, taking core public health courses, and
obtaining reference letters from three physicians, two 
whom must be
certified in occupational medicine.

Because many physicians become interested in occupa tional medicine

after practicing in another field for several years (and thus acquiring
financial and family obligations which make it difficult to go back to a
fellowship salary and schedule), recent developments including online
course-work through the Internet can lead to the MPH deg ree. There is
also significant interest in creation of part time res idency programs and
alternative credentialing for occupa tional health physicians, as the
current process is not producing enough qualified practitioners to meet
the needs of the country.

The Occupational Medicine Board Examination is a lengthy test which is

offered only annually by the American Board of Preventive Medicine.
Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in both preventive medicine
and occupational medicine in order to pass. App roximately 200-300
physicians take the examination annually.

Professional associations include the American College of Occupational

and Environmental Medicine, which has approximately 6,000 members
in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Fellowship in ACOEM is
conferred only upon those who are board -certified. This organization has
changed significantly since the 1970s, now including physicians from a
wide variety of practice settings. ACOEM publishes a monthly journal,
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which has
significantly improved its scientific standards. The American Public
Health Association (APHA) has a very active Occupational Health
Section, composed not only of physicians but also nurses, industrial
hygienists, epidemiologists, and others in the field. It pub lishes articles in
the ))
C 
and a section newsletter. The National Association of
Occupational Health Professionals was created to provide a venue for
occupational health professionals from all fields to d evelop their skills in
marketing, managing clinics, and other difficult administra tive issues.

PRACTICE SETTINÔS Corporate Medical uepartment

As indicated previously, this area of occupational medical practice is
shrinking, due to organizations downsizing and contracting out. The days
of the corporate medical director overseeing a large staff of physicians
and nurses providing preplacement and periodic surveillance exams,
executive physicals, acute work-related injury/illness treatment, and on -
site wellness and nonindustrial acute medical care are largely, although
not entirely, gone. However, controversy still exists over whether or not
this development is truly cost effective in the long run (Anstadt, 1994;
Hathaway, 1994). The corporate medical director today is likely to be a
consultant to human resources, helping provide quality assurance over
the contract clinics which actually provide the services, and aiding in
review and negotiation with health plans, med ical review for difficult
workers' compensation cases, ADA,and fitness-for-duty issues,
development of protocols for exposures, and medical surveillance.

Page 768

Increasingly important in today's world is the issue of international travel

and exposures of employees to infectious diseases; physicians working
for multinational corporations have to become experts in travel medicine
(Fletcher & Freeman, 1994). Most often, board certification in
occupational medicine is required (fre quently combined with board
certification in another field such as internal medicine), along with
significant business/financial acumen and experience.

Multispecialty Ôroup Practice/ Hospital -£ased Programs

This sector has been a growing source of practice opportu nities for
occupational medicine physicians. The physician may work in a separate
occupational medicine department or as a subspecialist, usually in a
division of medicine or family practice, sometimes as part of
emergency/urgent care. Usually these posit ions are primarily clinical,
and frequently require a heavy patient load of 20 to 30 patients per day.
Additional responsibilities may include developing programs to attract
local industry (e.g., injury care, preplacement examinations, drug
testing), performing consults for colleagues from other
departments/divisions on work or disability issues, and helping to ensure
that workers' compensation visits are correctly reported and billed.
Advertisements for these jobs increasingly request board certifica tion in
occupational medicine. Due to the shortage of certified specialists,
however, they are frequently filled by physicians certified in other
specialties (internal medicine, emergency medicine, family practice) who
have transitioned to occupational medic ine for a variety of reasons.

Freestanding Occupational Health Clinics

These clinics may be a single entity or part of a chain of clin ics, located
near industry, and developed to serve multiple local companies by
providing a range of services from pre placement examinations and drug
testing to acute care for work related injuries and illnesses. Sometimes
the industrial services are combined with urgent care for nonindustrial
problems and even a travel medicine service. These clinics do not usually
have the access to specialized services that hospital or multispecialty
group practice programs have. Often practitioners in these clinics are
required to see 30 or more patients per day. Doctors working in these
clinics may not be specialists in the field, and focus on injury illness
treatment and preplacement and surveillance examinations. Mostly,
physicians working in these clinics will have little time or training to deal
with complex health and safety issues. (Leone & Schumman, 1995).

Private Consulting Firms

Many academically trained, board-certified occupational medicine
physicians chose to join or set up their own con sulting firms. This allows
a wide range of practice opportunities, including consulting with
companies, local government agencies, and unions, performing medical
surveillance and other examinations, acting as expert witnesses, and
doing epidemiological research. Frequently these firms have close
working relationships with industrial hygienists, epi demiologists,
toxicologists, and occupation al health nurses, or have them on staff.

Academic Occupational Medicine uepartments

These have been established in all of the universities with occupational
medicine residency programs and many others, and are growing in
number. Responsibilities in this setting include research and teaching as
well as patient care, consulting, and expert witness testimony.
Occupational Medicine physicians working in academic settings are
board-certified, frequently in occupational medicine and another
specialty, These positions may also require responsibilities related to
the other specialty in addition to occupational medicine.

Ôovernment Agencies
Policy development and regulatory agencies in the areas of occupational
and environmental health and safety will often have one or more staff
physicians, usually board-certified, to provide scientific oversight and
back-up. These physicians are rarely involved in clinical work with
patients, but function in consultation, a dvising on epidemiological,
toxicological, and other issues; and often helping to perform j
epidemiological studies in response to p ublic health or regulatory need.
NIOSH, OSHA, state OSHA programs, EPA, and many other
governmental agencies on federal, state and local levels have well-
trained and credentialed occupational and environmental physicians
who' can be a significant resource to industrial hygiene and safety
personnel. The branches of the military also have active occupa tional
medicine programs for which they send physicians to occupational
medicine residency programs in exchange for a certain number of years
of service in the armed forces in the future.

International Occupational Health Consulting

This is a growing, much-needed arena attracting a number of board -
certified occupational medicine physi cians. The rapid industrialization of
sectors in Asia, South America, and some parts of Africa, combined with
the breakup of the Soviet Union, has resulted in significant industrial and
environmental problems without the governmental, academic, or private
sector infrastructure or expertise to deal with them. Occupational health
and safety professionals from the United States, Canada, and üestern
Europe are sought eagerly for consultation with duties ranging from
training of local professionals, develo pment and carrying out
epidemiological research studies, governmental policy and legislative
consultation, and presentations at international conferences.

Union Occupational Health Physicians

Since the 1970s unions have developed relationships with occupationa l
medicine physicians, industrial hygienists, and epidemiologists. Some,
such as the Oil Chemical and Atomic üorkers, International Association
of Firefighters, and the United Auto üorkers have had full time staff
personnel. Others have formal or informal consultant relationships or
medical advisory boards. Occupational health and safety has been an
important issue for members of unions expos ed to significant chemical
hazards in the past, and is a growing issue for newer service sector
unions, such as Service Employees International Union and the
Transport üorkers Union, concerned about back injuries, cumulative
trauma disorders, and protection from violence on the job. Union efforts
have been key in [legislative passage of stronger workplace health and
safety regulations, and professional medica l expertise is critical for
creation and support of this legislation.

SCOPE OF PRACTICE
Industrial hygiene and safety professionals seeking to work with the
occupational medicine physician should have an understanding of the
skill and interest level of the particular doctor or organization. An informal
meeting, preferably at the clinician's o ffice with a request for a curriculum
vitae, will provide significant information about his/her level of training
and background. A discussion of an exposure prob lem, a case that
poses ethical issues, queries about what texts or databases the
physician would use to answer a question, are all productive avenues to
explore when considering setting up a professional relationship.

Physicians working in the field of occupational medicine [should

minimally be familiar with the state and federal work ers' compensation
systems, be able to evaluate and treat com mon work related injuries
and illnesses (including determining industrial causation), and be able
to perform preplacement, Department of Transportation (DOT), and
basic medical surveillance examinations for respiratory pro tection,
asbestos, or lead exposure. Most nonboard -certified occupational health
physicians will not necessarily be com petent on issues of toxic chemical
exposure, physical hazards, biological hazards (except for bloodborn e
pathogens), stress/shiftwork issues, or difficult ergonomic problems
except perhaps office ergonomics. They should be familiar with other
occupational medicine resources in the commu nity and be able to guide
the safety/industrial hygiene pro fessional to those who have the
expertise to deal with more complicated issues.

Board-certified occupational medicine physicians, espe cially those

academically trained, should be able to provide expertise and guidance
on the more complicated toxic and other wor kplace hazards, including
the especially difficult issues of causation, because of their training in
toxicology, epidemiology, and critical review of the medical literature.
They should also be familiar with important legislative devel opments both
local and national, including employment and health and safety -related
issues, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, status of upcoming
bills on hot topics such as ergonomics, changes in workers'
compensation laws, and legislation about medical surveillance
requirements. Protocol and policy development group medical
screenings, presentations to employers and employees, and complicated
fitness-for-duty evaluations should also be part of their areas of
competence. Additionally they should be able to help in p olicy
development, and create medical protocols for surveil lance
examinations. Many have additional specialized credentials as disability
evaluators, Medical Review Officers (MRO) for drug screening programs,
or aviation medical examinations.

Specialty consultant firms or physicians working for environmental

groups, academic occupational medicine depart ments, or governmental
experts from national, state, or local agencies should be sought for
significant environmental hazard issues, as these are usually far more
complicated than industrial exposure problems. Similarly, these
professionals are best able to provide expert -witness testimony or create
designs for epidemiological studies for either occupational or
environmental hazards.

THE OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HISTORY

A brief occupational health history should be part of all med ical histories
as occupational hazards can be a cause of almost any adult disease or
injury. Carpal tunnel syndrome used to be considered a problem of aging
women, or  ²something for which medicine has no explana tion.
Now we know a significant percentage of cases are caused by work
factors. Coronary artery disease can be caused by exposure to carbon
disulfide in rayon manufacturing, and Parkinson's disease, a serious
neurological disorder, is not only caused by manganese exposure in
mining operations but also some synthetic chemicals, used both in
industry and in street drugs. Since most adults spend almost one third of
their time at work, consideration of their work expo sures is an important
part of modern medicine.

Unfortunately, most physicians are still not appropriately trained in taking

a good occupational history. In four years of medical school, there is an
average of four hours spent on occupational exposures ²in the schools
that teach any at all. Thus the safety and health professional must rely
on referral to specialists in the field. An excellent sample occupational
history form is included in this chapter (see Figure 25 -1). It is easily
reproduced, and easily filled out by most employees. The worker should
be instructed to fill out the form chrono logically, starting with current job
and working backwards, or beginning with work done in grade or high
school and working forward to the current job. This format al lows the
employee to be as complete as possible without the burden of being
asked dozens of questions about chemicals and processes, which she or
she is unfamiliar.
Page 770 - Figure 25-1. Occupational History Form.
Page 771 - Figure 25-1. Occupational History Form
Page 772

üith this history form, for example, a 38 -year-old commercial plumber

who was referred for evaluation of acute onset of leukemia and who had
worked in the pipe trades "all my life," was identified as having significant
benzene exposure because he noted a six-month stint at a tire manu -
facturing plant before he became a union apprentice. He did not know
what benzene was, and would have answered neg atively if questioned
just about the chemical.

In addition to past and current occupat ional history, with exposure and
protective equipment notations, the form also covers moonlighting jobs
and hobbies. Often the significant exposures are found here, as opposed
to the full-time occupation. Finally, questions about reproductive history
are also an important part of the occupational history, as effects from
certain chemicals and other hazards may present first or only in this
arena.
ühen evaluating a specific job, in addition to the ques tions reviewed
previously, a special focus on three components may be useful. Specific
questions about the workstation and work tools, work tasks, and the
individual's work practices are helpful in eliciting information that can
lead to needed corrective measures to prevent or resolve injury or
illness, especially for ergonomic problems or indoor air quality problems.

The occupational history needs review by a specialist with a good library

and Internet search capacity so that specific occupations and exposures
can be cross-referenced against the injury or il lness of concern.

THE PREPLACEMENT EXAMINATION

Preplacement examinations are an important part of ensur ing a safe and
healthy workforce, as hiring those physically unable to do the job tasks
places an added burden and risk of injury on coworkers. Legisla tive
changes and court rulings over recent decades have appropriately
limited employers' ability to arbitrarily deny jobs based on criteria
unrelated to the actual job requirements; and many employers decided
that there was no point to spending money doing preplacement
examinations if there was nothing they could do with the information.

