• Carbon is a naturally abundant nonmetallic

element which forms the basis of most

living organisms. Carbon is the fourth most
abundant element in the universe, and it
plays a crucial role in the health and stability
of the planet through the carbon cycle.

This cycle is extremely complex,

and it illustrates the
interconnection between
organisms on Earth. Most
consumers are familiar with the
element, along with numerous
forms in which it appears.
• All living organisms contain carbon, and as they decay or
change, they will continue to contain the element.
• Coal, limestone, and petroleum, for example, are all
fossilized forms of living organisms containing abundant
amounts of carbon.
Plants and animal life which
died millions of years ago
were slowly compressed into
these substances, and their
integral carbon was
preserved. This
residual carbon is used in
everything from jet fuel to
the clothes we wear.
 The atomic number of carbon is 6. So, it has 4
electrons in its outermost shell. In order to attain
noble gas configeration through ionic means:
1. It could gain 4 e- forming C4- anion. But it would be difficult
for the nucleaus with only 6 protons to hold on to 10 e-.
2. Or it could lose 4 e-, forming C4+ cation but it would require
a large amount of energy to remove 4e- leaving behind an
tom with 6 protons holding on to just 2e-.
Structure
1. Form covalent bonds. Therefore, poor
conductors of electricity due to the absence
of charged particles.
2. Strong bonds within the molecule but weak
inter-molecular forces. Therefore, low
melting and boiling points.
Two factors noticed in the case of carbon are –
(i) Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of
carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This property is called
catenation. These compounds may have long chains of carbon,
branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings.

(ii) Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with

four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent
element. Again the bonds that carbon forms with most other
elements are very strong making these compounds exceptionally
stable. One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is
its small size. This enables the nucleus to hold on to the shared
pairs of electrons strongly. The bonds formed by elements having
larger atoms are much weaker.
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen whose
adjacent carbon atoms contain only one (carbon-
carbon) bond are known as saturated
hydrocarbons. Their carbon-hydrogen bonds are
also single covalent bonds. They are called
saturated compounds because all the four bonds
of carbon are fully utilised and no more hydrogen
or other atoms can attach to it. Thus, they can
undergo only substitution reactions. These
saturated hydrocarbons are known as alkanes.
 Number of carbon Structure
Alkanes Formula
atoms
Structure (straight)
(branched)

Methane CH4 1 -

Ethane C2H6 2 -

Propane C3H8 3 -

Butane Branched:
C4H10 4
Iso-butane

Pentane Branched:
C5H12 5
Iso-pentane
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen that contain one double
covalent bond between carbon atoms (carbon-carbon) or a triple
covalent bond between carbon atoms are called unsaturated
hydrocarbons. In these molecules, since all the bonds of carbon
are not fully utilised by hydrogen atoms, more of these can be
attached to them. Thus, they undergo addition reactions (add on
hydrogen) as they have two or more hydrogen atoms less than
the saturated hydrocarbons.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons can be divided into 'alkenes' and
'alkynes' depending on the presence of double or triple bonds
respectively.
Number of Carbon Prefix
atoms
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
For saturated Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons that
hydrocarbons, containing double contain a triple
bonds are known as bond between carbon
the primary atoms are known
alkenes. For such
suffix “ane” hydrocarbons, as alkynes and for
should be added. the primary suffix naming such
For example, the “ene” should be hydrocarbons
added to the root the primary suffix
IUPAC name of
word. For example, “yne“ should be
added. For example,
the IUPAC name of
the IUPAC name of

is ethane.
is propyne
is ethene
• The unique feature of the carbon-carbon bonding has also led to the
formation of compounds that can have the same molecular formula, but
different structures. This phenomenon of different structural formula of the
same molecule, giving rise to different properties of compounds, is called
Isomerism.

• In the above illustrations pentane and iso-pentane display isomerism. Such

compounds with the same molecular formula are called isomers of one
another. Another common instance of isomerism is butane, where there are
following two possible structures for the same molecular formula C4H10.
• A series of organic compounds having same general formula, same functional
group and having similar chemical properties is called homologous series. Eg.
alkanes.

• Each member of a series differs from its preceding and succeeding member by
a CH2 group. Eg. in alkane group:
1. Methane – CH4
2. Ethane – C2H6
3. Propane – C3H8

• As a CH2 group is added to every next member of a series, each member has a
mass 14 a.m.u. higher than the previous member.

• Each homologous group has a formula from which all it’s members can be
derived. Eg. the formula for alkanes is: CnH2n+2 where n=1,2,3,4….

• As the molecular mass increases in a homologous series, a gradation in

physical properties is seen. This is because the melting and boiling points
increase with increasing molecular mass.
When an atom or a group of atoms forms a bond with
the carbon atom in the chain or ring of an organic
compound, while showing some characteristic properties
of their own, they are termed as a functional group. The
property of the whole organic molecule is then due to
this functional group. In such compounds, the element
replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom. These
heteroatoms confer specific properties to the compound,
regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain
and form the functional group. Thus a functional group is
the site of chemical reaction in an organic compound
and all compounds containing a particular functional
group undergo similar reactions.
 Haloalkanes or alkyl halides : CnH2n+1–X, where X is halide
Molecular Formula Structural Formula IUPAC Name
n=1 CH3Cl CH3 – Cl Chloromethane
n=2 C2H5Cl CH3 – CH2 – Cl Chloroethane

Aldehydes : CnH2n+1–C–H
Molecular Formula Structural Formula IUPAC Name
O
n=0 HCHO Methanal
H–C–H
O
n=1 CH3CHO Ethanal
CH3 – C – H

