Module 2

Module 2 – Steam Power Cycle 03/15/06
Module 2 – The Steam Power Cycle

• Let’s begin this module with a virtual tour for the purpose of familiarizing students with a power plant
and related components. A great site for this is: http://www.affordable-energy.org/kids/default.asp
• A schematic illustration of a steam power plant is shown below [1]:
The basic systems are:

1. Coal Handling System: Coal is crushed, fed into a pulverizer, and blown into the boiler where it is
combusted.
2. Post-Combustion Clean-up System: SO2, particulate, and ash are removed before exhaust products
are sent via the stack to the environment.
3. Circulating Water System: Water circulating through condenser tubes absorb the heat given off by the
steam on the shell side of the condenser.
4. Steam Generation System: This happens in the boiler when water is made into steam using an
economizer, a superheater, and a reheater.
5. Power Conversion System: Mechanical power is produced in the High Pressure (HP), Intermediate
Pressure (IP), and Low Pressure (LP) turbines, and converted to electricity.
Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 1

• Main Components for a Basic Cycle of Steam Generation and Power Production:
Boiler ≡ steam generator
Turbine ≡ steam expander-produces work and drives the electric generator
Condenser ≡ exchanges heat from low pressure steam to cooling water
Pump ≡ pushes liquid water from low condenser pressure to high boiler pressure.
Highly simplified schematics of a power plant are shown below[2]:

Objectives:
The whole purpose of this vapor power cycle is to have an efficient plant that produces power.
• Develop power so electricity can be made
• Estimate thermal efficiency
• Examine changes to the plant operation to increase efficiency.
Modeling: We model the steam power cycle with a cycle (we call it a Rankine cycle) and determine for it
the net power produced and the thermal efficiency. The solution begins with a schematic of the problem
featuring the main components that the system (water) encounters. Such a schematic is represented by the
components inside the dahed box labeled “A” in the previous figure. To meet the objectives (power
produced and efficiency), several questions arise:
Q1.What is the net power produced?

The net power produced is the power obtained from power producing devices (turbines) minus the power
consumed from power-consuming devices (pumps). The produced power is due to work done by the
system and the consumed power is due to work done on the system.
W& Net = W&Turbines − W& Pump
It is necessary then to define our thermodynamics system and in this case it is water that is moving through
devices. This is an open system since it flows in and out of devices and interacts with the surroundings in
terms of heat and work. Water is a substance that is capable of changing phase and is a homogeneous
substance of fixed chemical composition. Such a substance is called a pure compressible substance. The
term “pure” implies homogeneous of fixed chemical composition and the term “compressible” implies its
density changes as the substance (water) changes phase from liquid to vapor to a mixture of liquid and
vapor.
So the question is what happens to water as it flows from one component to another?
First one must recognize that water is the kind of substance that is capable of changing phase and as a result
it density will change. It has a fixed chemical composition and is homogenous. We call such substance “a
pure compressible substance”.
Definition Support:
Pure, Simple Compressible Substances:
• Definition: A substance having a fixed chemical composition.
Examples: Water, N2, He, CO2, air, water-liquid-vapor mixture.
Not examples: Mixture of oil and water.
• Phases: A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance. A pure
substance exists in different phases depending on its energy level.
One must also recognize that the energy level of gas molecules is greater that that of a liquid which is in turn
greater than that of a solid. Therefore, the gas (vapor) must release a large amount of its energy before it
can condense or freeze.
The function of the boiler in a power plant is to turn liquid water into steam. This process occurs pretty
much at a constant pressure acknowledging that water will encounter friction as it flows it the boiler tubes
and the pressure will drop as a result a little. We are assuming this drop in pressure to be negligible. To
help us understand what happens to the water in the boiler, let’s run through a simple experiment turning
water into steam:
Consider a piston-cylinder device containing liquid water at 20 °C and under atmospheric pressure (state
1). Under such conditions, water exists as a liquid in its “compressed liquid” state. Sometimes called
“subcooled liquid”. That is to say that the temperature of the water (20 °C) at the imposed pressure (1 bar)
is below the saturation (boiling) temperature (Tsat @ 1 bar = 99.63 °C). The Saturation Temperature is the
boiling temperature at the given pressure. This is why we call it “subcooled liquid” since the liquid is at a
temperature that is below the saturation temperature at the given pressure. We also call it “compressed
liquid” since its pressure is above the saturation pressure at the given temperature. In this case the imposed
pressure (1 bar) is well above the saturation pressure ( 0.0234 bar) of water at 20 ºC. Saturation pressures
and temperatures can be obtained from Table A-2 and Table A-3 of your textbook.
• 1st Process: State (1) to State (2): Add heat until T = 40 °C at a constant pressure (state 2), the
volume slightly increases (v slightly increases) and the liquid is still compressed. Still compressed liquid.
T < Tsat , and p > psat ⇒ compressed liquid.
• 2nd Process: State (2) to State (3): Add more heat, raising T sequentially to 100 °C (actually 99.63 °C)
at a constant pressure. Here water is still a liquid, but any additional heat will cause some vaporization.
This state is a “saturated liquid” state; that is a state in which the liquid is about to vaporize. We have
added heat to take water from a Compressed Liquid to a Saturated Liquid. As a Saturated Liquid,
the substance (water, in this case) exists as a liquid at the saturation pressure and temperature.
• 3rd Process: State (3) to State (4): Add more heat as phase change takes place so that water goes from
saturated liquid to saturated vapor. The process occurs at a constant temperature and at a constant
pressure (saturation conditions). The volume increases or v increases to allow room for the released
vapor. State (4) is called “saturated vapor”. Any state between (3) and (4) is called “saturated liquid-
vapor mixture” or “wet mixture” where liquid and vapor co-exist in equilibrium. We have taken water
from Saturated Liquid to Saturated Vapor. As a Saturated Vapor, the substance (water) exists as a
vapor at the saturation pressure and temperature.
Note: During a phase change process, the temperature and pressure are dependent properties. At a
given pressure, a pure substance boils at a fixed temperature called “saturation temperature”. Likewise,
at a given T, the pressure at which a substance starts boiling is called the saturation pressure.
Example: Water as a pure substance:

@ p = 101.35 kPa (1.01 bars), Tsat = 100°C
@ p = 500 kPa (5 bars), Tsat = 151.9°C
Fixing the pressure, fixes the saturation or boiling temperature of a pure substance.

• 4th Process: State (4) to State (5): Further heat addition from state (4) causes T and v to increase at a
constant pressure and the vapor at this state, (state 5, say 130 °C), is “superheated vapor”. As a
Superheated Vapor, the vapor (gas phase) is at a temperature above the saturation temperature at the
given pressure.
T > Tsat , and p < psat ⇒ superheated vapor.
• It is worth observing the processes on a T-v diagram (Constant Pressure Line):
Carrying out the same processes at different pressures, we construct what is called a “vapor dome” by
connecting all “saturated liquid” points on one side of the dome and all “saturated vapor” points on the other
side. Inside the dome is a mixture of liquid and vapor.
Phase Diagrams of a Pure Substance.
We also define the Critical and Triple Points:

• Critical State: Saturated liquid and saturated vapor states are identical. The two phases are
indistinguishable. [Water: pc = 22.09 MPa & Tc = 647.3 K], obtained from Table A-1 of your textbook.
The critical point is the tip of the vapor dome.