Preplacement evaluations can range from a simple drug screen, a

medical history review by a registered nurse to a complete medical and
occupational history and physical e xamination with functional capacity
testing and other tests. There are some occupations for which a
thorough evaluation is appropriate. The physical, chemical, and other
hazards found in firefighting, hazardous waste work, and certain other
job classes warrant complete histories and physicals, and cardiac,
pulmonary, and strength/endurance testing.
For most job classifications, however, extensive testing is unwarranted
and has not been found to reduce workers' compensation or
nonindustrial illness absentee ism costs. If preplacement testing is
contemplated, it should be targeted to the job requirements and can also
be oriented to providea baseline for injuries/illnesses that have high
compensate costs for the employer. Even without functional capaci ty
testing, a thorough neuromuscular evaluation will identi fy any preexisting
abnormalities of upper trapezius spasm,  reflex deficit from a prior back
disc injury. C
 
 
 

is advised as part of
this process, as readily identifies those with grip strength below expecte d
and thus at increased risk of both acute and cumulati ve trauma upper
extremity injuries. Those found deconctioned or lacking flexibility or
strength can be counseled and given specific exercises to correct the
problem before an injury occurs.

Similarly in jobs where there is possible irritant chemic exposure, careful

evaluation of the skin, mucous membranes, and eye conjunctivae (for
cobblestoning) as well as lung exam and possibly simple screening
spirometry allow counseling of those with allergic problems not well
controlled and establishes a baseline.

Even simple preplacement medical screens usual! involve a blood

pressure and vision check and sometimes urinalysis. These can be
valuable in detecting non -industrial diseases like hypertension and
diabetes, which need medical intervention for the health of the
employee. Referral should be made in writing on identification of new or
uncontrolled problems and a copy kept in the record f or documentation
that a referral back to the patient primary -care physician was made.
These efforts increase the employees perception of the organization's
attitude toward workers' welfare in addition to sometimes catching am
treating disease early.

Care must be taken by the examining clinician to avoid making hiring

decisions. The role of the medical evaluation is to determine fitness for
duty, and it is the organization that decides whether or not the person
can be accommodated, not the clinician. The cli nician describes any
needed accommodations without revealing the medical problem
requiring them on a simple work slip given to the employer. Even with a
release of information signed by the employee, it is important to avoid
revealing confidential personal medical information (e.g., abo ut diabetes
or HIV status) to nonmedical personnel.

Industrial hygiene, safety, and environmental professionals can help

employers identify medical providers who will provide cost-effective and
ethical preplacement evaluation services that promote employe e
wellness.

SUMMARY
Occupational medicine physicians are an essential part of the health,
safety, and environmental team, no matter what the setting. Physicians
who strive for the practice of ethical, cost -effective, scientifically based
occupational medicine and who recognize the importance of teamwork
and the equally essential roles of nursing, industrial hygiene,
environmental, and safety professionals are increasingly available.

CHAPTER 26
THE OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH NURSE

Page 775

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O£JECTIVES
This chapter provides:
> An overview of the professional aspects of the OHN role, including
standards of practice and certification.
> A model of occupational health nursing, including a discussion of
competencies needed for prof essional practice activities.
> Examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention programmatic
activities by occupational health nurses in the worksite.

Page 776

OVERVIEü
uefinition of the Occupational Health Nurse
Over 23,000 registered nurses provide care to employees with the goal to
prevent work-related injury and illness, prevent dis ability, and help workers
achieve and maintain the highest level of health throughout their lives.
Occupational health nurses main tain a focus on the worksite where they
deliver quality care, and philosophically support a primary prevention -
based practice. If injuries do occur, a case management approach is
utilized to return injured employees back to appropriate work in a timely
basis, and this "case" provides an additional oppor tunity for worksite
prevention. The American Association of Occupational Health Nurses
(AAOHN) maintains, and many industries have found, that "The nurse is
key to the coordination of a holistic, multidisciplinary approach to delivery
of safe, quality, and comprehensive occupational health and safety
services" (AAOHN, 1999, p.3).

Occupational and environmental health nursing is the specialty practice

that provides for and delivers health and safety services to employees,
employee populations, and community groups (AAOHN, 1999). The
practice of occupational health nursing is grounded in the public health
principles of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention, and is focused
on promotion and the restoratio n of health, prevention of illness and
injury, and protection from occu pational and environmental hazards.
(AAOHN, 1999, p.2).

Scope of Practice
The OHN is licensed as a registered nurse, and has both independent
and dependent nursing functions, as authorized by the state business
and professions code. Advanced practice nursing roles are also licensed
state by state, and include those registered nurses prepared at the
graduate degree level in the roles of clinical specialist, nurse practi tioner,
nurse midwife, and nurse anesthetist (AACN, 1994). OHNs use the
nursing decision-making process, including collecting subjective and
objective data, making assessments and plans, and going through an
evaluation, and are respon sible to maintain competence, a nd practice
within a legal and ethical framework of professional practice. Occupa -
tional health nursing services include:
> Clinical and primary care including assessment, diagno sis,
management, and documentation of occupational and nonoccupational
illness and injury
> Case management for occupational and non -occupational illness and
injury
> Health hazard assessment and surveillance of employeepopulations,
workplaces, and community groups
> Investigation, monitoring, and analysis of illness and injur y episodes
and trends, as well as methods to promote and protect employee health
and safety
> Compliance with laws, regulations, and standards govern ing health
and safety for employees and the environment
> Management and administration of occupational and environmental

 

> Health promotion and disease prevention strateg ies using primary,
secondary, and tertiary principles
>Counseling, health education, and training programs using adult
learning approaches
>Research related to occupational and environmentalhealth (AAOHN,
1999)

Figure 26-1 is one model of occupational health -recognizing internal and

external forces impacting the range of OHN services (Rogers, 1994).
These internal and external forces include the dynamic sociocultural,
economic, political, and technolo gical factors affecting work, for example,
the aging workforce, the amount of resources d edicated to the
prevention of work-related injuries, new OSHA standards or disability
regulation, and the introduction technolo gy into a new work process.

STANuARuS OF ’ACTIC FOR OCCUPATIONAL ANu

ENVIRONMENT HEALTH NURSINÔ
Standards of Occupational and Environmental Health Nursing Practice,
developed by AAOHN (1999), enable the pro fession to insure a quality -
based practice, and to provide protection to the consumer and the
profession alike. )
mary of the standards include:
. 
"
) ²The occupational and en mental health nurse
systematically assesses the health of the individual client or population
and the environment.
. 
"
:²The occupational and environ mental health
nurse analyzes assessment data to formulate diagnoses.
. 
"
-
 ²The occupational and
environmental health nurse identifies outcomes sp ecific to the client.
. 
Î"
 ²The occupational and environmental health
nurse develops a goal-directed plan that is comprehensive and
formulates interventions to attain expected outcomes.
. 
Î"
 ²The occupational and ronmental
health nurse implements interventions to a ttain desired outcomes
identified in the plan.
. 
Î"
²The occupational and envi ronmental health
nurse systematically and continuously ates responses to
interventions and progress toward achievement of desired outcomes.
. 
Î"

 
$²The occupational and
environmental health nurse secures and manages resources that
support an occupational health and sa fety program (Figure 26²2).
. 
Î"
 
: ²The occupational and
environmental health nurse assumes accountability for professional
development to enhance profession al growth and maintain competency.
. 
±"
Ã  ²The occupational and enviro nmental 

 
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other health care
providers, professionals, and community representatives.


Page 777

. 
±"

  ²The occupational and environ mental health
nurse uses research indings in practice and contributes to the scientific
base in occupational and environmental health nursing to improve
practice and advance das profession.
. 
±"
 ²The occupational and environmen tal health nurse
uses an ethical framework as a guide for deci sion making in practice.
(AAOHN, 1999)

Figure 26-1. One model of occupational health nursing, recognizing inter -

nal and external forces impacting the range of OHN services (Rogers,
1994).
Figure 26-2. The occupational and environmental health nurse secures
and manages the resources that support an occupational health and
safety program.

PROFESSIONAL MEM£ERSHIP ANu CERTIFICATION

More than 12,000 OHNs are members of the professional specialty
nursing organization, the American Association of Occupational Health
Nurses (AAOHN). AAOHN established a Code of Ethics and Interpretive
Statements (Table 26-A), and a position statement and guidelines on
Confidentiality of Health Information (Table 26 -B).

More than 6,000 OHNs have been recognized for excel lence in
occupational health nursing practice through certi fication by the
American Board for Occupational Health Nurses, Inc. (ABOHN, 2000).
The Certified Occupational Health Nurse (COHN) and the Certified
Occupational Health Nurse Specialist (COHN -S) credentials are
awarded based on specific educational preparation, current occupational
health work experience, evidence of continuing occu pational health and
safety education, and successfulcompletion of an examination .

Page 778

CODE OF ETHICS
AND INTERPRETIVE STATEMENTS
 Ã
The American Association of Occupational Health Nurses, Inc. (AAOHN)
Code of Ethics has been developed in response to the nursing
profession's acceptance of its goals and values and the trust conferred
upon it by society to guide the conduct and practices of the profession.
As professionals, occupational and environmental health nurses accept
the responsibility and inherent obligation to uphold these values.

The Code of Ethics is based on the belief that the goal of occupational
and environmental health nurses is to promote worker he alth and safety.
This specialized practice is devoted to health promotion, prevention, and
management of illness and injury at the worksite. The client can be both
an individual worker or an aggregate worker population. The purpose of
the AAOHN Code of Ethics is to serve as a guide for registered
professional nurses to maintain and pursue professionally recognized
ethical behavior in providing occupational and environmental health
services.

Ethics is synonymous with moral reasoning. Ethics is not law, but a

guide for moral action. Universal moral principles are utilized by
professional nurses when making judgements related to the health and
welfare of the worker or worker population.

The most significant principle for occupational and environmental health

nurses is autonomy, or the right to self -determination, which
encompasses respect for an individual's right to privacy and refusal of
care. Confidentiality and truth -telling are related concepts. Other key
principles are beneficence (doing or producing goo d); nonmaleficence
(avoiding harm); and justice (fair and nondiscriminatory treatment of all
individuals).

Occupational and environmental health nurses recognize that dilemmas

may develop that do not have guidelines, data, or statutes to assist with
problem resolution; thus, occupational and environmental health nurses
may use problem-solving, collaboration, and appropriate resources to
resolve dilemmas.

The Code is not intended to establish nor replace standards of care or

minimal levels of practice. In summary, the Code of Ethics and
Interpretive Statements provide a guiding ethical framework for decision -
making and evaluation of nursing actions as occupational and
environmental health nurses fulfill their professional responsibilities to
society and the profession.

Page 779

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The profession of occupational and environmental health nursing is
dedicated to the promotion, protection, and preservation of the life and
health of every client. Occupational and environmental health nurses
render nonprejudicial and nondiscriminatory care to clients.
Occupational and environmental health nurses have an obligation to
treat clients fairly, respecting their dignity and worth. ühile recognizing
the existence of a vast diversity of cultural beliefs and values in society,
occupational and environmental health nurses demonstrate respect for
these beliefs and values inherent in their clients and themselves and
plan health care services for and with that client accordingly.
Occupational and environmental health nurses respect their clients'
rights to autonomy. Clients are encouraged to participate in planning
their own healthcare, and occupational and environmental health nurses
are truthful in providing clients with necessary information to make an
informed judgement ühile respecting their clients' interests and well -
being, nurses examine the short-term and long-term outcomes of the
decision-making process.' As clients advocate, occupational and
environmental health nurses have the responsibility to be knowledgeable
about their clients' rights. These rights include acceptance or refusal of
care and are acknowledged by professional nurses. ühen personal
convictions of occupational and environmental health nurses prohibit
participation in providing health services and/or when clients refuses
care, the nurses may not be exempt from protecting their clients' health
and safety. Occupational and environmental health nurses avoid
abandonment and refer clients to available, alternative sources of care.
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Occupational and environmental health nurses are members of the
occupational and environmental health and safety team. Occupational
and environmental health nurses function both interdependently and
independently in promoting the welfare of clients. Provid ing health
services to clients requires a commitment :o collaborative planning with
other health professionals and members of the occupational and
environmental health team. Occupational and environmental health
nurses make referrals to appropriate community resources and seek
assistance and expertise from other recognized health professionals in
the provision of services, as appropriate. Occupational and
environmental health nurses function within the scope of nursing practice
and delegate responsibility t o members of the health and safety team as
necessary. Occupational and environmental health nurses have an
obligation to promote adequate distribution of healthcare and nursing
resources to meet clients' needs. Occupational and environmental health
nurses are responsible to management as employees. As professionals,
occupational and environmental health nurses are advocates for he
workers. Occupational and environmental health nurses recognize
situations in which the interests of management and workers may
conflict.

