Physiology & the Human Body

Levels of Physiological Organization

The Body’s
Internal Environment • Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
An Introduction to
• Organ systems
Physiology
• Organism

Epithelial Tissue
Tissues
Primary types: • Continuous sheet
• Epithelial or layers of cells
with direct cell-
• Connective cell junctions
• Muscle
• Nervous

Connective Tissue Muscle Tissue

• Cells are
suspended in an
• Specialized for
extracellular
contraction.
matrix.
– The matrix is
often largely
composed of
collagen fibers.

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Nervous Tissue Organ Systems

• Specialized to
conduct
electrochemical
nerve impulses.

11 Organ Systems
Bauplan:
Ger. “Life Plan” (pl: baupläne)

The arrangement, pattern, and

development of tissues, organs, and
systems unique to a particular type of
organism.
• Descriptions on p. 66–67 of Human Biology, 9th ed.

Cell Differentiation Cell Differentiation

Cell Differentiation in Development Cell Differentiation in Development
• From one original fertilized egg cell
(zygote), mitotic division has produced
all your body’s cells.
~50,000,000,000 cells in your body • Undifferentiated
• Each genetically identical! • Totipotent: able to become any cell type
• Cells may be separated and each
But >200 cell types of cells
become a new identical embryo
• (specialized [differentiated] tissues)
• Each type uses only ~20% of the total
genes in their nucleus
• First differentiation:
• Even fewer in more specialized cells
• Unused genes may be permanently
cells separate into layers
inactivated 1. Inner cell mass

\ permanently differentiated 2. Trophoblast

\ cannot change into a different • Secretes hormone (hCG)
type of cell
• Secretes enzymes
fi implant into uterine lining

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Cell Differentiation Cell Differentiation

(day 14)
Cell Differentiation in Development Cell Differentiation in Development
Epiblast
• Third differentiation stage:
• Second stage of Embryonic disc develops
differentiation: into three basic Ectoderm Embryonic
Inner cell mass divides into: embryonic germ layers
disc

1. Ectoderm
1. Extra-embryonic 2. Mesoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
membranes 3. Endoderm Hypoblast
• form the placenta and
“bag of waters” around (day 8) Cell migration &
the embryo specialization Neural tube
to form body
2. Embryonic disc organs Ectoderm
• becomes the embryo
Endoderm
Mesoderm

(day 12) (day 22)

Cell Differentiation Cell Differentiation

Cell Differentiation in Development Cell Differentiation in Development
• Final differentiation: the three embryonic germ layers differentiate into the primary tissue • Final differentiation: the three embryonic germ layers differentiate into the primary tissue
types and their subtypes. types and their subtypes.

ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM

• Epidermis of skin and its • Notochord • Epithelial lining of

derivatives (including sweat • Endoskeletal system digestive tract
glands, hair follicles) • Muscular system • Epithelial lining of
• Epithelial lining of mouth • Muscular layer of respiratory system
and rectum stomach, intestine, etc. • Lining of urethra, urinary
• Sense receptors in • Excretory system bladder, and reproductive
epidermis • Circulatory and lymphatic system
• Cornea and lens of eye systems • Liver
• Nervous system • Reproductive system • Pancreas
• Adrenal medulla (except germ cells) • Thymus
• Tooth enamel • Dermis of skin • Thyroid and parathyroid
(day 56) • Epithelium or pineal and • Lining of body cavity glands
pituitary glands • Adrenal cortex
All organs formed.
(From now on called a fetus) • Nervous tissue from ectoderm.
• Muscle & connective tissues from mesoderm.
• Epithelial tissues from all three germ layers. ( Embryonic tissue is epithelial-like.)

What about Stem Cells? What about Stem Cells?

• Remain partially
undifferentiated
(embryonic).
– Most their genes not
permanently
deactivated.
• Can divide and
differentiate on
demand to replace
specialized tissue
cells.