• Triple Point: All three phases coexist in equilibrium [Water: 0.0061 atm & 0.01 °C].
Separate Phase Diagrams.

• Now that we understand how a pure compressible substance such as water changes phase, we go back
to our original objective and that is to quantify the power produced by the turbine, the power consumed
by the pump, the rate of heat addition on the boiler side and the rate of heat removal on the condenser
side. In order to quantify these terms, we consider an open system, perform what is called a “Control
Volume (C.∀.) Energy Analysis”, and identify all relevant and possible energy terms that might affect a
change in the energy level of the system. The energy of the system will change as a result of the
system’s interaction with the surroundings in terms of heat and work and as energy flows in and out
because of mass flowing in and out.
• For energy to be conserved (not destroyed), the work produced by the turbine is the difference in
energy levels between inlet and exit. So, what is the energy level of the steam at the turbine’s inlet/exit:
Ø The steam is flowing at a certain velocity and thus it has a kinetic energy.
Ø The steam is at a certain elevation relative to a reference plane and thus it has potential energy.
Ø The steam is made up of molecules which are translating, vibrating, and rotating and thus it has
internal energy.
• Besides the usual internal, kinetic, and potential energies, there is an additional form of energy called
“flow work” that is always present for an open system. Flow work is the amount of energy it takes to
move a chunk of mass from inlet to exit of an open system. Balancing all of these energy terms and
performing a mass balance, we obtain the two conservation equations: Conservation of Energy and
Conservation of Mass. These two principles are summarized by the following two equations:
= ∑ mi − ∑ me
dmC.V . . .
Consv. of Mass: (I)
dt i e
dEC .V . . . .
Vi2 .
Ve2
1st Law (Open System) : dt = QC.V . − WC .V . + ∑ mi ( hi + 2 + gzi ) − ∑ me ( he + 2 + gze ) (II)
i e
• Equation (I) states that mass as a quantity of matter is conserved so that [Mass change within the C.∀.
during ∆t] = [Mass entering - Mass leaving]. Instantaneously, the change of mass within the control
volume as a function of time is the difference between the mass flow rate flowing in and that flowing out.
• Equation (II) states that energy is conserved.

Concept Support:
Conservation of Mass for a C.∀. ∴ (Continuity Equation)
• Recall that open system analysis is known as control volume analysis.
• Open system: Mass as well as energy may cross the boundary.
@ time t, a fixed quantity m = mi + mcv(t) is considered. During ∆t, let mi completely cross the C.∀.
boundary forcing a quantity me (initially part of C.∀.) to exit, thus:
@ time (t + ∆t), m = mcv(t + ∆t) + me
Note: mi and me are not necessarily equal.
• Equate: mi + mcv(t) = me + mcv(t + ∆t) or

mi - me = mcv(t +∆t) - mcv(t)
[Mass entering - Mass leaving] = [Mass change within the C.∀. during ∆t]
• On a rate basis, the average rates during ∆t : mi/∆t - me/∆t = mcv (t + ∆t) - mcv(t)/∆t
The instantaneous rate = lim∆t→0(average rates), written as
dmC .V . . .
= mi − me Conservation of Mass or Continuity Equation
dt
⋅
mi = instantaneous mass flow rate at the inlet [kg/s] or [lbm/s]
⋅
me = instantaneous mass flow rate at the exit (outlet)
dmcv/dt = time rate of change of mass within the C.∀. at time t
• For more than one - inlet, one - outlet:

∑ ∑ e
dmC.V . . .
Consv. of Mass: = m i − m
dt i e
⋅
For one-dimensional flow{ flow is ⊥ to boundary}, ρ and V are uniform with position at inlets and exits: m
= ρ Vavg A , known as the mass flow rate
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
m = ρ Vavg A = ρ ∀ where ∀ = Vavg A [m3/s] or [ft3/s], known as the volumetric flow rate
⋅
m = Vavg A/v expressed in terms of specific volume.
. .
• Steady State Process: Properties do not vary with time: ∑ m =∑ m i e

i e
Under steday state conditions: [total incoming rate] = [total outgoing rate]
• Steady-state, single inlet, single outlet: ρ1V1A1= ρ2V2A2 or V1A1/v1 = V2A2/v2

Concept Support:
Conservation of Energy for a C.∀. ∴ (1st Law for an Open System)
@ time = t: E(t) = ECV(t) + mi (ui + Vi2/2 + g zi)
where ECV(t) = ∑(U + KE + PE) of C.∀. mass; and mi (ui + Vi2/2 + g zi) = energy of mi
After ∆t, mi crosses boundary and me leaves. Also heat and work may have been transferred to or from the
C.∀.
@ time (t + ∆t): E(t + ∆t) = ECV (t + ∆t) + me (ue + Ve2/2 + g ze)
Since the total mass, m, under consideration is constant i.e. a fixed mass (m may be viewed as a control
mass or a closed system) on which we can apply the 1st law for a closed system:
E(t + ∆t) - E(t) = Q - W
• Substitute and collect terms:

ECV(t + ∆t) - ECV(t) = Q - W + mi (ui + Vi2/2 + g zi) - me (ue + Ve2/2 +g ze)
• Divide throughout by ∆t and take lim∆t→0, we get:

dEC .V . . . . V2 . V2
= Q C.V . − W + mi ( ui + i + gzi ) − me ( ue + e + gze )
dt 2 2
• We note that for a C.∀. (open system), we always have mass entering and leaving and there is a work
term associated with that, known as the flow work.
⋅ ⋅
W = WC.V. + Flow Work per unit time
Where:
⋅
W C.V. is associated with rotating shafts, boundary displacement, electrical, magnetic, etc.
Flow Work = work associated with the fluid pressure as mass is introduced at inlets and removed at exits.
Let’s formulate the flow work:
• Recall that: Work = Force x Displacement (W = F * L), and that,

Force = Pressure x Area (F = P* A), thus:
Work = P *A * L; Flow Work/unit time = P*A*(L/unit time) = P *A* V
At the exit, the flow work per unit time = Pe Ae Ve; at the inlet: the flow work per unit time = Pi Ai Vi
Flow Work per unit time = pe Ae Ve - pi Ai Vi

⋅ ⋅ ⋅
Noting that m = ρ Vavg A = Vavg A/v } ⇒ Flow Work per unit time = me (pe ve) - mi (pi vi)
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
Thus; W = W C.V. + me (pe ve) - mi (pi vi) and
dEC .V . . . . Vi2 . Ve2
= Q C.V . − W C.V . + mi ( ui + pi v i + + gzi ) − me ( ue + pe ve + + gz e )
dt 2 2

