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Abstract—This paper theoretically identifies the harmonic com- One of the assumptions usually made in the development
ponents of a carrier-based pulsewidth-modulated (PWM) voltage- of these advanced controllers is that the power converter and
source converter (VSC) output voltage when the modulating wave its associated pulsewidth modulation act as an ideal controlled
includes fundamental and baseband harmonic components. This
occurs, for example, when a VSC is used as an active power fil- voltage source. This assumption is usually justified as the con-
ter. The general analytical solution provided can be applied with trol sample frequency and the pulsewidth-modulated (PWM)
a minimum additional mathematical effort to any harmonic com- switching frequency are usually much higher than the highest
bination in the modulation signal. The analysis undertaken in this harmonic to be controlled. However, there are two emerging
paper determines how the fundamental and low-order harmonics application areas for active power filters where this assumption
(in the modulation signal) interact with the carrier to produce the
low (and high) order frequencies in the PWM VSC output voltage. may not be valid. For high-kilovoltampere (KVA) active power
The analysis is based on a double Fourier series expansion in two filters, the switching frequency must be kept low to restrict
variables. This approach to harmonic identification is evaluated by switching losses to an economically acceptable level. Switching
a comparison with a fast Fourier transform analysis of simulated frequencies may be of the order of 1–2 kHz and are, therefore,
PWM waveforms. of a similar order for the 11th and 13th harmonics of a 50-Hz
Index Terms—Active power filter, harmonic analysis, pulsewidth system. The second emerging application is that of more elec-
modulation (PWM), voltage-source converter (VSC). tric aircraft (MEA). The proposed use of more power electronic
I. INTRODUCTION equipment for actuators, environmental systems, landing gear,
and deicing on future aircraft [9], [10] creates a significant chal-
CTIVE power filters have received considerable atten-
A tion from the research community over recent years as
a tool for reducing harmonic pollution in a power distribution
lenge for the aircraft’s power system. For MEA systems, the
power supply is derived from a generator coupled to the aircraft
engine, and therefore, the system frequency can vary between
network. As the number of harmonic-producing loads has in- 360 and 800 Hz [9]. If harmonic compensation is required,
creased, particularly higher power rectifiers such as those found then the active filter may have to control harmonic frequen-
in variable-speed motor drives, commercial active power filters cies up to 5.6 kHz (seventh harmonic at 800 Hz fundamental)
have been developed and are now being applied to industrial ap- and beyond; realistically, for this application, the switching fre-
plications [1]–[4]. Shunt active filters (SAFs) provide a mecha- quency will not be greater than 20 kHz. For the emerging SAF
nism for removing harmonic currents from a power system, and applications described, the power converter and PWM can no
their successful operation requires correct identification of the longer be considered to be an ideal voltage source. The use
polluting harmonic currents as well as a tight control of the SAF of multiple frequencies in the modulation waveform together
current. This latter requirement provides a challenge as, for ex- with a relatively low carrier frequency creates a combination
ample, the 13th harmonic SAF compensation current on a 50-Hz of sideband harmonics around integer multiples of the carrier
system (650 Hz) will have to be controlled with minimum phase frequency, and these sideband frequencies can encroach into the
shift compared to the distorting harmonic, and therefore, “ad- low-frequency range (i.e., the range where the current must be
vanced” control techniques such as resonant controllers [5], [6], controlled accurately). These sidebands can act as significant
deadbeat controllers, and predictive controllers [7], [8] have voltage disturbances to the current controller and their charac-
been proposed to achieve high-bandwidth current control. teristics must, therefore, be fully understood in order to ensure
correct operation of the harmonic cancellation.
Manuscript received February 5, 2009; revised April 16, 2009. Current The theoretical analysis of the modulation of a single si-
version published January 29, 2010. Recommended for publication by Associate nusoidal signal with a carrier wave has been well reported
Editor A. Rufer.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Electronic En-
[11]–[15]. There is, however, little discussion in the literature
gineering and the Power Electronics, Machines and Control (PEMC) Re- of the theoretical composition of PWM waveforms when mul-
search Group, Electrical Systems and Optics Research Division, Faculty tiple modulation frequencies are used and the analysis of such
of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, U.K.