As professionals, occupational and environmental health nurses have a

responsibility to observe professional codes and uphold practice
standards. Occupational and environme ntal health nurses demonstrate
fairness in conflict resolution. The promo tion of health and safety and
prevention of injury and illness at the w orksite requires occupational and
environmental health nursing representation and participation in the
decision-making process within institutional and political arenas.
Occupational and environmental health n ursesare encouraged to
become and remain participants in decision -making processes that
define or pertain :o occupational and environmental health nursing
functions or activities

Page 780

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Occupational and environmental health nurses have an obligation to

maintain the trust bestowed upon them b y clients and to protect their
clients' rights to privacy. Public trust is ensured by maintaining the
confidentiality of health information through prevention of unauthorized
access. üritten policies and procedures should guide the access,
release, transmittal, and storage of health information, including
computerized records.

Occupational and environmental health nurses are encouraged to use

current professional literature and r esources for guidance. Occupational
and environmental health nurses are knowledgeable about and adhere
to the organizational, local, state, and federal policies and laws
governing access to confidential information. Employees are then
protected from unauthorized and indiscriminate access and disclosure of
health and/ or personal information. Confidentiality is crucial to the
effectiveness of the occupational and environmental h ealth program.

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Occupational and environmental health nurses are dedicated to

providing quality, competent, and professional services to their clients.
Occupational and environmental health nurses are representatives of the
profession and demonstrate competent, ethical, and professional
conduct and accountability. The profession's primary commitment is to
the health, safety, and welfare of clients. Occupational and
environmental health nurses strive to protect their cl ients and the
profession from incompetent professionals and individuals who
misrepresent themselves and the profession. Any person or persons
who exhibit incompetence or engage in unethical or illegal activities may
be reported to licensing, accrediting, o r certifying authorities, as may be
appropriate. Occupational and environmental health nurses should
participate in the development of policies to promote competent, ethical,
and legal nursing practice. Occupational and environmental health
nurses have a commitment to comply with the laws and regulations that
govern the workplace in an effort to provide workers with a safe and
healthful workplace.

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As licensed health professionals, occupational and environmental health

nurses have an obligation to their clients, employers, communities,
society, and profession to demonstrate credibilit y and competence
Occupational and environmental health nurses are responsible citizens
in the community adhering to all laws and statutes (local, state, and
federal), including those governing occup ational and environmental
health practice. As professionals, occupational and environmental health
nurses respect their clients' and society¶s rights to know and to receive
factual information about potential and actual job and environmental
hazards. Occupational and environmental health nurses are
knowledgeable of community issues and dilemmas affecting health,
safety, and the welfare of society and participate in appropriate
resolution when able.

Page 781

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Occupational and environmental health nursing is dedicated to

promoting competent professional practice. Occupational and
environmental health nurses have the responsibility to strive for
excellence and maintain a level of knowledge, judgement, technical
skills, and professional values necessary for delivering health services.
Individual professional licensure provides for protection of the public to
ensure that basic professional competencies have been achieved.
Occupational and environmental h ealth nurses utilize professional and
educational activities to improve professional practice.

Occupational and environmental health nurses may engage in

professional, educational, and quality improvement activities, such as
peer review. Occupational and environmental health nurses
acknowledge the importance of continued and advanced educational
activities beyond the basic level of nursing education. As professionals,
occupational and environmental health nurses have a personal and
professional responsibility to maintain competence in practice. All
occupational and environmental health nurses are professionally and
morally accountable for their actions and compliance with nurse practice
acts, standards of practice, and other laws/regulations governing
occupational health practice. In a situation where occupational and
environmental health nurses do not have the necessary skills or
knowledge or are unable to render services personally, the nurses have
a moral responsibility to refer the client to appropriate services.

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Research is an integral part of occupational and environmental health

nursing practice. Research provides new information to improve and
validate the tenets underlying the profession's scope of practice. This
validation can be accomplished by designing studies, testing t heories to
guide nursing practice, utilizing and applying research findings, or
participating in the research process. Occupational and environmental
health nursing, as an applied discipline, engages in scholarly inquiry to
build upon the body of knowledge that serves as the foundation for
practice. Occupational and environmental health nurses must strive to
create and expand this body of knowledge, both empirically and
theoretically, through research activities.

Research activities are usually approved b y appropriate bodies, such as

institutional review boards. Occupational and environmental health nurse
researchers should respect and protect the autonomy, rights, and
privacy of the subjects. One mechanism to ensure this respect and
protect subjects is by voluntary informed consent. Occupational and
environmental health nurses have moral obligations to self, their clients,
the profession, and society to conduct sound ethical research.
Occupational and environmental health nurses have the responsibility to
communicate and disseminate research findings to other occupational
and environmental health nurses and professionals and to appropriately
utilize research findings within their practice .

Page 782

For those occupational health nurses already certified in occupational

health nursing (as either COHN or COHN-S), a case management
certification (COHN/CM or COHN-S/CM) is now available for those with
evidence of case management continu ing education, and successful
completion of an examination.

Additional academic preparation as a manager, nurse practitioner, or

clinical nurse specialist in occupational health nursing is available at the
graduate level at University-based, NIOSH-funded, educational research
centers. Certification in these advanced practice roles is currently
available through the American Nurses Credentialing Center.

THE PRACTICE OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH NURSINÔ

Models of Occupational Health Services
There are several models for occupational health servicedelivery,
ranging from on-site salaried personnel to off -sitecontractual
arrangements (Burgel, 993). The scope of
occupational health services depends on the following keyindustry
variables:
> Company size and demographics of the workforce
> Geographic distance to a health care facility in thecommunity
> Type of industry (manufacturing versus service)
> Hazard profile (review of OSHA 200 log, emergencyresponse needs,
potential exposures/trends in claims)
> Risk management and health benefit philosophy of company; percent
of insured workforce
> Economic resources
#Self-insurance status for workers' compensation and personal health
care
> Organizational climate, specifically regarding health, haz ard
communication, and the value of prevention activities

Other team members, depending on an assessment of the above

industry variables, may include an industrial hygienist, occupational
medicine physician, safety professional, ergonomist, physical therapist,
employee assistance program personnel, and rehabili tation counselor.
Depending on the education, expertise, and skills of the nurse, the OHN
may take a more involved role in direct care (for example, the nurse
practitioner role), case management, employee assistance program
activities, ergonomics, safety activities, and environmental monitoring.

Occupational health service models vary not only in the type and extent
of health service personnel, but also the degree to which they manage
work-related and nonwork-related health care conditions. Some
programs manage only work-related injury and illness, with referral of
those health problems not directly related to work. Others manage all
work-related and a limited number of nonwork -related health concerns. A
growing number are offering full -service, 24-hour managed care to
employees and their dependents,for both work - and nonwork-related
conditions, using advanced practice occupational health nurses (Burgel,
1993; Dowrick & Rezents, 1993; Burgel, 1996; AAOHN, 1999).

Critical to program design is to maintain a focus on a safe and healthy

workplace, in recognition that most work -related injury and illness is
preventable. Additionally, the safety and environmental monitoring
functions and health functions in an organization need to be
administratively linked for a successful and smoothly running program.

OHN Staffing and Outcomes

New health and safety regulations, mental health issues in theworkplace,
the continued increase in cumulative trauma dis orders, chronic illness
and the aging workforce, the increased num bers of women in the
worksite, and the changing health I care delivery structures are but a few
of the current health j issues facing employers. Occupational health
nurses are cost-effective providers who manage these complex health
issues for employers and employees, while valuing a prevention agenda.
Knowledge of the key players²the employee, the supervisor, coworkers,
the union representative, family mem bers²in addition to knowledge of
the work process, allows for worksite interventions to prevent, for
example, a work-related stress claim.

Moderate-to-large employers predominantly employ OHNs with more

than 500 employees, and, for those smaller employers the OHN may be
the only health care provider on -site. Current recommendations for
manufacturing industries is to have one full-time OHN for every 300
employees; and for service industries to have one full -time OHN for
every 750 employees (AAOHN, 1994). In more than 60 percent of
companies, the occupational health nurse I is the sole health care
provider at the worksite. In early research done in 1978, recognizing that
the OHN was the predominant provider of health care in small industry,
NIOSH conducted a study on the costs and benefits of occupational
health nursing. Four pairs of manufacturing facili ties with fewer than
1000 employees were studied, with documented direct and indirect
benefits for both employers and employees. NIOSH concluded that the
occupational health nurse was cost -effective, especially in those
industries with hazardous work processes and in those companies who
had not already established cost -effective alternatives to the delivery of
occupational medical care (NIOSH, 1980).

Additional surveys conducted by NIOSH, the National I Occupational

Hazard Survey in 1972 and the National O ccupational Exposure Survey
in 1981-83, described the health and safety conditions of the American
workforce, and documented trends of worker access to on -site health
services. In 1981-83, 3.8 percent of employers with fewer than 100
employees reported the presence of a health unit at the worksite, 32
percent of employers with 100-499 employees reported an on -site health
unit, and 87 percent of industries with 500 or more employees reported
an on-site health unit (US DHHS, 1988). Over this 10 -yearperiod there
was an increase in access to nursing services on -site, a slight decrease
in on-site physician services, with an associated increase of contractual
agreements with off-site physicians (Pederson and Sieber, 1989).

Page 783

Table 26-B. (




 

£asic Premise
Confidentiality of health information is a concept that is fundamental to
good occupational and environmen talhealth nursingpractice
Communication between-employee and provider is optimal when the
client is assured that persona l information shared with the occupational
and environmental health nurse will be placed and remain in the health
record. Also important is assurance that access to health information will
be to health providers within the company with disclosures only for the
following exceptions:
A. Life threatening emergencies
B. Authorized release to others, e.g. employee, insurance company,
personal health care provider.
C, üorkers¶ compensation information
D. Compliance with governmental regulations
II Levels of Confidentiality
Three levels of confidentiality are identified that require increasing control
of access. Level III information is the most controlled.
Level I²Information required by law. These include data on occupational
and environmental illnesses and injuries, exposure data and information
derived from special examinations, such as food handlers.
Level II²Information to assist Human Resource Management. This
includes information obtained from job placement and provider health
surveillance and other exams to determine workability status of the
employee.
Level III²Personal Health Information. This includes all information not
recorded in Level I or II. Examples are treatment for non -work related
health problems or family health counseling. A. Control and Access of
Level I and II Information.
1. All disclosures should be coordinated arid controlled by the
occupational and environmental health nurse.
2. Disclosure is made to the employee or the employee's designated
representative with appropriate written consent.
3. Management disclosure is made on a need -to-know basis with
reference only to workability status.
B. Control and Access of Level III Information.

1. All information is controlled by the occupational and environmental

health nurse.
2. Employee disclosure is made only upon appropriate written
authorization.
3. No disclosure is made to management.
4. No disclosure is made to regulatory agencies.
5. Disclosure to health insurance providers is made upon appropriate
written authorization.
III. Circumstances of Disclosure
Include these elements in written policies directing record disclosure:
A. Authorization for disclosure sha ll be in writing and state
specifically what information is to be discl osed.
B. · Describe how (in what manner) information is to be disclosed.
C. Provide a time frame for disclosure. A 15 d ay access period is
required in the OSHA standard.
D. . Interpretation of health information by health professionals shall
be available.
E. · Personal information to outside sources (OSHA,
epidemiologic/research activities) is provided as aggregate,
anonymous data.
IV.Database Security
Procedu¶cres to insure security of records must be established and
maintained.
A. Establish security systems for both manual and computerized
record systems.
B. Provide for back up systems in the event of electrical failure, fire or
flood which can destroy records.
:
C. Transfer records in a manner which safeguards privacy.
D. Provide confidentiality training for staff (handbooks/manuals).
E. Develop a disciplinary Procedure for violation of security.
F. Identify (i.e., badges) individuals requesting health record
information.