Concept Support:
Conservation of Energy for a C.∀. ∴ (1st Law for an Open System) (Continued):
dEC .V . . . . Vi 2 . Ve2
Recall that h = u + p v ⇒ = Q C.V .
− WC .V . + m i ( hi + + gzi ) − m e ( he + + gze )
dt 2 2
• Multiple Inlets, Multiple Outlets ⇒
dEC .V . . . .
Vi2 .
Ve2
1st Law (Open System) ∴ dt = QC.V . − WC .V . + ∑ mi ( hi + 2 + gzi ) − ∑ me ( he + 2 + gze )
i e
⋅
• Note that if m = 0 , the 1st law for an open system reduces to the rate equation of the 1st law for a
control mass (closed system).
• For Steady-State Steady Flow (SSSF) process ⇒ dE/dt=0 [Energy rate in = Energy rate out]
. . .
V2 .
V2
QC .V . − WCV. . = −∑ mi ( hi + i + gzi ) + ∑ me ( he + e + gze )
i 2 e 2
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
• SSSF, one-inlet and one-exit ⇒ dE/dt = 0 and m = me = mi
. .
. . . V 2 −V 2 Q . . WCV. . V12 −V22
0 = QCV. . −WCV. . + m[(h1 −h2 ) +( 1 2 ) + g(z1 − z2)] or 0 = CV
. − . + [(h1 − h2 ) + ( ) + g(z1 − z2 )]
2 m m 2
Which can be written as:
V12 − V22
0 = q − w + [( h1 − h2 ) + ( ) + g ( z1 − z2 )]
2
Let’s turn our attention now to the various open systems for a steam power plant. Namely the turbine, the
pump, the boiler, and the condenser. Let’s then apply conservation of mass and energy to their operation
and see how that might help us in quantifying power and rates of heat transfer. All four devices are of the
steady-state-steady-flow type, that is the properties, states, and flows are not dependent on time.
• Turbine ≡ Device in which work is developed as a fluid passes over a set of blades that are attached to
a shaft causing it to rotate.
Used in power plants, aircraft engines, etc. → work producing device.
& &
Let’s first evaluate W . W
Turbine is the power produced by the turbine as a result of a change in
Turbine
the steam’s energy level. The steam enters the turbine at a high energy level, causes the turbine’s blades
to rotate (producing shaft work), and exits with a low energy level.

Axial Flow Turbine[2]

Concept Support:
Shaft Work:
Wsh = Energy transmission with a rotating shaft
F = applied force
r = moment arm; therefore ⇒Torque = τ = F⋅ r
n = # of revolutions
• The force acts through a distance (s) which is related to the radius r by: s = (2πr)n;
• Wsh = F. s = (τ/r) . (2 π n r) = 2 π n τ [kJ]

.
• The power transmitted through the shaft is Wsh = 2 π ω τ [kW]
• Pumps, Compressors, and Fans: Operate the same way as compressors. In pumps, work is done on
the liquid in order to change state. Principally, pumps elevate the pressure and do not affect the
temperature appreciably.
pe/picomp ≈ 3 - 10.0
pe/pifan ≈ 1 - 1.2
Rotating Compressors: (a) Axial Flow, (b) Centrifugal, (c) Roots Type[2]

Heat Exchangers (Boilers, Condensers, etc.): Devices that transfer energy in the form of heat between
two or more mediums at different temperatures.
Typical Schematics of some Heat Exchangers[2]
The basic power cycle used for modeling steam power plants is called the Rankine Cycle. The Ideal
Rankine Cycle involves isentropic compression, constant pressure heat addition, isentropic expansion, and
constant pressure heat rejection.
⊕ Rankine Cycle:
A useful diagram is a plot displaying temperature versus entropy (T-s diagram).

(1)→(2): pump isentropic compression
(2)→(3): boiler constant pressure heat addition
(3)→(4): turbine isentropic expansion
(4)→(1): condenser constant pressure heat rejection.
• In this analysis, we normally assume:

♦ ∆KE = ∆PE = 0
♦ No heat loss between devices
♦ SSSF through devices
♦ State (1) is saturated liquid, State (3) is saturated vapor or superheated vapor.

dEC .V . . . .
Vi2 .
Ve2
Energy Balance (1st Law): dt = QC.V . − WC .V . + ∑ mi ( hi + 2 + gzi ) − ∑ me ( he + 2 + gze )
i e
Under SSSF, Negligible ∆KE and ∆PE, Single-Inlet, Single-Outlet conditions:
. .
Boiler: QB = m( h3 − h 2 ) or qB = h3 - h2 ∴ p2 = p3; Heat In

. .
Condenser: QC = m( h1 − h 4 ) or qc = h1 - h4 ∴ p1 = p4; Heat Out

. .
Turbine: W T = m( h3 − h 4 ) or wT = h3 - h4 ∴ s4 = s3; Work Out

. .
Pump: W P = m( h1 − h2 ) or wP = h1 - h2 ∴ s1 = s2; Work In
Concept Support:
Incompressible Substance Model: solid or a liquid
solid or a liquid (nearly incompressible substance, v = constant or density = constant)
dh = du + d(pv) = du + p dv + v dp ≈ du + v dp
Since for a solid or a liquid: v is small ⇒ dh ≈ du = c dT where

c = cp or cv because they are approximately the same.
and assuming that (T2 - T1) is not very large: u2 - u1 ≈ c (T2 -T1)
h2 - h1 ≈ c (T2 -T1) + v (p2 - p1)
⊕ Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance (solid or liquid):
Recall that for an incompressible substance v = const (the density is also constant).
From Tds = du + p dv ⇒ Tds = du or: ds = du/T
Recall also that: du = c(T) dT; c ≈ cp ≈ cv
ds = [c(T) / T]dT ⇒ (s2 - s1) = ∫[c(T) / T] dT
If c(T) = c, meaning the specific heat is not a strong function of T ⇒ (s 2 -s 1) = c ln(T2/T1).
• Specific Heat Values of some liquids and solids are tabulated in Table A-19, pp. 837.
• Note: The specific heat is based on a temperature difference, and since ∆T(°C) = ∆T(K), its
units can be written as [kJ/kg⋅K] or [kJ/kg °C].

. .
⊕ Simplification on the Pump Work: W P = m( h1 − h2 )

State (1) is saturated liquid and (2) is compressed liquid; the water going through the pump is treated as an
“incompressible substance” without an appreciable increase in temperature such that:
h1 - h2 ≈ v (p1 - p2) where v = vfT1
• Note that the power consumed by the pump is <<< than the power produced by the turbine. This is to
say that the back work ratio (pump power / turbine power) is very small and on the order of 1%.
⊕ Efficiency for the Cycle: The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is:

. .
. . WT − WP
W net W net
.
W net h − h − v (p − p )
η = = = ηth = . = 3 4 f 1 2
th . . .
QB h 3 − h2
Qin QB QB
We note that calculating the net power produced and the thermal efficiency requires finding the enthalpy
values of the substance at all states. To find the enthalpy of a pure simple compressible substance, we need
two independent properties. That is we need two independent properties to fix the sate of a simple
compressible substance. For example, the pressure and temperature are independent properties in the
compressed liquid and superheated vapor regions; however they are dependent on each other inside the
dome (mixture region).
The thermodynamic state of a pure compressible substance is fixed by two independent properties such as
(P, T) or (P, v) or (T, v) or (T, u) or (T, s) or (T, h) or any combination of two independent properties.
This is an important concept and in addition, knowing two independent properties yields all other properties.
For example, if P and T are known for water then the specific volume, v, the specific internal energy, u, the
specific enthalpy, h, and the specific entropy, s are fixed and can be found.
Concept Support:
Properties:
• A property may be intensive or extensive; An intensive property is independent of the mass. An
extensive property varies directly with the mass.
Extensive (dependent) versus Intensive (independent) Properties: Consider a membrane separating two
substances in two separate chambers, remove the membrane
T3 = T2 = T1
p3 = p2 = p1 ⇒ temperature, pressure, and density are INTENSIVE properties.
∀3 = 2 ∀2 = 2 ∀1 ⇒ Volume (and of course mass) are EXTENSIVE properties.