(e-mail: milijana.odavic@nottingham.ac.uk; mark.sumner@nottingham.ac.uk;
waveforms is, therefore, the subject of this paper. One approach
pericle.zanchetta@nottingham.ac.uk; jon.clare@nottingham.ac.uk). suggested is to decompose the modulation wave into its con-
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online stituent harmonics, and then determine the harmonic content of
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2009.2026751
the PWM output of each of these harmonics individually using
carrier wave harmonics. The double sum with n = 0 defines the Cm n (1st) Jn q M sin (m+n)
2π m =0↔ n =1 q 2 2
sideband harmonics around the carrier harmonic components. m > 0↔ n =−∞
The coefficients are defined as (13)
π π where Jn (qM π/2) is an nth-order Bessel function [19] of the
1
Cm n = Am n + jBm n = f (x, y)ej (m x+n y ) dxdy first kind whose argument is qM π2 (see Appendix A). The
2π −π −π
(8) variable q is defined by
where ωo
q =m+n . (14)
ωc
x = ωc t + Θc (9) Regular sampled PWM will have baseband harmonics whose
y = ωo t + Θo (10) amplitude should be kept as low as possible to ensure that they
do not interfere with the fundamental behavior of the converter.
with Θ c and Θo denoting the phase shift angle for the carrier When a single-frequency modulator is used with a high carrier
and fundamental wave, respectively. frequency ratio ωc /ωo (i.e., greater than 20), the amplitudes of
For asymmetrically sampled PWM, the instants of switch- the baseband harmonics are very small and can be neglected. The
ing must be modified to account for the sampled modulation most dominant sideband harmonics are the second and the fourth
134 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 1, JANUARY 2010
compared to the case when a single sinusoidal modulating wave shown at the bottom of this page, does not assume an integer
is used. This issue is particularly emphasized for the lower carrier frequency ratio.
carrier/fundamental ratios. In the case of the single-frequency The low-frequency harmonic range [Fig. 4(a)] contains the
sinusoidal modulating waveform, the dominant sideband har- fundamental, fifth, and seventh harmonic components as re-
monics are the second and the fourth harmonics around the first quired. Other low-frequency baseband harmonics include the
carrier group. If the modulation waveform also contains the 11th, 13th, 15th, 19th, and 21st with amplitudes of the order
fifth and seventh harmonic components, the harmonic energy is 10−3 , as shown in Fig. 4(a). The appearance of unwanted low-
spread out and the individual sideband amplitudes are reduced frequency harmonics is more apparent when compared to mod-
around multiple carrier groups, with significant harmonics up ulation with a single frequency and increases as the carrier fre-
to the 14th sidebands for the first carrier group. It can be seen quency ratio reduces. Moreover, only odd baseband harmonics
that the sidebands of the first carrier group appear as even har- exist.
monics due to the even frequency ratio of ωc /ωo = 50. Note Intuitively, one would expect that reasonably accurate re-
that for an odd frequency ratio, only odd harmonics appear in sults could be obtained by applying the principle of superpo-
the harmonic spectrum due to the cancellation of the odd side- sition especially if the frequency ratio is high. Each individual
band harmonics around the first carrier frequency harmonic for modulation wave is analyzed separately using (13). The three
asymmetrical regular sampled PWM with a triangular carrier sets of spectral results (i.e., for the fundamental, fifth, and sev-
(as mentioned before). However, the analysis presented in (17), enth harmonics) are summed directly to determine the harmonic
∞ ∞
4Vdc 1
Cm n (5th,7th) =
2π m =0↔ n =1 q
m > 0↔ n =−∞
π π π π
Jo q M Jo q M5 Jo q M7 sin m |n |=0
2 2 2 2
π π π π
+ Jk q M Jo q M5 Jo q M7 sin (m + k) |n |=k
2 2 2 2
π π π π
+ Jo q M Jh q M5 Jo q M7 sin (h + m) |5h = |n|
2 2 2 2
π π π π
+ Jo q M Jo q M5 Jz q M7 sin (z + m) |7z = |n|
2 2 2 2
k + 5h = |n|
π π π π
+ Jo q M7 Jk q M Jh q M5 sin (m + k + h) k − 5h = |n|
2 2 2 2
−k + 5h = |n|
π π π π k + 7z = |n|
+ Jo q M5 Jz q M7 Jk q M sin (m + k + z) k − 7z = |n|
2 2 2 2
−k + 7z = |n|
π π π π −5h + 7z = |n|
+ Jo q M Jh q M5 Jz q M7 sin (h + m + z) 5h + 7z = |n|