V. Storage
Concern for confidentiality is addressed in developing record format,
filing and storage systems.

A. Establish a format which provides for separation of records-Level and

II· information from Level III.

B. Determine specific placement for file(s) which insures greatest

privacy.
C. limit access to records.
D. Provide for locked security

More recent data is not available; howev er, 49 percent of AAOHN

members report being the only registered nurse at their location; and
54.5 percent report working with employers with fewer than 1000
employees at their location (AAOHN, 1995, pp. 23, 24).

Large employers are very aware of what the y need from on-site
occupational health nurses. Lusk, Disch, and Barkauskas (1988) found
in their survey of Fortune 500 companies (N=173) that 90 percent
employed registered nurses, 61 percent employed safety engineers, 61
percent employed physicians, and 45 percent employed industrial
hygienists, documenting the predominance of nursing expertise in large
industries. This survey notes the four most freque nt occupational health
nursing activities as:

Page 784

> Supervising the provision of nursing care for job-relatedemergency and

minor illness episodes (90%)
> Counseling employees regarding health risks (88%)
> Providing case management for employees with
workers'compensation claims +IGL,
>* >Performing periodic health
assessments (63%)
Lusk et. al. (1988) also evaluated desires of employers rel ative to future
role functions of the OHN. The four most frequently reported desired
activities were for the OHN to:
>Generate analyses on trends in health promotion, riskreduction, and
health care expenditures (36%)
> Develop special health programs particular to the needsof the
corporation {29%)
#Make recommendations for more efficient and cost effec tive operation
of the health care department (29%)
> Conduct research to determine cost -effective alternatives to health
care programs and services (29%)

A similar survey of Ohio employers found similar results, underscoring

the need for OHNs to have fiscal and evalua tion skills (Martin et al,
1993).
In another study of a Fortune 500 company and its natio nal sites (Bey et
al, 1988), an analysis of the OHN role was studied from both the OHN
(N= 26) and the manager (N=15) perspective. Both nurses and
managers ranked direct care of employees as the highest priority,
followed by health education and counseling (#2 for occupational health
nurses, #3 ranking for managers), medical management (#3 for
occupational health nurses, #2 for managers), record keeping (#4), health
promotion (#5), and environmental hazard recognition and control (#6).
Of these functions, managers ranked direct injury/illness care, health
education and counseling, and medical management as nursing bene fits
to the company.

Many studies have documented the quality outcomes and associated

cost savings of using advanced practice nursing in the clinical
management 
work- and nonwork-related injury and illness (Touger &
Butts, 1989; Dalton & Harris, 1991; Burgel, 1993). Hospital -based
occupational health services delivered to local industries were found to
be cost effective using a nurse practitioner model of service delivery
(Konstantinos and Crespo, 1998). These services primarily involved
work-related injury treatment and case manage ment, with direct
reimbursement by the workers' compensation carriers to the clinic.
Additional indirect prof it areas for the hospital included the pharmacy,
radiology, laboratory, and specialty referrals generated by the injury
treatment center. One study of a medical surveillance program,
managed by an OHN, documented continued customer satisfaction,
quality outcomes, and overall cost savings of several medical monitoring
programs (hearing conservation, asbestos screening, Department of
Transportation exams) when compared to using an external vendor.
Program highlights included use of a nurse practitioner/phys ician
assistant to conduct the examinations, and an enhanced health
promotion service, including the provision of immunizations (Lukes,
1998).

Table 26-C. ))-ë

 
  

OHN Role and Levels of Prevention

The OHN role requires knowledge, skills, and abilities in the following
competencies:
>Clinical and primary care
>Case management
>üork force, workplace, and environmental issues
>Regulatory/legislative issues
> Management
> Health promotion and disease prevention
> Occupational and environmental health and safety education/training
> Research
> Professionalism (ühite et al, 1999)
The OHN uses all of the above competencies, often in a blended role, to
accomplish a wide range of programmatic activities in the worksite
(Figure 26-3). For example, establishment of an ergonomics program
requires knowledge, skills, and abilities in:
a. The diagnosis and treat ment options for repetitive strain injuries
(clinical and primary care)
b. Program design with policy and procedures (management)
c. The ability to educate workers regarding neutral wristposition and
postural issues (education/training; healthpromotion and disease
prevention)
d. Knowledge of ergonomics legislation and the Americanswith
Disabilities Act (regulatory/legislative)
e. A team approach to analyze the workstations and institute engineering
controls (workforce, workplace, environ mental/research, and
professionalism)

Page 785

Figure 26-3. The OHN uses competencies, including clinical and primary
care; case management; workforce, workplace and environments issues;
regulatory/legislative; management; health promotion and disease
management; occupational and environmental health and safety
education/training; research and professionalism ²often in a blended
role, to accomplish a wide range of programmatic activities in the
worksite

OHN role functions include involvement at each level of prevention:

primary, secondary, and tertiary.  
 
refers to those
health promotion and health pro tection measures that prevent the
occurrence of disease land injury. Immunizations are a primary
preventive measure, as are engineering controls. .
 

is the early detection and treatment of disease and injury so that
progression is slowed or complications are limited. Screening is a
secondary prevention measure to detect asympto matic disease early in
the disease progression; for example, blood lead testing is a secondary
preventive measure to detect lead exposure before symptoms of lead
toxicity are [present. ! 
 
is the prevention of disability
through rehabilitative efforts. Modified duty or transi tional work
programs are a tertiary disabilitymanagement strategy, aimed at
increasing Inaction and preventing prolonged disability.
The following programmatic components, arranged around level s of
prevention, are discussed in more details:
 
 

#Preplacement- (postoffer) evaluations
>Immunizations
#Employee training
>üellness programs
#Employee assistance programs
.
 

>Assessment and management of health complaints
#Health/medial surveillance
! 
 

>Case management
#Modified duty programs
  

$
Ã
-ë


> üorkers' Compensation
> Americans with Disabilities Act
> Recordkeeping
> Bloodborne Pathogens
> Ergonomics
> Evaluating Outcomes of OHN Activities

Primary Prevention
PREPLACEMENT *POSTOFFER) EVALUATIONS

Preplacement evaluations are a primary prevention activity, with the goal

to place workers in jobs based on physical capabilities and making
reasonable accommodations if needed and in compliance with the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Critical to ADA compliance is the
need to insure that all evaluations are job -related, and offered to all
entering employees within the same job class (Pruit t l995). Key to the
success of a preplacement program is the valuable process of creating a
job analysis for each job class. Although, time-consuming, this activity
involves active dialogue with the supervisor, human resources,
representative employees, and the OHN to identify both the physical and
emotional requirements of a position. This can provide a powerful
opportunity to vary job tasks remove unrealistic lifting expectations, and
push for engineering controls, while discussing possible
accommodations that promote healthier job tasks for all.

Another value of the preplacement evaluation is that the OHN can

introduce the role of the occupatio nal health service and establish a
beginning relationship with the new employee. At this time, an
expectation can be set for active participation of the employee in
recognizing and reporting potentially hazardous working conditions.

The value of preplacement evaluations is most visible in those positions

that are safety-sensitive, for example, determining fitness for duty in the
transportation industry. However, in one study looking at musculoskeletal
injury outcome after preplacement assessment, no injury rate difference
was found between the preplacement group and a matched casegroup
of employees who had not participated in the pre -placement program
(Nachreiner et al, 1999).

Page 786

One may anticipate a reduction in injury rates for those employees

appropriately placed in jobs matched to their physical and mental
abilities. An alternative interpretation is to note that there was not an
increased injury rate in this study for those workers who were working
with work restrictions prescribed during the preplacement process.
Additional value in the preplacement process can be illustrated in the
current debate around latex sensitivity. Use of a preplacement process
for latex sensitivity in hospital environments will drive the dia logue about
how best to identify atopic individuals at higher risk for developing latex
sensitivity, and how best to accommodate these employees.
Simultaneously, there will be pol icy discussions about "latex -safe" versus
"latex-free" environments, and a planned educational intervention to
increase overall awareness. The prevention of just one c ase of latex
sensitivity can often justify the cost of these preventive activities.

IMMUNIZATIONS
Approximately 45,000 adults in the United States die annu ally of
complications from influenza, pneumococcal infec tions, and hepatitis B²
the primary vaccine-preventable diseases affecting adults (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention [CDCP], 2000). The total economic cost
of treating these vaccine -preventable diseases among adults, excluding
the value of years of life lost, exceeds $10 billion eac h year (CDCP,
2000). The worksite is considered an ideal site for immunization delivery.
OHNs are often engaged in designing worksite immunization programs,
which may be mandatory (for example, bloodborne pathogens and
hepatitis B vaccination for at-risk employees), or voluntary. One worksite
influenza vaccine program at a Department of Energy nuclear facility
demonstrated reduced influenza -like illness, related lost work time, and
reduced health care utilization in 789 vaccinated employees (Dille,
1999).

EMPLOYEE TRAININÔ
More than 100 OSHA standards require the employer to train employees
in health and safety (U.S. DHHS, 1998). Many of the occupational and
environmental health and safety objectives in 

Ñ4/4

require training as well (US DHH S, 2000). Employee training, either in
1:1 or group settings, encourages workers to engage in safe work
practices and stimulates a level of understanding to recog nize and report
potential hazards 
employers.

A key OHN activity in all employee training is the needs assessment

phase. One component of a needs assessment is to determine if there is
a knowledge, behavior, or skill deficit that would appropriately respond to
a training intervention. The needs assessment also includes a
walkthrough survey to identify real and potential hazards, and the efficacy
of current engineering, administrative, and personal protective controls.
Review of the literature will outline possible solutions for the training need,
including learning methods that are cultura lly sensitive and literacy-
level²appropriate. üays to evaluate out-comes to determine if the
training was successful is included in the training plan. Risk
communication principles outline ways in which to make the hazard more
real and imaginable] to the employee , with a clear understanding of how
the hazard can be controlled by taking action. Involvement of a taskforce
in the planning of the training will build in success . Pilot testing a risk
communication strategy with the taskforce is recommended prior to full
implementation of the training (U.S. DHHS, 1998).

OHNs are often involved in the employee training requirement in the

Hazard Communication standard. Using a team approach and often
involving joint labor-management representatives, the OHN educates
employees on potential health effects from potential exposures with
hazardous substances, including interpretation of the material safety
data sheets (Brooks et al, 1994; Robins et al, 1994) .

Examples of other OHN employee training activities include:

> Education on how best to adjust workstations and worldflow to

decrease the number of forceful repetitions andthus prevent cumulative
trauma disorders
#Education on the long -term effects of noise on hearingand th e need for
hearing protection > Education and demonstration on dividing the
liftingloads, in addition to teaching back strengthening andproper lifting
techniques

üELLNESS PROÔRAMS
OHNs have long been involved in wellness initiatives in the worksite. In


Ñ4/4
the two broad goals for our nation are to increase
the quality and years of healthy life, and to eliminate health disparities
amongst ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups in America. One
specific objective is to increase the proportion of worksites that offer a
comprehensive employee health promotion program to their employee
with the goal of 100 percent of worksites with more than 5C employees
by the year 2010 (U.S. DHHS, 2000).

In 1999, 95 percent of worksites with more than 5 0 employees reported

offering at least one health promotion activity (U.S. DHHS, 2000). This
growth since 1985 is striking. However, many of the programs lack
sufficient design, and participation rates are generally low. The challenge
remains to engage those workers in the crafts, trades, services, and
administrative support so that these employees participate in worksite
health promotion efforts (U.S. DHHS, 2000; Lusk, 1997).

In one comprehensive review of worksite health promotion literature,

most of the studies demonstrated a health benefit or a cost savings,
evaluating clinical outcomes such as improved blood pressure control,
and/or an administrative outcome, such as health care utilization or a
reduction in absenteeism (Lusk, 1997). A comprehensive approach to
wellness program design is imperative, using the demographics of the
worksitepopulation to prioritize program priorities. Examples of well ness
programs aimed at primary prevention include exercise for health,
prenatal education, and nutrition guidelines. Risk reduction programs are
also beneficial at the worksite, for example, for back in jury prevention,
smoking cessation, and programs aimed at chronic illness management.
In onestudy of worksite diabetes education in a bank, employees with
diabetes demonstrated an improvement in their self -perceived control of
their chronic illness, with significant improvements in mean
glycohemoglobin levels (Burton & Connerty, 1998).

Page 787

Figure 26-4. The OHN needs access to the most recent envi ronmental
monitoring data, to fully evaluate the potential work relationships.

EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCEPROÔRAMS
Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) use both primary and secondary
prevention methods to recognize, assess, treat, and refer those personal
and mental health problems that impact job performance. Approximately
33 percent of all private, nonagricultural worksites with more than 50
employees reported an EAP resource for their employees (Hartwell et al,
1996). Although initially focused on sub stance abuse, EAPs are now
assessing a full range of famil y and work issues that may affect an
employee's ability to be a fully functioning member of a work team.
These services may be crisis oriented and in response to changes in
work performance, but also be preventive in nature, with an emphasis on
communication, conflict resolution, and stress management. The OHN is
often the first point of contact, and is able to confidentially counsel and
refer employees to an EAP resource.

Emphasis on the appropriate use of psychiatric, chemical dependency,

and other services by employees and their dependents is a current case
management program in many industries. Growing mental health care
costs continue to be a large concern for corporations. The OHN
manages, implements, and cooperates with the EAP resource at the
worksite, and is the gatekeeper to mental health care providers in the
community. This strong link impacts mental health care in two ways: the
employee is educated by the OHN in pur chasing mental health care for
themselves or their dependents; and the OHN becomes involved in
supporting this individual at the worksite.

Stress at the workplace and at home, workplace violence, drug and

alcohol use/abuse, and accommodating employees with psychiatric
diagnoses are just a few of the daily chal lenges facing OHNs. OHNs are
often the first resource for the troubled employee, and a common role
function is to complete the initial assessment and facilitate referral for
long-term treatment.

Secondary Prevention
ASSESSMENT ANu MANAÔEMENT OF HEALTH COMPLAINTS
Most commonly, an employee has an interaction with the OHN for a
health complaint. This rna y be an acute problem, such as wrist pain or
an earache, or a visit for a chronic health problem, for example, a blood
pressure check or a question regarding a medication dose. At all times,
the OHN mustevaluate this symptom in relationship to the work task s
done
by the employee (Twining, 1995):

> Is there a potential exposure that could cause or aggravatethe

complaint?
> üas there a change in the work process that could account for this
symptom?
>Are other coworkers complaining of similar symptoms?
>Is the employee still capable of performing their work, without threat to
self or others? If no, what accommodations are needed?

The OHN needs access to the most recent environmental monitoring

data, so as to fully evaluate the potential work relationships ( Figure 26-
4).

The OHN also knows the individual's prior health history, the family
system, and the current department work group issues, and therefore can
identify if psychosocial issues (both at home and at work) may be
influencing this complaint.

The OHN, depending on resources, skills, and expertise, may do the

initial evaluation and treat within a first aid/self -care model and refer, if
needed, for a more comprehensive medical evaluation. Or, the OHN may
do the initial evaluation and treat according to standardized procedures,
without a physician referral, and dependent on state regulation of nursing
practice.

If the condition is work-related, the OHN is in a crucial position to

conduct a walkthrough survey to identify the root cause of the injury an d
institute preventive measures. The OHN will educate and advocate
about the worker's compensation benefit, and monitor recovery and
return to work in a case management role.

The OHN uses practice guidelines to evaluate the clinical outcomes of

medical care, and, if doing case management for a worker compensation
carrier, the OHN may use practice guidelines to authorize specific
diagnostic or treatment interventions. Practice guidelines are clinical
practice recommendations based on a critical review o f
research/evidence. There are numerous practice guidelines, some
focused on the diagnosis of a specific health condition, and others
focused on the clinical management of a health condition, with the key
aim to standardize care. The American College of Oc cupational and
Environmental Medicine published a set of guidelines specific to work -
related musculoskeletal complaints (Harris, 1997). Other purposes of
clinical practice guidelines include the goal to reduce variation in prac tice
across geographic regions and across providers, to improve the quality
of health care, and to promote best prac tices and cost consciousness.
Many occupational health set tings use practice guidelines as a quality
assurance/audit tool to evaluate clinical outcomes of care, and to assist
in the disability management process.
SCREENINÔ
Screening tests aim for early detection of asymptomatic dis ease with the
goal that treatment can render an improved outcome. "Put Prevention
into Practice" is a program of the Office of Disease P revention and
Health Promotion; it includes health education materials, ! 
D

Ã

 
. 
and other resources that are valu able
in worksite screening programs +%.
DHHS, 1998). ! 
(



 
. 
(2nd ed.) provides research-based screening
recommendations for the clinician, many of which can be reinforced in a
wellness initiative at work (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 1996).
These screening tests can be offered in coordination with the per sonal
health plan, to avoid duplication of services. Examples of common
screening programs in the worksite are choles terol testing and prostate
cancer screening.

HEALTH/MEuICAL SURVEILLANCE
Occupational health surveillance is the process of monitor ing the health
status of worker populations to gather data about the effects of
workplace exposures and to use the data to prevent illness or injury
(AAOHN, 1996).

The goal of health/medical surveillance is early identifi cation of biological

markers or endpoints that may signify exposure. Health/medical
surveillance, often a requirement of federal health and safety standards,
is designed, coordinated, implemented, and evaluated by the OHN, such
as conducting a hearing conservation program, respiratory protection
program, or asbestos surveillance (Papp & Miller, 2000; Rogers &
Livsey, 2000).

The OHN reviews the environmental monitoring data, reviews the

toxicology of the substance, and in consultation with industrial hygiene
and/or occupational medicine, out lines a health surveillance program
that is exposure and job specific. Common to OHN practice is the
communication and counseling of test results to the individual employee
and to the primary care provider. The OHN develops policies and
procedures in anticipat ion of the potential need for job rotation, job
modification, confidentiality, and other poten tial ethical dilemmas that
may arise when an abnormal finding is discovered during health/medical
surveillance activities. Good communication skills, used to ed ucate and
counsel employees regarding the purpose and use of these test results,
are of paramount importance.

Tertiary Prevention
CASE MANAÔEMENT
Case management is the timely coordination of quality health services
with the goal to decrease fragmentation of care, enhance the client's
quality of life, and to contain health care costs (Salazar et al, 1999). It is
a system, which aims to provide the right care, at the right time in the
right setting by the right provider and at the right cost. The emphasis i s
on early intervention and coordination of care for those targeted high -
risk, high-cost cases.

Frequent and timely communication is an important component of case

management. For example, an employee or dependent sustains a spinal
cord injury and the OHN recommends early transfer to a spinal cord
rehabilitation facility. However, this facility is 100 miles from the family's
hometown. Clear OHN communication with the family is needed to
explain the anticipated improved outcome in the rehabilitation facili ty and
to gain their sup port of the transfer.

There are several tools that OHNs use to establish a case management
program (Salazar & Graham, 1999):
> The ability to flag catastrophic and chronic claims, for example:
premature births, spinal cord injuries, organ transplants, certain
cancers, AIDS, mental health disorders.
> Early identification of workers' compensation cases with high reserves
and those injured workers at risk for delayed recovery.
#Establishment of a pool of modified duty jobs.
> Establishment of a panel of qualified providers who sup port an
aggressive, medical rehabilitation plan with mod ified duty.
> Access to computerized information systems.
> Full knowledge of health benefit packages in the event that alternate
benefits need to be negotiated on behalf of the ill employee or
dependent, for example, home care with nursing assistance.

Page 789

TRANSITIONAL /MOuIFIEu uUTY PROÔRAMS

Timely return to work, in temporary transitional or modified key
assignments, is a realistic outcome measure for a case Management
program targeting both nonwork and work -related injuries and illnesses
(Brines et al, 1999). Advocating fo r safe transitional work is a major role
for the OHN. The OHN not only knows the work process, but also has
been very involved in determining the level of care needed for an injured
employee. Therefore, the OHN is well p ositioned to determine readiness
to return to work, and to support both the injured employee and his/her
supervisor throughout the process. An aggressive sports medicine
rehabilitative approach, in addition to modified duty, helps prevent
delayed recovery of injured workers (Gliniecki & Burgel, 1995).

Establishment of a transitional work program requires a proactive

approach with policies and procedures that support placement based on
objective functional capacity into posi tions that are meaningful and
productive (Evangelista-Uhl & Loomis, 1999). In an extensive review of
the literature on return to work programs, Krause et al found that those
injured workers who were offered modified work returned to work twice
as often to those not offered (Krause et al, 1998).

A clear written contract is established between the injured worker and

the OHN which outlines work and schedule expectations, the
communication link between the depart ment and the OHN, how work
performance will be evalu ated, and payroll issues (Horstman et a l,
2000). This is atime-limited contract, with the expectation that as the
employee progressively improves, the physical demands of the job will
advance as well. Therefore, transitional work is,in reality, on -the-job work
hardening. It is also imperative t o have a panel of health care providers
who philosophicallysupport transitional work as a therapeutic
interventionSliniecki & Burgel, 1995).

Programs Commonly Managed by OHNs

üORKERS' COMPENSATION
Job-related injuries cost employers billions of doll ars per year in direct
workers' compensation expenses, which include costs for medical care,
temporary and permanent disability, vocational rehabilitation, and
medical-legal costs. Additionally, there are indirect costs associated with
re-training replace ment workers, lost productivity, workplace accommo-
dation, and other preventive efforts. Injured workers also sustain severe
economic consequences from workplace injuries, specifically in lost
earnings. OHNs are often very involved in the management of the
workers' compensation program for employers, or may be in a case
management role with the workers' compensation insurance carrier.

üorkers' compensation is a very complex system in many states. Injured

workers often do not know how to access these benefi ts, and can
become quickly confused and angry if they are attempting to negotiate
this system alone. The OHN, on -site, is often the first contact for an
injured worker, able to explain the full scope of workers' compensation
benefits. A case management approach is used by the OHN to
determine the appropriate care needed and whether work modifications
are required. Close communication with and monitoring of workers'
compensation cases is an important OHN role.

AMERICANS üITH DISABILITIES ACT

Some 43 million Americans have one or more physical or mental
disability. This population is targeted by the Ameri cans with Disabilities
Act (ADA) (Public Law No. 101336). The ADA, signed into law in 1991,
prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in em ployment,
transportation, public accommodation, activities of state and local gov -
ernment, and telecommunication relay services.

Employers must not only have nondiscriminatory selec tion criteria, but
must make reasonable accommodation to the known limit ations of the
qualified applicant unless it causes undue hardship. OHNs advise
employers on compliance with the requirements of the ADA, insuring that
the preplacement (postoffer) program meets the ADA require ments. In
addition, OHNs often recommend reasonable accommodations and
counsel employees with physical disabilities. The OHN provides the link
between the ADA and other legislative/regulatory benefits, such as the
Family Medical Leave Act, and the workers' compensation benefit, seek -
ing legal consultation if needed (Guzik, 1999). (See Table 26 -D.)
RECORuKEEPINÔ
Maintenance of OSHA 200 logs is often an OHN responsi bility. As
required by OSHA standard, the OHN determines level of care and
treatment, and if it requires only first aid, it is not OSHA recordable.
Recordable conditions include: every death, every occupational illness
and injury which involves medical treatment beyond first aid, lost time,
work modification, job transfer, or any loss of consciousness. The OSHA
200 log is posted every year from February 1-March 1. (Please note: The
proposed new recordkeeping standard is still in the paperwork reduction
act.) Reporting requirements for workers' compensation vary from state
to state, and these requirements are separate from OSHA recordkeep ing
requirements. The employers' report of occupational injury and illness
can be substituted, in many cases, for the supplemental OSHA Form
101.

The OSHA 200 log is one data source for OHN analysis for trends of
work-related disease. This data helps prior itize walkthrough surveys,
periodic environmental sampling, health/medical surveillance programs,
and employee training schedules.

Access to employee exposure and medical records, as required by

OSHA standard, is an additional OHN respon sibility. Establishment of a
confidential recordkeeping system is a priority from a legal and ethical
perspective. (See Tables 26-A, 26-B.) Employees and their designated
representatives have access to aggregate exposure records of
otheremployees with past or present job duties which are similar to the
employees.

Page 790

Exposure records include environmental monitoring data and biological

monitoring data. Access need not be provided to voluntary employee
assistance records, which are maintained separately from the occupa-
tional health medical record.