Note: intensive properties may be derived from extensive properties. Density (ρ) = m/∀ or specific volume
(v) = ∀/m The density and specific volume are specific intensive properties and they are independent of the
amount of substance considered.
Here are some guidelines then on retrieving properties of simple compressible substance.
• A simple compressible substance whose state is in the C.L. region (such as water at inlet and exit of a
pump) is identified by two independent properties (p, T) or (p, v) or (T, v). In the lack of having
tabulated data for compressed liquids, we can use properties at the saturated liquid state for the given
temperature i.e.
v ≈ vƒT
u ≈ uƒT
h = hƒT + vƒT (p - psat )
s ≈ sƒT
• A simple compressible substance whose state is in the S.H. region (such as steam at boiler exit or
turbine inlet) is also identified by p and T or any combination of two independent properties.
• A substance in the mixture region (such as steam at turbine’s exit) is defined in terms of its “quality”, “x”.
the quality is the amount of vapor in a mixture of liquid and vapor:
x = Quality ≡ mv/ (mv+ ml)

Properties of a mixture, such as v, u, h, and s, are found as weighted quantities by the quality and the
saturated liquid and saturated vapor properties.
v = x vg + (1 - x) vf
u = x ug + (1 - x) uf
h = x hg + (1 - x) hf
s = x sg + (1 - x) sf
So, inside the mixture region, we look for the quality x ∴
[v, u, h, s] = (1 - x) [vƒ, uƒ, hƒ, sƒ] + (x) [vg, ug, hg, sg]
Where:
vf is the specific volume of the saturated liquid.
vg is the specific volume of the saturated vapor.
vg - vf = Increase in specific volume as the state changes from saturated liquid to saturated vapor.
hg - hf = hfg = the amount of heat it takes to transform saturated liquid to saturated vapor. This is known as
latent heat of vaporization. The term latent is used to indicate hidden heat as it does not produce a change
in temperature but rather a phase change occurs.
⊕ Properties Tables (in your textbook):
Table Description Page #

A-2 Saturated Water (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature Table 760
A-3 Saturated Water (Liquid-Vapor): Pressure Table 762

A-4 Superheated Water Vapor (S.H.) 764

A-5 Compressed Liquid Water (C.L.) 768
A-6 Saturated Water (Solid-Vapor): Temperature Table 769
• A useful diagram is the Mollier Chart, an enthalpy vs. entropy diagram, as shown below:
• A more descriptive temperature vs. entropy diagram is shown below as well:

• Let’s work out some problems:

Example 1. Open Loop Rankine Cycle:
Open loop means that the turbine discharges to the atmosphere. Consider a basic Open Loop Rankine
cycle. Water is brought into the pump from a reservoir subject to atmospheric pressure and at 21 ºC. The
boiler pressure is 2 MPa (20 bar) and generating saturated vapor (Tsat = 212.4 ºC). As an open loop, the
turbine discharges to the environment (101.3 kPa (1bar)). The environment temperature is assumed to be
21ºC.
One starts with computing the enthalpy values of water at the various states:

h1 = h f + v f ( P − PSat )  
→ 88.24 kJ
Table A- 2
21ºC kg ( Incompress ible subs tan ce approximation )
h2 = h f + v f (P − PSat ) = 90.14 kJ
kg
( Incompressible subs tan ce approximation )
21ºC
? h = 90.14 - 88.24 = 1.9 kJ/kg

Alternatively , assume isentropic compressio n of an incompress ible substance and use ∆h = v∆P :
∆h = (1.002 x 10 -3 m 3/kg) (20 - 1) bar (10 5 N/m 2 /1 bar) = 1903.8 N.m/kg = 1.9038 kJ/kg
h3 = hg Table
 → 2799.5 kJ
A -3
kg
2 MPa
s3 = s g = 6.3409 kgK
kJ
2 MPa
s 4 = s 3 ( assu min g isentropic exp ansion ).

@ 1bar : s = 6.3409 kJ
kgK is between s f = 1.3026 kgK
kJ
and s g = 7.3594 kgK
kJ
, so state (4) is a mixture
s4 − s f
s 4 = [ s f (1 − x ) + xsg ]1bar ⇒ x 4 = = 83.18%
sg − s f
h4 = [ h f (1 − x ) + xhg ]1bar = 2295.7 kJ
kg
Concept Support:
Isentropic Process for a Pure Compressible Substance: Use tabular data utilizing ∴s1 = s2
Isentropic Process for Incompressible Substances:
Recall that for an incompressible substance (constant sp. heats): (s 2 -s 1) = c ln(T2/T1)
T2
• Isentropic ∴∆s = 0 ⇒ c ln(T2/T1) = 0 ⇒ =1 or: ∆T = 0
T1
Thus, for an incompressible substance, an isentropic process is an isothermal process.
• Note also what happens to ∆u and ∆h for an isentropic process:
∆u = c ∆T, (Isentropic, Incompressible) ⇒ ∆T = 0 ⇒ u2 = u1 for an isentropic process.
∆h = ∆u + v ∆P, (Isentropic, Incompressible) ⇒ ∆u = 0 ⇒ ∆h = v ∆p for an isentropic process.
Upon evaluation of the properties at the various states, one gets:

Location Temperature (°C) Pressure (bar) Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Pump inlet (1) 21 1 88.24
Pump exit (2) 21 20 90.14
Boiler exit (3) 212.4 20 2799.5
Turbine exit (4) 100 (of quality = x = 83.18%) 1 2295.7
Heat Heat Turbine Pump Cycle Carnot Back work

added rejected power power efficiency efficiency ratio
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) % % %
2709.36 - 2207.56 503.8 - 1.9 18.59 39.43 0.4
The Carnot Cycle efficiency was calculated via: ηth, Rev. = 1 - (TC / TH).
TC = 21 + 373.15 = 294.15 K and TH = 212.4 + 373.15 = 485.55 K.
Note that the efficiency of an open loop Rankine cycle is quite low (18.6% for given conditions).
Concept Support:

The Carnot Cycle:

• The Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle that sets the upper-limit on performance for real cycles.
Made up of four reversible processes: Two isothermal and two adiabatic
4→1: Reversible isothermal expansion
1→2: Reversible adiabatic expansion
2→3: Reversible isothermal compression
3→4: Reversible adiabatic compression
Carnot vapor power cycle [2]
Area under (4→1→2) ≡ Work done by the substance during expansion

Area under (2→3→4) ≡ Work done on the substance during compression
Difference ≡ Area within the curves ≡ Net work done during the cycle.
• The Carnot Principles:
1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the two reservoirs
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two reservoirs are equal.
• The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:
The thermodynamic temperature scale is a temperature scale that is independent of the properties of
the substances that are used to measure T, which states that:
ηth,rev = f(TH, TC) and (QH/QC)rev = TH/TC
This temperature scale is called the “Kelvin Scale” and the temperatures on this scale are called “ Absolute
Temperatures.”
• We must then look at ways of increasing the thermal efficiency of a power plant and some are
summarized as follows:
ηth can be increased by: (1) Lowering condenser pressure
(2) Increasing boiler pressure
(3) Superheating the steam
Example 2. Effect of Lowering Turbine Exhaust Pressure (Closed Loop Rankine Cycle):