2 2 2 2 5h − 7z = |n|
π π π
+ Jz q M7 Jk q M Jh q M5
2 2 2
7z + k + 5h = |n|
7z + k − 5h = |n|
π −7z − k + 5h = |n|
× sin (m + k + h + z) 7z − k + 5h = |n| . (17)
2
−7z + k − 5h = |n|
7z − k − 5h = |n|
−7z + k + 5h = |n|
136 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 1, JANUARY 2010
4Vdc
Cm n (h1st,h2nd,...,h(N −1)th,hN th) =
2πq
π π π
π π
× Jo q Mh1 Jo q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N −1) Jo q MhN sin m ||n| = 0
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
+ Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jo q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N −1) Jo q MhN sin (m + kh1 ) ||n| = kh1
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
+ Jo q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N −1) Jo q MhN sin (m + kh2 ) ||n| = kh2 + · · · +
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
Jo q Mh1 Jo q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N −1) Jk h N q MhN sin (m + khN ) ||n| = khN
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
+ Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N −1) Jo q MhN sin (m + kh1 + kh2 ) ||n|
2 2 2 2 2
= ±kh1 ± kh2 + · · · +
π π π π π
Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jo q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N −1) Jk h N q MhN ) sin (m + kh1 + khN ) ||n| = ±kh1 ± khN
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
+ Jo q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 Jk h 3 q Mh3 · · · Jo q MhN ) sin (m + kh2 + kh3 ) ||n| = ±kh2 ± kh3 + · · · +
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
Jo q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 Jo q Mh3 · · · Jk h N q MhN ) sin (m + kh2 + khN ) ||n|= ±kh2 ± khN + · · · +
2 2 2 2 2
π π π
π
Jo q Mh1 · · · Jk h ( N −1 ) q Mh(N −1)) Jk h N q MhN ) sin (m + kh(N −1) + khN ) |n| = ±kh(N −1) ± khN
2 2 2 2
π π π π π
+ Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 Jk h 3 q Mh3 · · · Jo q MhN ) sin (m+kh1 +kh2 +kh3 ) ||n| =±kh1 ±kh2 ±kh3 +· · ·+
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 · · · Jo q Mh(N−1)) Jk h N q MhN ) sin (m+kh1 +kh2 +khN ) ||n| = ±kh1 ±kh2 ±khN
2 2 2 2 2
π π π π π
+ · · · Jk h 2 q Mh2 Jk h 3 q Mh3 Jk h 4 q Mh4 · · · Jo q MhN ) sin (m + kh2 + kh3 + kh4 ) ||n|
2 2 2 2 2
= ±kh2 ± kh3 + kh4 + · · · +
π π π π π
· · · Jk h 2 q Mh2 Jk h 3 q Mh3 Jo q Mh4 · · · Jk h N q MhN ) sin (m + kh2 + kh3 + khN ) ||n|
2 2 2 2 2
= ±kh2 ± kh3 ± khN + · · · +
π π π π π
Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 · · · Jk h ( N −1 ) q Mh(N −1) Jo q MhN ) sin (m + kh1 + kh2 + · · · + kh(N −1) ||n|
2 2 2 2 2
= ±kh1 ± kh2 ± · · · ± kh(N −1) +
π π π π
Jk h 1 q Mh1 Jk h 2 q Mh2 · · · Jk h ( N −1 ) q Mh(N −1) Jk h N q MhN )
2 2 2 2
π
× sin (m + kh1 + kh2 + · · · + kh(N −1) + khN ) |n| = ±kh1 ± kh2 ± · · · ± kh(N −1) ± khN . (18)
2
138 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 1, JANUARY 2010
TABLE II
ADDITIONAL LOW-AMPLITUDE LOW-ORDER HARMONICS DUE TO THE DEADTIME EFFECT
spectra of most power converter topologies can be derived. This with respect to PWM using a single modulation frequency. It has
approach is demonstrated for the harmonic components in the also been shown that the principle of superposition cannot be
line-to-line PWM voltage of a three-phase two-level converter applied to deriving the harmonic content of PWM waveforms
as follows. Modulation waves, for each converter leg of the with multiple modulators, as this will give erroneous results.
three-phase voltage-source converter (VSC), are displaced in This is of particular importance when analyzing the disturbance
time by 120◦ and are usually compared with the same triangu- when designing the types of high-bandwidth current control
lar carrier signal. The analytical harmonic expression for the loops associated with active filters. The theoretical findings pre-
line-to-neutral voltages of a three-phase VSC can be derived sented in this paper have been validated through comparison
from (7) and (18) by setting Θ0 = 0, −2π/3, 2π/3 for phase with the spectrum analysis of simulated waveforms using the
legs a, b, and c, respectively, and for legs a and b are defined as same operating conditions.
vao (t) = Cm n (5th,7th) cos(m(ωc t + Θc ) + nωo t) (19)
APPENDIX A
2π JACOBI–ANGER EXPANSION
vbo (t) = Cm n (5th,7th) cos m(ωc t+Θc ) + n ωo t− .