£LOOu£ORNE PATHOÔENS PROÔRAM

The OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standard, adopted in 1992, requires
employers to establish an exposure control plan for all employees who
have occupational exposure to blood or other potentially infectious
materials. It mandates the use of universal precautions and the provision
of personal protective equipment by the employer, in addition to safe
needle disposal containers. Several states have passed stricter
requirements for the provision of safe needle devices. The standard
clarifies the employers responsibility to pro vide, at no cost to at-risk
employees, the hepatitis B vaccine series. There are specific training
requirements, often a role for the OHN. Postexposure policies and
procedures are established by the OHN, as outlined in the OSHA Blood -
borne Pathogens Standard and updated by the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention.
The management of this bloodborne pathogen standard involves all
OHN role competencies. Because of the confidential nature of an
exposure, especially in the uncommon event of an HIV antibody
conversion, the OHN must use her/his astute communication and
counseling skills and strong professional ethics.

ERÔONOMICS
OHN involvement with ergonomic programs continues to grow. Often an
interdisciplinary activity involving the job design personnel of an industry,
the practice of ergonomics involves workstation evaluation, job analysis,
and training. üork-related musculoskeletal disorders are common in an
office, manufacturing, or hospital setting, and are predomi nant in those
positions with the following risk factors: force,repetition, duration, contact
stressors, awkward postures, cold temperature, and vibration (Ostendorf
et al, 2000). An ergonomic program c onsists of management
commitment, worksite analysis, hazard prevention and control, medical
management, and training and education.

Because of the waxing and waning of symptoms, employ ees need

education and counseling about work -related musculoskeletal d isorders,
with measures to prevent but also treat the acute flares of this condition.
üith ergonomic educational programs, there often is an increase in the
number of symptomatic employees who present for a health evalua tion.
However, if engineering cont rols are introduced and subsequently
reinforced on periodic walkthrough surveys by the OHN, the severity of
symptoms should decrease over time. Program evaluation for ergonomic
interventions, therefore, should detail not only the number of cases, but
indices of severity as well.

Table 26-D. ) 

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Evaluating Outcomes of OHN Activities

Evaluating the effectiveness of OHN activities, in the areas of primary
health care delivery, case management, ergonom ic interventions, and
health promotion, is a major theme in the recently revised OHN research
priorities (Rogers et al, 2000) (see Table 26 -C).

The OHN plays a critical role in the evaluation of the occupational health
services, and this often includes co llecting health and corporate
outcomes data (Kosinski, 1998). This evaluation process not only
provides for continuous quality improvement, but this data can be used
to target activities, establish short and long term goals, define respon -
sibilities of team members, delineate time frames for action items,
expected results, and measurements against goals and benchmarks,
and offer rationale and support for additional resources for the
occupational health agenda.

Health outcomes are the results or consequences of a process of care.

Health outcomes may include satisfaction with care, use of health care
resources, and clinical outcomes, such as changes in health status and
changes in thelength and quality of life as a result of detecting or
treatingdisease (US DHHS, 2000).

Page 791

Selected health outcome indica tors for occupational health clinical care
to injured workers
may include (Rudolph, 1996; Rudolph, 1998):

#)

 "
Initial treatment for nonemergency work -related

conditions will be delivered within 24 hours after the injury is reported
#
"
85 percent of injured workers identi fied the
occupational health nurse as very to extremely helpful in answering
questions about the workers' compensation system on satisfactio n
survey.
> 
 "
High-risk health care workers will have
documentation in their preplacement record of hep atitis B vaccination
offer/immunity.
>.
 "
Occupational health history is doc umented in 90
percent of those medical records of employees with occupational injury;
or, chart documentation of ergonomic evaluation within one week of
diagnosis of a work-related upper extremity complaint.
#
! 
 "
Sustained return to work, without reinjury, for 90
days after release to return to work; or, lit igated cases decreased to five
percent after occupational health nurse case management intervention.

SUMMARY
The Occupational Health Nurse, the predominant health provider on-
site in industry, is key to a comprehensive occupational health and safety
program. The OHN has critical rela tionships, not only with the employee,
but also with the supervisor, other coworkers, the union, family members
and the employees primary care provider. The OHN has knowl edge of
the work process and potential hazards, and provides the confidential
and neutral analysis of the interaction between the worker's health status
and his/her job. By using primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention
strategies, the OHN uses a team approach to preven t work-related injury
and illness andmaintain the health of the workforce. Case management,
which includes coordination of care for the best care at the right cost, is a
key strategy used by the OHN in monitoring both work- and nonwork-
related injury and illness care. Evaluation of the effectiveness of key OHN
programmatic activities, including primary health care, case
management, ergonomic interventions, and health promotion programs,
are four future research priority areas in occupational health nursing .

An on-site OHN, either in a full-time or part-time capacity, is a valuable

company asset to maintain an emphasis on a safe workplace, manage
the occupational health and safety regula tory requirements and to monitor
the health care of employees.
Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene ± Chapters 23-26 ±
Occupational Health Profesions ± Review of IH Principles

Industrial Hygiene
ühat is Industrial Hygiene?
Ú Anticipation, Recognition, Evaluation, and Control of hazardous
substances or agents (environmental stressors)

Environmental Factors or Stresses

Chemical Hazards (solvents, gases, vapors, particulates
Physical Hazards (noise, thermal, ionizing, non -ionizing)
£iological Hazards (mold, bacteria, viruses, dander, allergens)
Ergonomic Hazards (next semester)

Industrial Hygiene
Anticipation
Ú what are potential hazards that may be introduced with processes
or products?
Recognition
Ú what are potential hazards in the workplace?
Evaluation
Ú how severe are the potential hazards?
Ú are the potential ha zards truly hazardous?
Control
Ú how can potential health hazards be eliminated or minimized?

Hazard Anticipation
Obtain the process flow chart or description
Obtain ingredient and product information
Read the equipment descriptions
Study the building and process design plans
Identify exposures to toxic agents
Anticipate exposure hazards during normal conditions and process
upsets
Consider the potential health effects

Hazard Recognition
Sketch the floor plan
Identify the hazard sources
Place the sources on the plan
Place the receivers on the plan
Show the pathways between them
Consider the potential health effects

üorkplace Characterization
ühat is the process?
Activities?
Raw materials?
Products?
By-products?
üaste products?
Processing aids?

üorkforce Characterization
job title/job description
task analysis
exposure duration
Ú shift length; continuous
number of workers

Characterization of Agents
Form of agent
chemical
physical
biological
Health effects
airborne
dermal
Exposure Limits
occupational
environmental

Health Effects
Sources of Information
Ú Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Ú Toxicology Literature
Ú Epidemiology Literature
Ú Internet

Hazard Evaluation
Qualitative Exposure Assessment

Quantitative Exposure Assessment

Is the exposure acceptable?

Exposure Limits
Regulatory
Ú Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Ú Environmental Protection Agency
Non-regulatory
Ú ACGIH
Ú NIOSH
Ú ASHRAE

Hazard Control
Hierarchy of Controls
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Training & Education
Rotation
Enclosure of üorker
Personal Protective Devices
Personal Monitoring Devices

Hierarchy of Controls
1.Engineering Controls ± wherever feasible engineering controls should
be used FIRST
2.Administrative Controls
3.PPE

Occupational Health Team

IH
Safety
Occupational Health Nurse
Occupational Physician
Employees
Management
Safety and Health Committee

Occupational Health Team

IH ± Illness, Cumulative Trauma
Safety ± Injury, Accidents
Occupational Health Nurse
Ú Preplacement exams
Ú Immunizations
Ú üorkers¶ compensation injuries/follow-up
Ú Spirometry
Ú Audiometry
Ú Respirator physicals

Occupational Health Team

Occupational Physician
Ú Lead/Asbestos/Cadmium physicals
Ú Exposure follow-up
Ú Fitness for duty
Employees (provide input)
Management (support and be example)
Safety and Health Committee (oversight, inspections, ideas)

Chapter 27
The Industrial Hygiene Program

Page 793

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COMPONENTS OF AN INuUSTRIAL HYÔIENE PROÔRAM

The industrial hygiene program has a number of components usually
beginning with a policy statement which ou tlines the organizations
commitment to employee health and safety. The written program
contains elements for hazard recognition, evaluation and exposure
assessment, hazard control, employee training and involvement, program
evaluation, and docu mentation. The format of the program depends on a
variety of factors including the size and type of the organization, its
management philosophy, the range of occupational hazards at the
facility, and the available health and safety resources.

Page 794

Forexample, small companies may rely on the services and programs

provided through their insurance companies or consult ing agencies.
Larger corporations and government agencies, on the other hand, may
have more comprehensive programs and staff support appropriate for
their organizations needs.

£ENEFITS OF AN INuUSTRIAL HYÔIENE PROÔRAM

All organizations benefit from the contributions and produc tivity of its
employees. The industrial hygiene program pro vides social and
economic benefits by sustaining a healthful and fit workfo rce to help
meet company objectives. The following benefits have been cited in well -
established programs:
> They provide a place of employment in which employees are protected
from all known occupational health haz ards at the workplace.
> Compensable injuries or illnesses are reduced, thus low ering
insurance premiums and associated medical and recordkeeping costs.
> Productivity is usually increased by improving working conditions.
Improved working conditions reduce lost time from accidents and
illnesses, reduce absenteeism, and improve morale and labor relations.
> Operating costs are reduced by anticipating and control ling potential
occupational health hazards during the design phase of new projects.
>The Occupational Safety and Health Administrati on (OSHA) and other
government regulations concerning industrial hygiene are quickly
assessed and implemented. In recent years, the introduction of total
quality management followed by the ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) 9000 (Quality Management and Quality Assurance
Standards) and 14001 (Environmental Manage ment Systems) standards
have provided businesses with the advantages of continuous
improvements from instituting management systems for quality and
environmental practices. There have also been considerations for an
Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) by a
number of organizations aimed at helping businesses realize the value of
continuous improvements in health and safety. Each of these
approaches generally begin with a policy statement and a cycle of Plan,
Do, Check, and Act, devised by ü. Edwards Demming in the 1950s.
This cycle, which is known and applied in larger organizations,
demonstrates how programs which include industrial hygiene contribute
to company objectives by maintaining and improving employee health
and safety.

ESTA£LISHINÔ AN INuUSTRIAL
HYÔIENE PROÔRAM
üritten Program and Policy Statement
A policy publicly states a company's commitment to employee health and
safety. The industrial hygiene program should align itself with the policy
provided by the chief administrator, or top management, of the
organization. Itshould state the purpose of the program and require
activeparticipation by all employees reflecting the following:

> The importance that management places on the healthand safety of its
employees.
> Managements commitment to occupational safety andhealth, which is
demonstrated by its placing health andsafety at the same level of
authority and accountability as production.
> The company's pledge to comply with all federal, state,and local
occupational safety and health regulations.
> The necessity for active leadership, direct participation,and the
enthusiastic support of the entire organization.

PLANNINÔ ACTIVITIES : ÔOALS ANu O£JECTIVES

Typically, a young or immature program will focus on reactiveactivities
such as incidents or new legal/regulatory requirements. As a program
matures, more time will be spent in theplanning phase of the Demming
cycle (Plan, Do, Check, Act) J determining ways for continual
improvements, voluntary commitments, and preventive actions. The
establishment of a strategic plan for long - and short-range goals and
objectives is vital to the development of an effective industrial hygiene
program. These goals and objectives should also be part of the written
program. They are often established by a committee, such as a joint
labor²management health and safety committee.

A goal is a desired outcome, whereas an objective is a specific activity or

means of achieving a goal. Goals should be realistic and, when possible,
measurable. For example, ergonomics -related injuries are a problem, the
goal may be I to reduce the number of accidents by 25 percent within a
three-year period. The objectives/activities to achieve this goal could
include establishing an ergonomics committee providing ergonomic
training for the committee and affected personnel, and selecting an
ergonomics consulting firm to provide initial workplace surveys. Goals
and objectives should not be static ²they should be evaluated and
updated on a regularly scheduled basis (Table 27 ²A). The evaluation
process may determine that the objectives are inadequate or that th e
goals are not well enough defined. In addition, as conditions change,
there may be new problems to address, in which case new goals and
objectives should be developed. The written program thus becomes a
continually, updated document.

PROCEuURES ANu REQUIREMENTS

FOR COMPONENTS OF THE IH PROÔRAM
The written industrial hygiene program can be subdivided into individual
program components, each with its own set of requirements and
procedures. An example of a list of IH programs is provided in Table 27 -
B. These requirements identify what should be done, how it should be
done, what should do it, and how often. Besides effectively
communicating the program to the rest of the organization, it also docu -
ments how the organization identifies and deals with industria l hygiene
related issues. This information can be used to demonstrate compliance
and commitment to employee health and safety during an internal or
external audit or inspection.