An open loop cycle can be made closed if a condenser connects the turbine exhaust and to the pump inlet.
Let’s study the effect of lowering the exhaust pressure of the turbine by hooking up a condenser whose
pressure is kept at 8 kPa (0.08 bar, Tsat = 41.51°C). Also, assume that the condensate is subcooled to
27ºC before it enters the pump.
Similarly to the first problem, one can compute various quantities of interest:
h1 = h f 27ºC Table
 →113 .25 kJ
A-2
kg
h2 = h f + v f (P − PSat ) = 115.25 kJ
kg ( Incompress ible subs tan ce approximation)
27 ºC
h3 = hg Table
 → 2799 .5 kJ
A -3
kg
2 MPa
s3 = s g = 6.3409 kgK
kJ
2 MPa
s 4 = s 3 ( assu min g isentropic exp ansion ).

@ 0.08bar : s = 6.3409 kgK
kJ
is between s f = 0.5926 kgK
kJ
and s g = 8.2287 kgK
kJ
, so state (4) is a mixture
s4 − s f
s 4 = [ s f (1 − x ) + xsg ] 0. 08bar ⇒ x4 = = 75.28%
sg − s f
h4 = [ h f (1 − x ) + xhg ]0.08bar = 1983.0 kJ
kg

Pump inlet (1) 27 0.08 113.25
Pump exit (2) 27 20 115.25
Boiler exit (3) 212.4 20 2799.5
Turbine exit (4) 93.5(of quality = x = 75.28%) 0.08 1983.0

2686.25 -1869.75 876.5 -2.0 30.4 38.2 0.24
We note that here we have an increase in efficiency (from 18.6 % to 30.4 %) as we lowered the turbine
exhaust pressure from 1 bar to 0.08 bar. But we notice a decrease in steam’s quality leaving the turbine.
This has an adverse effect on the turbine performance since the presence of high levels of liquid water in the
exhausted steam can cause physical damage to the turbine’s blades. In summary, by comparing to the open
scenario, the efficiency increased substantially but one must be careful with the dropping quality of the
exhaust steam (75.3% versus 83.2% previously), as lower qualities can cause damage to the turbine.
Typically, we prefer that the quality be between 95% and 97%.
• Now, we realize that pump compression and turbine expansion are not isentropic processes. The
system (substance in this case water) will undergo irreversibilities as it gets compressed and expanded,
especially friction. For that we introduce the second law of thermodynamics for an open system and the
isentropic efficiency of a device.
.
dSC .V . Q . . .
= ∑ CV. . + σ gen + ∑ mi si − ∑ me se 2nd Law for an Open System
dt C .V . T i e

.
Wa ( hi − he ) a hi − hea
ηT = = = < 100%. Typically: 0.7 < ηT > 0.9
.
Ws ( hi − he ) s hi − hes
.
Ws ( hi − he) s hi − hes
ηP = .
= = < 100 %. Typically 0.5 < ηP < 0.9.
( hi − he) a hi − hea
Wa
Concept Support:
Entropy Rate Balance for a Control Volume (2nd Law for Open Systems):
Recall that for a closed system: ∆1 S2 = ∫ δQ/T + σ
Converting the integral into a summation sign, we can write:
∆ S = ∑ C .V . + σgen
Q
C .V . T
1 2
.
dS Q .
On a Bate Basis: = ∑ C.V . + σ gen
dt T
• Now, for an open system, additional entropy transfer will occur due to mass crossing the boundary of
the control volume. The entropy rate balance takes on the form:
.
dSC .V . Q . . .
= ∑ CV. . + σ gen + ∑ mi si − ∑ me se 2nd Law for an Open System
dt C .V . T i e
In words: {Rate of entropy change within a control volume} = {Entropy transfer due to rate of heat flow}
+ {Rate of entropy generation or production} + {Entropy transfer due to rate of mass flow}
dSC .V .
◊ Under SSSF conditons: =0
dt
◊ Under SSSF, Adiabatic, Single-Inlet, Single Outlet conditions:

. .
se − si = σ gen / m (a positive quantity)
In words: {only states of higher entropy can be attained for an adiabatic process}
se= si (Reversible, Adiabatic)
se > si (Irreversible, Adiabatic)

Concept Support:
Isentropic or Adiabatic Efficiencies of Steady Flow Processes:
• Such efficiencies give notion on how well the actual performance of a device compares to ideal
performance under same initial state and exit pressure.
• Consider a flow device (an open system):
dEC .V . . . .
Vi 2 .
Ve2
1st Law: dt
= Q C.V . − W C .V . + ∑i m i ( hi +
2
+ g zi ) − ∑e m e ( h e +
2
+ g ze )
.
dSC .V . Q . . .
2nd Law: = ∑ CV. . + σ gen + ∑ mi si − ∑ me se

dt C .V . T i e
Under SSSF, Adiabatic processes, Negligible ∆KE and ∆PE, Single-Inlet, Single-Outlet conditions:
. .
1st Law: W C .V . = m ( hi − he )
. .
2nd Law: σ gen = m ( se − si ) (a positive quantity)
We recognize that for an ideal performance, σ gen = 0 ; or se = si . That is, ideal performance is obtained for
an isentropic process (a reversible, adiabatic process).
Let’s examine how the 1st and 2nd laws are going to help us define adiabatic or isentropic efficiencies:
• Turbines - work producing devices:
Isentropic process yields maximum work output by a turbine.

We define the adiabatic efficiency of a turbine:
.
ηT = = = < 100%. Typically: 0.7 < ηT > 0.9
Ws
.
( hi − he ) s hi − hes
“a” ≡ actual process “s” ≡ Ideal or isentropic process
•
2nd law: σ gen > 0.

which means; se > si . Since ses = si , therefore sea > si .

Concept Support:
Isentropic or Adiabatic Efficiencies of Steady Flow Processes (Continued):
• Compressors - work needing devices:
Isentropic process yields minimum work input by a compressor.