3
In the mathematical derivation of the analytical solution of a
(20) PWM wave, a common expression e±j ξ cos Θ cos(nΘ) needs to
The line-to-line PWM output voltage for the three-phase VSC be integrated. In order to obtain the solution, the expression is
can be obtained from (19) and (20) as expanded into a Bessel series as
∞
vab (t) = vao (t) − vbo (t) (21) e±j ξ cos Θ
= Jo (ξ) + 2 j ±k Jk (ξ) cos(kΘ). (A1)
π
k =1
vab (t) = 2Cm n (5th,7th) sin n
3
π π APPENDIX B
× cos mωc t + n ωo t − + . (22)
3 2 SINGLE-PHASE CONVERTER OUTPUT
The term sin(nπ/3) in (22) accounts for the cancellation of The double integral form (8) for the case when the fifth and
the triplen harmonics in the line-to-line voltage. The carrier fre- seventh harmonic components are added to the modulation wave
quency harmonics are the same for all the phase legs, which can then be expressed as in (B1)–(B3), shown at the top of the
result in their cancellation in the line-to-line voltage. Note that next page (the rest of the mathematical derivation can be found
for the fundamental √ component (i.e., n = 1), the line-to-line in [20])
voltage amplitude is 3 times the phase-to-neutral voltage am-
plitude and the π/6 phase shift is expected. For comparison, a APPENDIX C
PWM wave was simulated for the line-to-line output of an ideal
three-phase two-level converter, using the modulation wave of PWM ANALYTICAL EXPRESSIONS IMPLEMENTED
IN MATLAB m-FILES
Fig. 3. The theoretical harmonic spectrum shown in Fig. 6(a) ex-
actly matches the FFT harmonic spectrum [shown in Fig. 6(b)] The MATLAB m-file code implementation example for the
for a simulation time step of 1/4000 times the switching pe- PWM wave harmonic spectrum with a modulation wave, which
riod. The harmonic spectrum results shown in Fig. 6 are scaled includes fundamental, fifth, and seventh harmonic components,
with respect to the maximum value of the line-to-line voltage is presented next. The example only includes last summation
fundamental component. term in (17).
—————————-
VI. CONCLUSION %m: carrier index variable; M : modulation index for the
This paper has presented a novel theoretical analysis of the fundamental component; M 5: modulation index for the fifth
harmonic component; M 7: modulation index for the seventh
harmonic content of a PWM voltage waveform when the mod-
ulation wave consists of more than one frequency, as can be harmonic component; NN: numbers of terms of a particular
found, for example, in active power filters. infinite sum; N 1 and N2: harmonic orders.
The most general conclusion of the analysis undertaken is for k = 1:NN
that the energy of the harmonic spectrum for PWM waves ob- for h = 1:NN
tained by a modulation process comprising multiple harmonic for z = 1:NN
components in the reference signal is distributed over a wider if (7*z+k+5*h)==abs(n)
range of frequencies with respect to the case of modulation Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2);
using only the fundamental frequency component. The side- Jz7=besselj(z,q*M7*pi/2);
band harmonics are spread around multiple carrier frequency Jh5=besselj(h,q*M5*pi/2);
groups, a phenomenon that is particularly critical for applica- suma=suma+Jk1*Jh5*Jz7*(sin((h+k+m+z)*pi/2));
tions with lower carrier ratio, such as active filters for aerospace end
applications. Furthermore, the appearance of the unwanted low- if (7*z-k+5*h)==abs(n)
frequency harmonics (baseband harmonics) is more dominant Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2);
140 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 1, JANUARY 2010
π π
1
Cm n (5th,7th) = Am n (5th,7th) + jBm n (5th,7th) = f (x, y)ej (m x+n y ) dxdy =
2π 2 −π −π
π 0
Vdc ωo
ej (m x+n (y r + ω c (x+ 2 ))) dxdyr
π
=
2π 2 −π − π2 (1+M cos y r +M 5 cos 5y r +M 7 cos 7y r )
π 0
j (m x+n (y f + ωω oc (x+ π2 )))
+ e dxdyf . (B1)
−π − π2 (1+M cos y f +M 5 cos 5y f +M 7 cos 7y f )
π
Vdc
ej n y r e−j q 2 M cos y r e−j q 2 M 5 cos 5y r e−j q 2 M 7 cos 7y r e−j m 2 dyr
π π π π
= −
2π 2 jq −π
π
j n y f j q π2 M cos y f j q π2 M 5 cos 5y f j q π2 M 7 cos 7y f
dyf
π
jm
+ e e e e e 2 . (B2)
−π
Introducing the Jacobi–Anger substitution (see Appendix A), the form (B2) can be expressed as
Vdc π π ∞ π
j n y r −j m (π /2)
= 2
− e e Jo q M + 2 j −k Jk q M cos kyr
2π jq −π 2 2
k =1
π ∞ π π ∞ π
Jo q M5 +2 j −h Jh q M5 cos 5hyr Jo q M7 +2 j −z Jz q M7 cos 7zyr dyr
2 2 2 z =1
2
h=1
π
π ∞ π
j n y f j m (π /2)
+ e e Jo q M + 2 j k Jk q M cos kyf
−π 2 2
k =1
π ∞ π π ∞ π
h z
Jo q M5 + 2 j Jh q M5 cos 5hyf Jo q M7 + 2 j Jz q M7 cos 7zyf dyf .