Page 795

More importantly, written procedures provide measurable performanc e

guidelines for worker protection and helps assure continuity from one
program owner to another.

Table 27-A. .

  

)


 

 
  

Hazard Recognition and Evaluation

Hazard recognition is the identification of workplace occupational health
hazards. These include chemicals physical, and biological hazards. The
identification depends on the professional judgment of the
industrialhygienist, based on information gathered during walk through
surveys, inspections, interviews with employees and management, and
review of applicable documentation such as purchases of new
equipment and chemicals. Hazard evaluation is the determination of
whether worker exposure to these environmental hazards is acceptabl e,
or if additional engineering, administrative, or work practice control
measures are necessary. Knowledge of acceptable exposure limits such
as those set by OSHA or the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists is vital to ensuring a pro per assessment of a
potential health risk.

Page 796

Table 27-B. ! 
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Figure 27-1. A strategy for assessing and managing occupa tional
exposures


Various industrial hygiene systems have been developed which
systematically and comprehensively identify and eval uate occupational
health hazards at a facility. This includes a program to ensure the use of
calibrated equipment, accepted analytical techniques, and accredited or
certified laboratories qualified to analyze IH samples. One example is an
approach using qualitative and quantitative exposure assessments,
which is an objective determination of potential exposures based on an
evaluation of the process, chemicals, physical agents, work practic es,
and controls.

> The goal of an exposure assessment program is to deter mine the

potential and actual exposures in order to mini mize risks of adverse
effects impacting employee health. In addition, this program helps
demonstrate compliance with legal and internal company requirements
and provides an avenue for employee communication regarding  

safety of their work environment. There are numerous techniques for
conducting these assessments, ranging from a response to employee
complaints to the more proactive method of an exposure assessment
strategy. The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), describes
such a strategy in their publication, )
. 

)


$
-
  
A diagram in Figure 27-1 illustrates
the steps in the process. The assessment begins by gathering
information on the characteristics of the workplace, workforce, and the
chemical, physical, and biological agents (Mulhausen & Damiano, 1998):
>= 
   
is a description of the processes and
operations in the workplace, with particu lar attention paid to those areas
with potential exposure to an environmental hazard (Figure 27 -2).
#
=  
   
groups and describes employees with similar
work duties or job classifications (Figure 27 -3).
>- )
   
is the construction of an inventory of
environmental agents and includes a description of their potential
adverse health effects, how they are used, how much is used, and their
physical properties.

Once the environment is characterized, the evaluation step begins. This

usually starts with a grouping of employees into similar exposure groups,
or SEGs. This is done to apply monitoring data to employees who were
not directly monitored, but who might be represented by the samples col -
lected. üorkers in SEGs are those who can be expected to have the
same or similar exposure profiles to an environ mental agent based on
the information gathered during the wo rkplace, work force, and agent
characterizations.

Page 797

Sodium Chloride Production Plant

Process uescription
Chlorine gas is received directly by pipeline from an adjacent vendor
plant; the gas arrives at a line pressure of 200 psig, passes through a
pressure letdown valve, and enters T-1 column at 20 psig. 25% hydrogen
peroxide is received in tank cars and is diluted with pro cess water to 19%
before being pumped to T -2 column. In Columns T-1 and T-2, chlorine
and hydrogen peroxide go through a counterflow reaction to produce a
29% aqueous hydrochloric acid (HCI) solution; trace amounts of chlorine
are vented to the atmosphere at T-2 column.

A 50% sodium hydroxide solution is received by pipeline from an adjacent

vendor plant and is stored in S-2 tank before being pumped to R -1 reactor.
From T-2 column, the HCI solution is pumped to R-1 reactor to react with
the caustic and produce a 35% sodium chloride solution (brine). The brine
is contacted with heated air in F -1 fluid bed dryer to make sodium
chloride granules with a size range of 100 to 200 microns. The finished
product is transferred to storage hopper H-1.

The industrial grade sodium ch loride is packaged in 50 -pound bags and

palletized in 1,000 -pound loads. Each pallet is film -wrapped in an
automatic shrink-film apparatus. A tow motor is used to move pallets from
the bagging station to the shrink -film station and then to the warehouse.
At the warehouse, the tow motor is also used to load the wrapped pallets
into truck trailers.
The plant is currently producing about 50 million pounds per year of
industrial grade sodium chloride; the plant operates about 300 days per
year with the remaining time used for scheduled maintenance work. On a
daily basis, the plant receives about 53 tons of chlorine gas, 120 tons of
caustic solution, and 306 tons of hydrogen peroxide solution.

Figure 27-2. Process description developed for an example of an

exposure assessment strategy for a hypothetical sodium chlo ride
production facility. Development of such a workplace description is
fundamental to completing the workplace characterization portion of the
basic characterization step of the strategy. (Reprinted with permission
from the American Industrial Hygiene Associa tion. )
. 


-
  
)
Fairfax, VA: AIHA, 1991.)
The evaluation of each hazard listed for a homogeneous group involves
two stages. First, a subjective determination is made as to whether the
exposure to each environmental agent listed for a homogen eous
exposure group is low, moderate, high, or very high relative to an
exposure limit. This determination is based on such factors as the
frequency and duration of the exposure, estimated exposure level, and
the severity of the health effects resulting from the exposure. Sec ond, the
exposures are monitored and the results compared against established
exposure limits. In the first phase, the potential exposures which are
rated very high are monitored first, and those rated low are monitored
last. Sampling plans should specify the number and duration of samples
to be taken, in order to ensure true representation of employee
exposures. Table 27²C illustrates a sampling strategy developed for a
fungicide used in the lumber industry.

A written procedure for sampling methods is necessary to ensure that

samples are collected in a proper, consistent, and professionally
accepted manner. For example, the National Institute for Occ upational
Safety and Health publishes the $

) 
$ 

Procedures should include information on calibration, field use and
maintenance of theequipment, quality control, and use of approved or
accredited laboratories. In addition, procedur es should be developed to
ensure that employees receive copies of the monitoring results and are
afforded the opportunity to observe monitoring.

A periodic reevaluation of exposure assessments should be done to

determine whether conditions have changed s ignificantly. The frequency
and scope of the reevaluation depend on the severity of the hazards. A
new assessment should be done if a new process or potentially
hazardous agent is intro duced into the workplace.

Hazard Control
If exposure levels are judged to be unacceptable based on established
limits or professional judgment, measures must be taken to eliminate or
reduce the exposure. The industrial hygiene program includes
specification of control measures, whether included in its documentation
(e.g., exhaust ventilation, hearing conservation, respiratory protection,
hazard communication, ergonomics programs) or as a result of rec -
ommendations following surveys and assessments.Controls may be
substitution, engineering, administrative, personalprotectiv e equipment,
or a combination of these methods.

Page 798

In almost every case, substitution (elimination) and engi neering controls

are preferred over personal protective equipment, which should be the
last choice for control measures. An effective prog ram is one that
considers the use of appropriate control measures during the design of
new processes or equipment before use in production. Process
(including consideration for chemical use), facilities, and equipment
design reviews are usually more protective and the most cost-effective
methods for instituting controls measures. Maintenance of operational
controls should be documented along with clearly assigned
responsibilities.

Job uescriptions Operations Personnel

Superintendent: Spends about 10% of ti me in general process areas
observing operations, checking equipment conditions, and supervising
maintenance work; remaining time spent in office environments on
administrative, supervisory, and planning activities.
Engineer: Spends about 35% of time in general process areas
troubleshooting process problems, supervising maintenance work, and
collecting industrial hygiene samples; remaining time spent on training,
computer program development, and other office activities.
Shift Supervisor: Spends about 5% of time in general process areas
checking on operations and investigating possible process problems;
remaining time spent in control room areas overseeing operation of the
acid, reactor, and dryer systems.
Relief Operator: Spends about 20% of time covering each of the shift
supervisor, acid system operator, reactor system operator, and assistant
operator job classifications; remaining time spent on various maintenance
activities.
Operator, Acid System: Spends about 40% of t ime in the HCI production
areas checking equipment, adjusting flows, and preparing equipment for
maintenance; about 10% of time is spent collecting process samples and
another 25% is spent in lab running analyses on all process samples;
remaining time is spent in control room areas.
Operator, Reactor System: Spends about 60% of time in the reactor and
fluid bed dryer areas checking equipment, adjusting flows, and preparing
equipment for maintenance. About 10% of time is spent collecting process
samples; remaining time is spent in control room areas.
Assistant Operator: Spends about 50% of time at bagging station
loading product into 50 -pound bags; another 25% of time is spent using
tow motor to move pallets to and from the warehouse and to load product
into truck trailers; about 5% of time is spent loading product directly from
storage into hopper cars; remaining time is spent in control room areas.
Electrical/Instrument Technician: Spends about 5% of time in the HCI
production areas maintaining and calibrati ng in-line chlorine analyzer;
approximately 25% of time is spent in general process areas and
switchgear room maintaining electrical equipment; about 50% of time is
spent in control room or maintenance shop repairing or modifying process
control instruments; remaining time is spent on office activities.

Figure 27-3. Sample job description for operations personnel in a

hypothetical sodium chloride production facility. The descrip tions were
developed to fulfill the work force characterization requirements of the
basic characterization step of the strategy and to be used as an
approach for determining homogeneous exposure groups.
Employee Training and Education
The industrial hygienist plays an important role in employee training
programs. Employees need information and training so that they can be
actively involved in protecting their health. I Done properly, this can be
one of the most effective control measures since it provide s employees
with real time understanding of the potential hazards in their work and
the corrective actions to be taken to prevent adverse affects. Training has
become a standard part of most OSHA regulations. In most categories
listed in Table 27-B, there is an element of training, education, and
awareness ranging from labels and postings to I classes and
certifications. The method (e.g., labeling versus classroom training)
chosen for employee education depends on the type and degree of the
hazard, which should be part of the assessment and recommendation
provided by the industrial hygienist.

Page 799

The following summary was taken from ! 

& 

-.)

. 

! 
(
|OSHA 1992) and provides a
guidance for establishing training. Ź : 

! 

ë

Determine whether a problem can be solved by training. Training can
address r lack of knowledge or incorrect knowledge, but cannot
effectively address lack of motivation or attention to the job.

! 
ë
Determine what is expected of the employee
and what kind of training is needed to accomplish this. Co nsult with the
safety committee and employees in the area to get their ideas to help
make the training more effective and tailored to their needs. 

(

-Ã 
Instructional objectives tell the employee what is
expected of them. Clear and measurable objectives must be established
before training begins. Using specific, action -oriented language,
theinstructional objectives should describe the preferred practice or skill
and its observable behavior.
:
5 
) 5 
activities enable employees to
demonstrate that they have acquired thedesired skills and kn owledge.

Table 27-C.  
. 

)
  

Identify all work sites using antisapstain agent of interest.
?Ask managers at each work site to tally number of workers in each of five
strata:
- Graders or lumber pullers who handle wet wood
- Elevator or forkfft dip-tank operators
- Others who handle wet wood
- Maintenance workers who operate the fungicide supply system or
maintain machinery downstream of treatment
- Employees who handle dry treated lumber
- Randomly select- 30 workers from complete population of each
stratum.
Contact each worksite whose workers have been selected for exposure
measurement.
Randomly select two measurement days within a 1-year period for each
selected worker

Page 800

The learning situation should simulate the actual job as closely as

possible using participatory training techniques such as hands -on work
or opportunities to engage in case studies. 
! 
The
training should be presented so that its organization and meaning are
clear to the employees. An effective program allows employees to
participate in the training process and to practice their skills or
knowledge.


  
To make sure that the program is accomplishing
its goals, an evaluation of t he training is necessary. Methods of
evaluation include student opin ions surveys, supervisor's observations,
and student tests.  
 
  
If the training did not give the
employees the necessary level of knowledge and skills, then the trainin g
program must be revised. It may be necessary to repeat the steps in the
training process. :
 
! 
A written record is needed to
document how identified training needs have been met. It should include
attendance records, course outlines or lesson plans, student exams, and
handout materials.

uocumentation/Recordkeeping
Industrial hygiene related documentation must be main tained. The
decisions made by industrial hygienists can have legal as well as
regulatory consequences. OSHA 29 '

1910.20 mandates that
exposure records must be maintained for at least 30 years. The
documentation is needed to demon strate that the work has been
conducted in accordance with professional standards, and it may be
useful for future industrial hygiene or medical evaluations.
Documentation of programs such as training, respiratory protection
programs, and hearing conservation programs must be maintained as
well. Many organizations have developed their own forms, record keeping
procedures, and data bases to efficiently handle the large amount of
documentation that is generated.