Alcohol : CnH2n+1–OH
Molecular Formula Structural Formula IUPAC Name

n=1 CH3OH CH3 – OH Methanol

n=2 C2H5OH CH3 – CH2 – OH Ethanol

 Carboxylic Acid : CnH2n+1–C–OH , where X is halide

Molecular Formula Structural Formula IUPAC Name

O
n=0 HCOOH Methanoic Acid
H – C – OH
n=1 CH3COOH O Ethanoic Acid
CH3 – C – OH

Ketones : CnH2n+1–C–CnH2n+1

Molecular Formula Structural Formula IUPAC Name

O
n=1,1 CH3COCH3 Propanone
CH3 – C – CH3
O
n=1,2 CH3COC2H5 Butanone
CH3 – C – CH2 – CH3
• Carbon, in all allotropic forms, burns in presence of
oxygen to give carbon dioxide with evolution of heat.
Diamonds, graphite and fullerenes burn completely as
they are the purest forms of carbon.
C + O2 CO2 + heat

• Most carbon compounds are combustible and burn

in presence of oxygen to form CO2 and H2O.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O
CH3COOH + 2O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
CH3COCH3 + 4O2 3CO2 + 3H2O Burning of diamond in liquid
oxygen on a block of graphite
• Saturated hydrocarbons generally burn with a clean
flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give a lot of
black smoke on burning.
•

•
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in
the presence of catalysts such as palladium or
nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
• This reaction is generally used in the
hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel
catalyst.
 SUBSTITUTION REACTION
• Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and
are inert in the presence of most reagents.
However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is
added to hydrocarbons in a very fast
reaction.Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms
one by one.This type of reaction is called a
subsitution reaction.

• CH4+Cl2 CH3Cl+HCl(in the presence of

sunlight)
 ETHANOL
• Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol,
or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is
best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic
beverages and thermometers.
• In common usage, it is often referred to simply as alcohol or spirits.
Ethanol is a straight-chain alcohol, and its molecular formula is
C2H5OH. Its empirical formula is C2H6O. An alternative notation is
CH3–CH2–OH, which indicates that the carbon of a methyl group
(CH3–) is attached to the carbon of a methylene group (–CH2–),
which is attached to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group (–OH).
• Ethanol has widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for
human contact or consumption, including scents, flavorings,
colorings, and medicines. In chemistry, it is both an essential
solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products. It has a
long history as a fuel for heat and light, and more recently as a fuel
for internal combustion engines.
THE REACTION BETWEEN SODIUM AND
ETHANOL
• If a small piece of sodium is dropped into
some ethanol, it reacts steadily to give off
bubbles of hydrogen gas and leaves a
colourless solution of sodium ethoxide,
CH3CH2ONa. Sodium ethoxide is known as
an alkoxide.
• If the solution is evaporated carefully to
dryness, the sodium ethoxide is left as a white
solid.
REACTION OF ETHANOL WITH CONCENTRATED
SULPHURIC ACID
• Heating ethanol at 443K with excess
concentrated sulphuric acid results in the
dehydration of ethanol to give ethene-
Hot

• CH3 –CH2OH
Concentrated
Sulphuric Acid
H2SO4
CH2=CH2+H2O

• The concentrated sulphuric acid can be

regarded as a dehydrating agent which
removes water from ethanol.
 ETHANOIC ACID
• Acetic acid, CH3COOH, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic
acid that gives vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. It is a weak
acid, in that it is only a partially dissociated acid in an aqueous
solution.
• Acetic acid is one of the simplest carboxylic acids. It is an
important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, used in the
production of polyethylene terephthalate mainly used in soft drink
bottles; cellulose acetate, mainly for photographic film;
and polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, as well as synthetic fibres and
fabrics. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used in descaling
agents. In the food industry, acetic acid is used under the food
additive codeE260 as an acidity regulator and as a condiment.
• Dilute acetic acid produced by natural fermentation is
called vinegar.
 REACTIONS OF ETHANOIC ACID
• ESTERIFICATION REACTION
Esters are most commonly formed by reaction
of an acid and an alcohol.Ethanoic acid reacts
with absolute ethanol in the presence of an
acid catalyst to give an ester-
Acid
ETHANOIC ACID + ETHANOL ESTER
• REACTION WITH A BASE
Ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as
sodium hydroxide to give a salt(sodium
acetate) and water.
• NaOH+CH3COOH CH3COONa+H2O
 REACTION WITH CARBONATES AND
BICARBONATES-
• Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and
bicarbonates to give rise to a salt,carbon
dioxide and water-
• 2CH3COOH+Na2CO3 2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
• CH3COOH+NaHCO3 CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
 SOAP

• In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. When used for cleaning, soap
serves as a surfactant in conjunction with water. The cleaning action of this
mixture is attributed to the action of micelles, tiny spheres coated on the
outside with polar carboxylate groups, encasing a hydrophobic (lipophilic)
pocket that can surround the grease particles, allowing them to dissolve in
water. The hydrophobic portion is made up of the long hydrocarbonchain
from the fatty acid. In other words, whereas normally oil and water do not
mix, the addition of soap allows oils to dissolve in water, allowing them to
be rinsed away. Synthetic detergents operate by similar mechanisms to
soap.
 DETERGENT
• A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of
surfactants having "cleaning properties in dilute
solutions." Soaps are surfactants and detergents.
Most commonly, detergent refers to
alkylbenzenesulfonates, which are similar to soap
but are less affected by "hard water." In most
household contexts, the term detergent by itself
refers specifically to laundry detergent, vs hand
soap or other types of cleaning agents. Most
detergent is delivered in powdered form.