2 2 2 z =1
2
h=1
(B3)
Jz7=besselj(z,q*M7*pi/2); end
Jh5=besselj(h,q*M5*pi/2); if (7*z-k-5*h)==abs(n)
suma=suma+Jk1*Jh5*Jz7*(sin((h+k+m+z)*pi/2)); Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2);
end Jz7=besselj(z,q*M7*pi/2);
if (-7*z+k+5*h)==abs(n) Jh5=besselj(h,q*M5*pi/2);
Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2); suma=suma+Jk1*Jh5*Jz7*(sin((h+k+m+z)*pi/2));
Jz7=besselj(z,q*M7*pi/2); end
Jh5=besselj(h,q*M5*pi/2); if (-7*z+k-5*h)==abs(n)
suma=suma+Jk1*Jh5*Jz7*(sin((h+k+m+z)*pi/2)); Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2);
end Jz7=besselj(z,q*M7*pi/2);
if (-7*z-k+5*h)==abs(n) Jh5=besselj(h,q*M5*pi/2);
Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2); suma=suma+Jk1*Jh5*Jz7*(sin((h+k+m+z)*pi/2));
Jz7=besselj(z,q*M7*pi/2); end
Jh5=besselj(h,q*M5*pi/2); end %z
suma=suma+Jk1*Jh5*Jz7*(sin((h+k+m+z)*pi/2)); end %h
end end %k
if (7*z+k-5*h)==abs(n)
Jk1=besselj(k,q*M*pi/2); REFERENCES
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[2] M. Routimo, M. Salo, and H. Tuusa, “Comparison of voltage-source and Mark Sumner (M’93–SM’05) received the B.Eng.
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with carrier-based PWM for two-level and multilevel cascaded inverters,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 574–582, Mar./Apr. 2001. Jon C. Clare (M’90–SM’04) was born in Bris-
[16] W. R. Bennett, “New results in the calculation of modulation products,” tol, U.K. He received the B.Sc. and Ph.D. de-
Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 12, pp. 228–243, 1933. grees in electrical engineering from the University of
[17] H. S. Black, Modulation Theory. New York: Van Nostrand, 1953. Bristol, Bristol.
[18] S. R. Bowes and B. M. Bird, “Novel approach to the analysis and synthesis From 1984 to 1990, he was a Research Assistant
of modulation processes in power converters,” Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng., and a Lecturer at the University of Bristol, where
vol. 122, pp. 507–513, 1975. he was involved in teaching and research in power
[19] G. N. Watson, Theory of Bessel Functions. Cambridge, U.K.: electronic systems. Since 1990, he has been with
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1944. the Power Electronics, Machines and Control Group,
[20] M. Odavic, “Predictive control for multilevel active power filters,” Ph.D. University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., where
dissertation, Univ. Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., 2008. he is currently a Professor of power electronics. His
[21] P. D. Evans and P. R. Close, “Harmonic distortion in PWM inverter output current research interests include power electronic converters and modulation
waveforms,” Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng. B, vol. 134, no. 4, pp. 224–232, 1987. strategies, variable-speed drive systems, and electromagnetic compatibility.
Prof. Clare is a member of the Institution of Engineering Technology.