Employee Involvement
Effective health and safety programs includes a commitment by the
employer to encourage employee involvement in deci sions that affect
worker safety and health. There are many methods and those selected
have much to do with the culture of the company and/or location. One
approach is the use of safety and health committees. Also common is an
employee suggestion program which provides timely feedback of con -
cerns and suggestions without fear of reprisal. At a minimum, employees
should be encouraged to participate by reporting unsafe work conditions
and signs or symptoms related to work with hazardous agents 
that
proper evaluations are conducted and corrective actions, i f any, are
taken.
Program Evaluation and Program Audit
Methods must be developed to periodically evaluate the effec tiveness of
the industrial hygiene program. Audits are com monly used to determine
whether the elements of the program have been implemented in
accordance with established proce dures, and whether these procedures
have been effective in j achieving their goal. Auxiliary benefits include a
reassessment of priorities and resources allocation, and an increased
awareness of and commitment to the program by management.

An audit is usually requested by senior management and is done by a

health and safety specialist or a team of specialists from outside the
facility being audited. This ensures the objectivity of the auditor and also
provides fresh insight into the program. The audit team is usually from
the corporate or headquarters staff, but in some cases, an independent
third party such as an insurance loss control representative or
independent consultant is used. Self -audits, though not independe nt, can
nonetheless be useful evaluation tools.

The scope of an audit depends on the time and resources devoted to it.
For a small facility, a comprehensive audit of all industrial hygiene
program components can be easily accomplished, whereas a large
facility may require more time, resources or a reduced scope. For this
reason, larger organizations often concentrate their audits on high -
priority items.

Auditors prepare for an audit by researching the require ments of the

program components and developing a plan to evaluate compliance.
Audit checklists are often developed to guide and focus the collection of
information. Extensive lists are usually developed for each program
component. In the interest of time, these are often sent in advance to the
facility. This allows management time to collect the necessary written
documentation, schedule interviews with key per sonnel, and if
necessary, ensure that certain processes or tasks of concern will be
operational during the audit.

There are generally five p hases to an audit. It usually begins with an

opening conference with the management of the facility, during which the
purpose, scope, and schedule of the audit is discussed. Then there is
the information gathering stage. Next, the information is analyzed, key
facts confirmed, and contradictions resolved. During this phase the
auditor can usually generalize from specific situations to underlying
program deficiencies. Then the auditors present their findings to
management during a closing conference, at whi ch time any remaining
concerns can be discussed. Finally, a report of findings is issued.

Much of the value of the audit is lost if there is no established mechanism

for follow-up, which can be accomplished with follow-up audits and/or by
requiring the facility to develop written action plans and submit periodic
progress reports.
ORÔANIZATIONAL RESPONSI£ILITIES
Organizational responsibilities for the program should be clearly defined.
Industrial hygiene may be pa rt of the safety department or another
department, or it may be a depart ment by itself. There should be a
statement, such as policy or other document, that clearly communicates
health and safety responsibilities including where the industrial hygiene
program gets its authority and to whom it reports.

Page 801

Figure 27-4. The Industrial Hygiene Process

The success of safety and industrial hygiene programs requires the

cooperation of many organizations and groups, figure 27 -4 illustrates how
each step of the industrial hygiene process of recognition, evaluation, and
control requires the expertise of many other functional areas. The role of all
areas need not be defined in the wri tten program, but the roles of the main
players must be in writing in order t o avoid confusion and ensure efficient
implementation of the program.

Medical Program
Modern occupational health programs are ideally composed 
elements and
services designed to maintain the overall health of the work force and to
prevent and control occupational and nonoccupational diseases and injuries. A
large corporation may have a full-time staff of occupational health physicians
and nurses, equipped with a model clinic. A small manufacturer, on the other
hand, may rely on a nearby occupational health clinic.

Medical programs usually offer the following services:

>Health examinations
>Diagnosis and treatment >‡ Medical recordkeeping
>Medical or biological monitoring
>Health education and counseling
>üellness activities
>Medical case management

The industrial hygiene program should provide informa tion, such as an

exposure assessment or the work conditions in the facility, to the medical
department. To do an effective job, the health professional must have a good
understanding of what is made, how it is made, the potential safety and health
hazards associated with these manufacturing processes, and the physical
requirements of the various jobs. This information is necessary to adequately
perform pre-placement and periodic medical examin ations, to detect con-
ditions that might be work related, and to conduct health education programs .

The medical department works with the industrial hygiene department in

developing adequate, effective meas ures to prevent exposure to harmful
agents. They periodically examine employees who are working with or
exposed to hazardous agents or materials, and, if warranted, restrict
employees from further exposure and notify the industrial hygiene staff of their
findings. Maintenance of medical records associ ated with all medical
examinations and findings is the responsibility of medical personnel. It is also
common for the medical staff and IH to conduct joint surveys such as an
ergonomic assessment.

Engineering
Engineering professionals are involved with the design and modification of
manufacturing processes and facilities sup porting these processes.

Page 802

Because these processes may introduce health and safety hazards into
the workplace, engineers must coordinate their plans with the safety
professional and the industrial hygienist. It costs much less to anticipate
and eliminate a hazard in the planning stage than it does to man age it
afterward. In cases where there is an existing hazard, the industrial
hygienist must work with the engineer to develop control methods to
reduce or eliminate the hazard.

Safety
The safety professional and industrial hygienist are con cerned with the
same goal: maintaining a safe and healthful workplace. Because safety
programs tend to be older and more establis hed than industrial hygiene
programs, industrial hygiene is often part of the safety department.

The safety professional's main responsibility is to run an effective safety

program. An effective safety program lends credibility and builds support
for all health and safety related work at the facility. It also enhances the
safety program's recognition of industrial hygiene issues and will work
them into such safety activities as workplace inspections, accident
investigations, and accident trend analysis an d make appropriate
referrals to the industrial hygienist. If industrial hygiene staffing is limited,
safety professionals may accept responsibility for the implementation of
the industrial hygiene program at their facility.

Purchasing
The purchasing department has the responsibility to ensure that only
equipment and material approved by the industrial hygiene, safety,
environmental, or other responsible review ing organization are
purchased. Purchasing should obtain material safety data sheets for all
chemicals purchased.

Ôeneral Manager
General managers (also known by such titles as location managers and
operations managers) have the ultimate responsibility for the industrial
hygiene program and the safety of their employees at their facilities.
They must ensure that their facilities comply with applicable corporate
policies and government regulations by providing the necessary
resources and support that they need to be successful.
Supervisor
The supervisor is a key person in the implementation and maint enance
of safety and health requirements on a day -today basis. Their
responsibilities include setting a good exam ple, ensuring that safety and
health rules are followed, ensuring that employees are provided training
concerning potential safety and health hazards and control measures
associated with their jobs, ensuring that all necessary per sonal
protective equipment is provided and used, ensuring that employees
receive all required medical examinations, and promptly reporting any
operation or condition that night present a hazard to employees.

Employees
Employees have the responsibility to perform their work in a manner that
ensures their own personal safety as well as the safety of fellow
employees. Employees must notify their supervisor immediately of
hazardous work conditions or work practices, observe all safety and
health rules, properly use and maintain personal protective equipment
and other safety devices, maintain their work area in a neat and clean
manner and immediately report all accidents an d near-miss incidents.

Safety and Health Committee

The safety and health committee(s) provides a forum for] securing
cooperation, coordination, and exchange of ideas among those groups
involved in the safety and health program. It typically has three majo r
functions: It examines! company safety and health issues and
recommends changes in practices or policies to management, conducts
periodic workplace inspections, and evaluates and promotes interest in
the program. It also provides a means of involving employees in the
program. Joint management-labor health and safety committees are
often used if the employees are represented by a union. At the
committee meeting, key industrial hygiene program matters should be
discussed and policies formulated.

SUMMARY
To accomplish the goal for preventing occupational illness and injury,
there must be an effective industrial hygiene program. It requires the
cooperation of employees and all levels of man agement. The program
consists of a written program and policy statement, hazard identification,
hazard evaluation and I exposure assessment, hazard control, employee
training and involvement, program evaluation and audit, and
documentation/recordkeeping. Each component must be periodically
evaluated to determine cont inuing effectiveness.

c
c
Chapter 27
Industrial Hygiene Program
‡Primary objective of IH program:
±Prevention
‡Occupational disease and injury
±Methods
‡Anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling health hazards

IH Program Components
‡Program elements:
±üritten program and policy statement
±Hazard recognition,
±Evaluation and exposure assessment,
±Hazard control,
±Employee training and involvement,
±Program evaluation and,
±Documentation

IH Program Components*cont)
‡Format dependent on:
±Size and type of organization
±Management¶s philosophy
±Range of hazards
±Available H&S resources
‡Benefits of an IH program are well -established

Establishing an IH Program

‡üritten policy statement

±Company¶s commitment
±Signed by CEO or company president
±States the purpose of the program
‡Provides program
±Goals
»Desired outcome
±Objectives
»Means of achieving a goal

Establishing an IH Program*cont)

‡Hazard recognition and evaluation

±Identification of health hazards in workplace
±Determine
‡Potential for exposure
‡Actual exposure impact(s)
±Understanding work environment
‡Group similar exposures
‡Collect samples
±Continuing process

Establishing an IH Program*cont)
‡Hazard control
±Unacceptable levels
‡PELs, RELs, and/or TLVs
±Control measures taken
‡Engineering controls more effective
‡Employee training and education
±Needed to actively participate in program
‡Documentation
±Health records maintained for 30 years

Establishing an IH Program*cont)

‡Employee involvement
±Helps establish employee commitment
±Involvement in reporting hazards
‡Minimum level
‡Program evaluation and audit
±Procedures to determine effectiveness of program
±Phases of audit

Organizational Responsibilities

‡Role definition areas:

±Medical program
±Engineering
±Safety
±Purchasing
±General manager
±Supervisor
±Employees
±S&H Committee

Summary

‡IH program consists of:

±üritten program and policy statement
±Hazard identification
±Hazard evaluation and exposure assessment
±Hazard control
±Employee training and involvement
±Program evaluation and audit
±Documentation/Recordkeeping
756
755
752
that meets the requirements of this paragraph. Copies of the Small Entity Compliance Guide will
be available on or about April 8, 1998 from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's
Office of Publications, Room N 3101, 200 Constitution Avenue, Nü, üashington, DC, 20210 (202 -
219-4667).
(1) In any workplace where respirators are necessary to
protect the health of the employee or whenever res
pirators are required by the employer, the employer
shall establish and implement a written respiratory
protection program with worksite -specific proce
dures. The program shall be updated as necessary to
reflect those changes in workplace conditions that
affect respirator use. The employer shall include in
the program the following provisions of this section,
as applicable:
(i) Procedures for selecting respirators for use in the workplace;
(ii) Medical evaluations of employees required to use respirators;
(iii) Fit testing procedures for tight -fitting respirators;
(iv) Procedures for proper use of respirators in routine and reasonably foreseeable
emergency situations;
(v) Procedures and schedules for cleaning, disin fecting, storing, inspecting, repairing,
discarding, and otherwise maintaining respirators;
(vi) Procedures to ensure adequate air quality, quan tity, and flow of breathing air for
atmosphere-supplying respirators;
(vii) Training of employees in the respiratory hazards to which they are potentially exposed
during routine and emergency situations;
(viii) Training of employees in the proper use of res pirators, including putting on and
removing them, any limitations on their use, a nd their maintenance; and
(ix) Procedures for regularly evaluating the effec tiveness of the program.
(2) ühere respirator use is not required:
(i) An employer may provide respirators at the request of employees or permit employees to
use their own respirators, if the employer determines that such respirator use will not in
itself create a hazard. If the employer determines that any voluntary respirator use is
permissible, the employer shall provide the respirator users with the information
contained in Appendix D to this section ("Information for Employees Using Respirators
ühen Not Required Under the Standard"); and
(ii) In addition, the employer must establish and implement those elements of a written
respiratory protection program necessary to ensure that any employee using a respirator
voluntarily is medically able to use that respirator, and that the respirator is

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