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Bone Marrow Stem Cells

Adult Stem Cells

• Many organs are known

to produce stem cells in
adults

• Long known to have multipotential hematopoietic stem cells

– One stem cell has the potential to form any type of blood cell
• Recently discovered able to also differentiate into other types of connective tissue
– Adipose, bone, & cartilage

Embryonic Stem Embryonic Stem Cell Research

• Current research
Cells
• Preferred because they
are pluripotent
– More potential to be
induced to form any cell “left over” embryos from
type desired in vitro fertilization clinics

• Future proposal

“human cloning”

Personalized Stem Cells The Promise of Stem Cell Research

Nuclear Transfer Method:
1. Remove nucleus from egg

cell from donor

2. Replace with the nucleus

from your epithelial cell

3. Stimulate egg to develop into

embryo
– “Hello Dolly” … a clone

? If the nucleus of epithelial

cells is non-differentiated
enough to be used to form
embryonic stem cells, why
cannot epithelial cells be
induced directly to become
stem cells??

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The Debate over Embryonic Stem Cell [ESC]

Current Limitations Research Funding

• Localization
• Tumor formation
• Rejection
PRO CON
• May not address • Possible therapy replacement for • Over-hyped
underlying problem tissues that don’t regenerate – Actual “cures” not attained
– Neurons, heart muscle • Taxpayer subsidies for very
• No embryos created just for stem lucrative biomedical business
cells • Immoral to “destroy one life to
– IVF clinics may legally dispose of prolong another”
extra embryos – Focus efforts on adult stem cell
research

Function and process: an example

Physiology • Observation: red blood cells transport oxygen.

function and process: why and how • Teleological (function) approach: Why does the system exist?
“…because red blood cells deliver oxygen to the cells that need it.”
This answer explains the reason blood cells transport oxygen but says nothing about
• Understanding the processes of life how the cells transport oxygen.

• Physiology incorporates the
teleological approach and the
mechanistic approach
– Teleology = purpose/function = “Why?”
– Mechanism = “How?”
• Mechanistic approach: How does the system operate?
“…because there are hemoglobin molecules that combine reversibly with oxygen
molecules.”
This very concrete answer explains exactly how oxygen transport occurs but says
nothing about the significance of oxygen transport to the intact animal.
• One role of physiology is to integrate function and process into a cohesive picture.
• (modified from Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, D. U. Silverthorn 3rd ed

Important physiological themes

Homeostasis: maintaining a
• Homeostasis constant, optimal internal environment
• Regulation
• Compartmentalization
• Distribution of materials
• Communication, coordination, & integration
• Energy flow

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Homeostasis helps us adjust to Homeo stasis

change “same” “stay”

• Dynamic Constancy (= Dynamic Equilibrium):

– Fluctuate around set point.
– Set point may be reset for new situations.

Homeostatic Mechanisms Negative Feedback Loop

•Negative feedback loops

ÿIntrinsic — within an organ
ÿExtrinsic — integrating multiple organs

Negative Feedback: Room Thermostat

Antagonistic Effectors

Pairs of effectors with opposing actions provide much tighter control.

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Negative Feedback: Body Thermostat

Effector Sets Table 1.2

Redundant effectors allow stronger responses to stronger deviations.

Homeostasis & Regulation of BIN DOWN

Blood Glucose

Negative Feedback: Body Glucostat

• Pancreas controls blood sugar levels

• Glucose is taken up or released by:
– liver as glycogen
• Glucagon from alpha cells ups it GAC UP
• Insulin from beta cells drops it BIN DOWN

GAC UP

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Body-Fluid Compartments
Life is dynamic

• 65-75% of total body weight is H20.

• Intracellular compartment:
– Fluid inside the cell.
• 2/3 of H 20.
• Extracellular compartment:
– 2 Subdivisions:
• Blood plasma.
• Interstitial fluid.
• 1/3 H 20.

• Constant exchange between internal and external

environments

Energy Flow The Body’s Internal Environment

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