.
Ws ( hi − he ) s hi − hes
ηC = = = < 100%. 0.75 < ηc < 0.85.
.
• Nozzle - speeds up the flow (Ve > Vi ) - No work needed or produced:

Vea2
ηN ≡ (Actual kinetic energy at nozzle exit / Isentropic kinetic energy at nozzle exit) = 2
Ves
If Vi << Ve , the isentropic efficiency of a nozzle can be expressed in a more familiar form through the
application of the 1st Law:
Vi2 V2
1st Law: hi + = he + e . If Vi << Ve
2 2
hi − hea
ηN ≈ < 100% ηN > 0.95.
hi − hes
• Pumps - just like compressors:

Isentropic process yields minimum work input by a pump.
.
Ws ( hi − he) s hi − hes
ηP = .
= = < 100 %. 0.5 < ηP < 0.9.
( hi − he) a hi − hea
Wa
• Note: Calling such efficiencies isentropic or adiabatic should not be misleading. The actual process
associated with the flow devices is an irreversible, adiabatic process. One should recognize that such
efficiencies are called isentropic or adiabatic as a reminder that actual processes are being compared to
ideal (isentropic) processes.
Example 3. Effect of Lowering Turbine Exhaust Pressure (Closed Loop Power Cycle),
accounting for irreversibilities in the pump and in the turbine:
Let’s redo the second problem again but now with a pump isentropic efficiency of 80% and a turbine
isentropic efficiency of 90%.
h1 (unchanged ) = 113.25 kJ
kg
h2 s is obtained the same way h2 was for the previous problem = 115.25 kJ
kg
W& s h1 − h2s h − h1
η Pump = = ⇒ h2a = h1 + 2 s = 115.75 kJ
&
Wa h1 − h2 a ηPump
kg
h3 (unchanged ) = 2799.5 kJ ( )
kg , s3 unchanged = 6.3409 kgK
kJ
h4 s is computed assuming isentropic process between (3) and (4s) = 1983.0 kJ

kg
W& a h3 − h4 a
ηTurbine = = ⇒ h4a = h3 − ηTurbine ( h3 − h4 s ) = 2064.65 kJ
W& s h3 − h4s
kg
h4 a − h f 2064.65 − 173.88
x4 = = = 78.68%. Still a low quality - a point of concern.
hg − hf 2577 − 173.88
Pump inlet (1) 27 0.08 113.25
Pump exit (2s) 27 20 115.25
Pump exit (2) 27 20 115.75
Boiler exit (3) 212.4 20 2799.5
Turbine exit (4s) 93.5 0.08 1983.0
Turbine exit (4) 93.5 (of quality = x = 0.08 2064.65
78.68%)
One can easily compute various quantities of interest:
Heat Heat Turbine Pump Cycle efficiency Carnot Back work
added rejected power power % efficiency ratio
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) % %
2683.75 -1951.0 734.85 -2 27.3 38.2 0.27
• The presence of irreversibilities in the pump and in the turbine caused the efficiency to drop from 30.4
% to 27.3% and we noe that the quality is still low at 78.7%.

Example 4. Effect of Increasing Boiler Pressure – A potential for increase in efficiency.
Consider the same closed loop Rankine cycle as in the previous scenario but examine the effect of
increasing the boiler pressure from 2 MPa to 4 MPa (40 bar, Tsat = 250.4°C). Upon evaluation of the
properties at the various states, one gets:
h1 (unchanged ) = 113.25 kJ kg
h2 s Table
 →117.9 kJ
A- 5
kg
( s 2s = s1 = 0.3954 kgK
kJ
, and P2 = 40 bar)
[we have interpolat ed and created a column for enthalpy and a column for entropy at a pressure of 40 bar]
W& h − h2s h − h1
η Pump = s = 1 ⇒ h2a = h1 + 2s = 119.06 kJ
&
Wa h1 − h2 a η Pump kg
h3 = hg @40 bar Tabl;

 → 2801.4 kJ
e A-3
kg
s3 = s g @40 bar Tabl;

 → 6.0701 kgK
e A -3 kJ
s4 s − s f 6.0701 − 0.5926
s 4s = s f (1 − x ) + xs g ⇒ x4 s = = = 71.73%
sg − sf 8.2287 − 0.5926
h4 s = h f (1 − x ) + xhg = 1897.64 kJ
kg
W& h − h4 a
ηTurbine = & a = 3 ⇒ h4a = h3 − ηTurbine ( h3 − h4s ) = 1988.02 kJ
W s h3 − h4s kg
h4a − h f 1988.02 − 173.88

x4 = = = 75.53%. Still a low quality - a point of concern.
hg − h f 2577 − 173.88

Pump inlet (1) 27 0.08 113.25
Pump exit (2s) 27 40 117.90
Pump exit (2) 27 40 119.06
Boiler exit (3) 250.4 40 2801.4
Turbine exit (4s) 41.51 0.08 1897.64
Turbine exit (4) 41.51 (of quality, x = 75.53%) 0.08 1988.02

2682.34 -1874.77 813.38 - 5.81 30.11 42.67 0.71
• Note that compared to the closed scenario for which Pboiler = 20 bar, the efficiency increased from
27.3% to 30.11% and the quality of the steam exiting the turbine drops to 75.5% (a drawback).

• If the pressure had been increased to 2500 psia (~17 MPa) (common coal-fired boiler pressure), the
efficiency would be 34% and the exhaust quality will drop even further to 64%.
• We have just seen that η increases with increased Pboiler and decreased Pcondenser. However as Pboiler
increases and/or Pcondenser decreases, the quality (x) of the steam leaving the turbine decreases or
moisture increases. Moving to the right of the dome will help i.e. superheating might increase the quality
at the turbine exit.
Example 5. Effect of Superheating: A Potential for η increase and x increase
The combustion gases in the boiler normally are capable of increasing the temperature of the produced
steam beyond the saturation temperature. So, consider the boiler operating at 4 MPa (Tsat = 250.4 °C)
producing superheated steam (via a superheater using the same combustion gases as the boiler) at 540°C.
Still, the condenser pressure is 8 kPa and the pump and turbine isentropic efficiencies are 80 and 90 %,
respectively. Upon evaluation of the properties at the various states, one gets:
h1 (unchanged ) = 113.25 kJkg
h 2s (unchanged ) = 117.9 kJ
kg
W& s h1 − h 2s h − h1
η Pump = = ⇒ h2 a = h1 + 2 s = 119.06 kJ (just like previously )
&
Wa h1 − h2a η Pump
kg
h3 = h@(40 bar, 540 C) Tabl;

 → 3536.9 kJ
e A -4
kg
s 3 = s @(40 bar, 540 C) Tabl;

 → 7.2056 kgK
e A- 4 kJ
s4 s − s f 7.2056 − 0.5926
s 4s = s f (1 − x ) + xs g ⇒ x 4 s = = = 86.6%
sg − s f 8.2287 − 0.5926
h 4s = h f (1 − x ) + xhg = 2254.98 kJ
kg
W& a h3 − h4 a
ηTurbine = = ⇒ h 4a = h3 − ηTurbine ( h3 − h 4s ) = 2383.17 kJ
W& s h3 − h 4s kg
h − h f 1988.02 − 173.88
x4 = 4 a = = 91.94%. Substantia l steam quality.
hg − h f 2577 − 173.88
Pump inlet (1) 27 0.08 113.25
Pump exit (2s) 27 40 117.9
Pump exit (2) 27 40 119.06
Boiler exit (3) 540 40 3536.90
Turbine exit (4s) 41.51 0.08 2254.98
Turbine exit (4) 41.51 (of quality = x = 92 %) 0.08 2383.17


3417.84 - 2269.92 1153.75 - 5.81 33.6 63.1 0.50
• Note that comparing to the closed scenario for which saturation vapor exited the boiler, the efficiency
increased from 30.1% to 33.6% and, favorably, the quality of the steam exiting the turbine increased
from 75.5% to 92%.
• To avoid excessive moisture, superheat does help but not necessarily achieving the desired values of
steam quality (about 97 %). The answer is to reheat the steam.
Example 6. The Effect of Reheat: A Potential for η increase and x increase

The principle behind reheat is simple. Allow the superheated steam to produce power through expansion in
the high pressure turbine (3 → 4), go for reheat in the boiler to a high temperature again (4 → 5) at a constant
pressure, and expand in the low pressure turbine producing more power (5 → 6).
The Reheat Cycle:

• η increases with increased pboiler. However as pboiler increases, the desired quality level had not been
attained. To avoid excessive moisture, reheat the steam.
• Note that p3 > (p4 = p5) > p6. p4 is the intermediate pressure between the boiler and condenser
pressures.
• Only slight increase in η is expected (Increase ≈ 0.5%). However, this slight increase results in
substantial financial savings.
• Note that if metals can be found to handle superheated steam at (3’, not shown), then the Rankine cycle
would be a lot better than the Reheat and we would not need any reheat.
So, consider a reheat cycle with a boiler pressure of P3 = 4 MPa (40 bar) and having a T3 = 540 °C
superheat and T5 = 540 °C, P5 = 0.7 MPa (7 bar) reheat steam. Thus the high pressure (HP) turbine
expands the (40 bar, 540°C) steam to 7 bar. The steam at 7 bar is then reheated to 540 °C at a constant
pressure and fed into the low pressure (LP) turbine (η = 0.9), expanding to a condenser pressure of 8 kPa
(0.08 bar). Upon evaluation of the properties at the various states, one gets:

h 1 (unchanged ) = 113.25
kJ
kg
h 2 s (unchanged ) = 117.9
kJ
kg
W& s h1 − h 2s h 2s − h 1 kJ
η Pump = = ⇒ h 2a = h 1 + = 119.06 (just like previously )
W& a h1 − h 2 a η Pump kg
kJ
h 3 = h@(40 bar, 540 C) Table
 → 3536.9
A-4
kg
kJ
s 3 = s @(40 bar, 540 C) Table
 → 7.2056
A -4
kgK
s 4s = s 3 ; @ 7bar , s f = 1.9922, ands g = 6.7080; s 4s > s g ⇒ ( 4s ) is S.H .
h 4 s = f  s 4 s = 7.2056 , P4 = 7bar  Table

kJ kJ
 → 3007.66
A- 4
 kgK  kg
W& a h 3 − h 4a kJ
η Turbine = = ⇒ h 4a = h 3 − η Turbine ( h 3 − h 4 s ) = 3060.6
W& s h 3 − h 4s kg
h 4 a > h g @ 7bar ⇒ ( 4a) is S .H .

kJ
h 5 = h@(7 bar, 540 C)  → 3569.1
Table A - 4
kg
kJ
s 5 = s @(7 bar, 540 C) Table
 → 8.0362
A-4
kgK
s 6 s = s 5 ; @ 0.08bar , s f = 0.5926, ands g = 8.2287; s f < s 6 s < s g ⇒ ( 6s ) is a mixture

s 6s − s f
x 6s = = 97.5%
sg −s f
h 6 s = f ( x 6 s , P6 = 0.08bar ) = (1 − x 6 s ) h f + x 6s h g = (1 − 0.975)(173.88) − 0.975(2577 ) = 2516.92
kJ
kg
W& a h 5 − h6 a kJ
η Turbine = = ⇒ h 6a = h 5 − η Turbine ( h 5 − h 6 s ) = 2622.14
W& s h 5 − h 6s kg
h 6 > h g @ 0.08bar ⇒ (6a ) is S.H.

Pump inlet (1) 27 0.08 113.25
Pump exit (2s) 27 40 117.9
Pump exit (2) 27 40 119.06
Boiler exit (3) 540 40 3536.90
HP Turbine exit (4s) 275.6 7 3007.66
HP Turbine exit (4) 300.8 7 3060.6
LP Turbine inlet (5) 540 7 3569.1
After Reheat
LP Turbine exit (6s) 41.51 0.08 2516.92

LP Turbine exit (6) ~50 0.08 2622.14
One can easily compute various quantities of interest, noting that heat was added twice, the first time
between (2 → 3) and later between (4 → 5), power is produced twice (3 → 4) and (5 → 6).
Heat added Heat rejected Turbine power Pump power Cycle Carnot Back
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) efficiency efficiency work
% % ratio %
3417.84 + - 2508.9 476.3 + 946.96 -5.81 36.1 63.1 0.41
505.5 = = 1423.26
3926.34
• Comparing to superheating alone (done previously), the efficiency increased from 33.6 % to 36.1 %.
Even though this seems to be a slight increase, it does result in substantial financial savings.
• Repeated stages of reheat are sometimes employed, resulting in higher values of cycle efficiencies.
• Note that if metals can be found to handle superheated steam at (3’), where (3’) is the intersection of p3
and the vertical line from point 6, not shown, then the Superheat-Rankine cycle would be a lot better
(more efficient and economical) than the Reheat.
• Note that for all of the above examples, energy is conserved for each cycle. That is W& Net = Q& Net .
• We complete this example with the following question:
What is the ratio of the condenser cooling water flow rate (flowing in the tubes) to the steam flow rate
(flowing on the shell side of the condenser) if the cooling water is heated from 21 °C to 35 °C?
An energy balance requires that the heat given off by the steam must be picked up by the cooling water.
And from the 1st law of thermodynamics:
m& water (hout − hin ) = m& steam ( h6 − h1 )
m& water / m& steam = ( h6 − h1 ) /( hout − hin ) = ( h6 − h1 ) / C (Tout − Tin )
Recognizin g that the cooling water is compressed liquid undergoing a change in tempera ture but not a change
in pressure, ( hout − hin ) = C(Tout − Tin ). C is the specific heat of water being a liquid
(C = cp = cv for liquids and solids)
(2508.9 kJ / kg )
m& water / m& steam = = 43
( 4.179kJ / kgK )(35 − 21) K
The mass flow rate of water is 43 times that of steam (in this application).

Module 2 - Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
1. analyze a steam power cycle

2. explain the function of each of the basic components: boiler, turbine, condenser, and pump,etc.
3. compute the net power for the cycle

4. compute the thermal efficiency of the cycle
5. define an open system
6. define and recognize a pure compressible substance
7. specify the phase of a substance
8. relate the saturation temperature to the pressure and vice-versa.
9. specify the state of a substance in relation to the vapor dome : compressed liquid (subcooled liquid),
superheated vapor, saturated liquid, saturated vapor, critical state, and triple point
10. define and use flow work
11. define and use kinetic energy
12. define and use potential energy
13. define and use internal energy
14. define and use heat transfer rate
15. define and use shaft work or power
16. apply conservation of mass
17. apply conservation of energy (1st law of thermodynamics for an open system)
18. compute mass flow rate of a chunk of mass at a certain port
19. compute volumetric flow rate at a certain port
20. define steady-state-steady flow
21. define one-dimensional flow
22. define the four processes which make up the Rankine cycle
23. define and apply isentropic process
24. compute internal energy change of a liquid or a solid
25. compute enthalpy change of a liquid or a solid
26. compute entropy change of a liquid or a solid
27. define and compute isentropic pump work
28. define and compute the back work ratio
29. apply the compressed liquid approximation (if property tables don’t exist)
30. define the quality of a mixture and retrieve properties in the mixture region
31. define latent heat of vaporization/condensation

32. define the four processes that make up the Carnot vapor power cycle
33. explain and quantify the effect of lowering condenser pressure
34. explain and quantify the effect of increasing boiler pressure
35. explain and quantify the effect of accounting for irreversibilities
36. explain and quantify the effect of superheating
37. explain and quantify the effect of reheat
38. apply the 2nd law of thermodynamics for an open system
39. apply the isentropic or adiabatic efficiency for a turbine
40. apply the isentropic or adiabatic efficiency for a pump
Module 2 – Concepts list

steam power cycle
boiler
turbine
condenser
pump
power
thermal efficiency
open system
pure compressible substance
phase
saturation temperature
saturation pressure
compressed liquid
subcooled liquid
vapor dome
superheated vapor
saturated liquid
saturated vapor
critical state
triple point
flow work

kinetic energy
potential energy
internal energy
heat transfer rate
shaft work or power
conservation of mass
conservation of energy
1st law of thermodynamics for an open system
rate of energy change of a system
mass flow rate
volumetric flow rate
average velocity
cross-sectional area
steady-state-steady flow
one-dimensional flow
Rankine cycle
isentropic process
internal energy change of a liquid or a solid
enthalpy change of a liquid or a solid
entropy change of a liquid or a solid
isentropic pump work
back work ratio
compressed liquid approximation (if property tables don’t exist)
quality
properties in the mixture(wet) region
latent heat of vaporization/condensation
Carnot vapor power cycle
effect of lowering condenser pressure
effect of increasing boiler pressure

effect of accounting for irreversibilities

effect of superheating
effect of reheat
2nd law of thermodynamics for an open system
isentropic or adiabatic efficiency for a turbine
isentropic or adiabatic efficiency for a pump.

Corresponding Coverage in Your Textbook (Moran & Shapiro, 4th Edition):

(See attached table as well)
Chapter 3. Evaluating Properties (pp. 83 – pp. 110)

Sec. 3.1 Fixing a State
Sec. 3.2 p-v-T Relation
Sec. 3.3 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties.
Chapter 4. Control Volume Energy Analysis (pp. 142 – pp. 176)

Sec. 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume
Sec. 4.2 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume
Sec. 4.3 Analysis of Control Volume at Steady State.
Chapter 5. The second Law of Thermodynamics (pp. 227 – pp. 230)

Sec. 5.7 The Carnot Cycle.
Chapter 6. Using Entropy (pp. 343 – pp. 246) & (pp. 265 – 289)
Sec. 6.3 Retrieving Entropy Data
Sec. 6.6 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes
Sec. 6.7 Isentropic Processes
Sec. 6.8 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors and Pumps.
Chapter 8. Vapor Power Systems (pp. 372 – pp.393)

Sec. 8.1 Modeling Vapor Power Systems
Sec. 8.2 Analyzing Vapor Power Systems – Rankine Cycle
Sec. 8.3 Improving Performance – Superheat and Reheat.

Module II. - Vapor Power Systems Rankine

Cycle
1 Modeling 8.1, 8.2 372-374
2 Analysis 8.2 374-387
3 The Rankine Cycle 8.2 374-387
4 Control Volume Concept 1.2 4
5 Conservation Of Mass 4.1 142
6 Conservation Of Energy 2.1, 2.3, 4.2 35, 38, 52, 150
7 Properties And State Of A Substance
8 The Pure Substance 1.3, 3.1 7, 84
9 Vapor-Liquid-Solid-Phase Equilibrium In A Pure
Substance
10 Independent Properties Of A Pure Substance
11 Tables Of Thermodynamic Properties Table A-2 - A-18 804-836, 852-886
12 Computerized Tables
13 Equations Of State For The Vapor Phase Of A
Simple Compressible Substance
14 Irreversibilities 8.2.4 383-384
15 Carnot Cycle 8.2.3 382
16 Entropy Rate Balance For A Control Volume
17 Isentropic Processes
18 Isentropic Efficiencies Of Turbines, Nozzles,
Compressors, And Pumps
19 Effect Of Pressure And Temperature On The 8.3 387
Rankine Cycle (Superheat)
20 The Reheat Cycle 8.3 387-388
References:
[1]
Black & Veatch, “Power Plant Engineering”, Chapman & Hall, 1996
[2]
Moran & Shapiro, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

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Module 2 – Steam Power Cycle 03/15/06

Module 2 – The Steam Power Cycle

The basic systems are:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 1

Highly simplified schematics of a power plant are shown below[2]:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 2

Q1.What is the net power produced?

Example: Water as a pure substance:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 4

• It is worth observing the processes on a T-v diagram (Constant Pressure Line):

Phase Diagrams of a Pure Substance.

We also define the Critical and Triple Points:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 5

Separate Phase Diagrams.

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 6

@ time (t + ∆t), m = mcv(t + ∆t) + me

Note: mi and me are not necessarily equal.

• Equate: mi + mcv(t) = me + mcv(t + ∆t) or

• For more than one - inlet, one - outlet:

• Steady State Process: Properties do not vary with time: ∑ m =∑ m i e

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 7

• Substitute and collect terms:

• Divide throughout by ∆t and take lim∆t→0, we get:

• Recall that: Work = Force x Displacement (W = F * L), and that,

Flow Work per unit time = pe Ae Ve - pi Ai Vi

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 8

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 9

Axial Flow Turbine[2]

• Wsh = F. s = (τ/r) . (2 π n r) = 2 π n τ [kJ]

• The power transmitted through the shaft is Wsh = 2 π ω τ [kW]

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 10

Typical Schematics of some Heat Exchangers[2]

A useful diagram is a plot displaying temperature versus entropy (T-s diagram).

• In this analysis, we normally assume:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 11

Under SSSF, Negligible ∆KE and ∆PE, Single-Inlet, Single-Outlet conditions:

Boiler: QB = m( h3 − h 2 ) or qB = h3 - h2 ∴ p2 = p3; Heat In

Condenser: QC = m( h1 − h 4 ) or qc = h1 - h4 ∴ p1 = p4; Heat Out

Turbine: W T = m( h3 − h 4 ) or wT = h3 - h4 ∴ s4 = s3; Work Out

Pump: W P = m( h1 − h2 ) or wP = h1 - h2 ∴ s1 = s2; Work In

Since for a solid or a liquid: v is small ⇒ dh ≈ du = c dT where

From Tds = du + p dv ⇒ Tds = du or: ds = du/T

Recall also that: du = c(T) dT; c ≈ cp ≈ cv

ds = [c(T) / T]dT ⇒ (s2 - s1) = ∫[c(T) / T] dT

If c(T) = c, meaning the specific heat is not a strong function of T ⇒ (s 2 -s 1) = c ln(T2/T1).

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 12

⊕ Simplification on the Pump Work: W P = m( h1 − h2 )

h1 - h2 ≈ v (p1 - p2) where v = vfT1

⊕ Efficiency for the Cycle: The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 13

x = Quality ≡ mv/ (mv+ ml)

So, inside the mixture region, we look for the quality x ∴

⊕ Properties Tables (in your textbook):

Table Description Page #

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 14

A-4 Superheated Water Vapor (S.H.) 764

• A more descriptive temperature vs. entropy diagram is shown below as well:

Copyright © 2003, K. Nasr. All Rights Reserved. 15

• Let’s work out some problems:

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? h = 90.14 - 88.24 = 1.9 kJ/kg

s 4 = s 3 ( assu min g isentropic exp ansion ).