Chapter 4

EUCLIDEAN VECTOR SPACES

Contents
4.1 Vectors in n-space ................................................................................................................... 2
4.2 Linear Transformations From Rn To Rm ................................................................................ 8
4.3 Properties Of Linear Transformation ................................................................................... 20

1
4.1 Vectors in n-space

DEFINITION
If n is a positive integer, then an order n-tuple is a sequence of n real numbers (a1 , a2 , . . . , an)
The set of all ordered n-tuples is called n-space and is denoted by Rn.
R1 - R set of real numbers
R2 - ordered pair (a1 , a2)
R3 - ordered triple (a1 , a2 , a3 )
Rn. - ordered n-tuple (a1 , a2 , . . . , an)

The symbol (a1 , a2 , . . . , an) has two different geometric interpretation that is as a point or a
vector.

DEFINITION
1. Two vectors u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn) in Rn. are equal if u1 = v1 , u2 =
v2 , . . . , un = vn .

2. The sum u + v is defined by

u + v = ( u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ,... , un + vn )

3. If k is any scalar, the scalar multiple ku is defined by ku = ( ku1 , ku2 , . . . , kun )

The zero vector in Rn is denoted by 0 : 0 = (0, 0, . . . ,0)

If u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) in any vector in Rn then the negative (additive inverse) of u denoted by –u

–u = (–u1 , –u2 , . . . , –un)
The difference of vector in Rn is defined by u − v = u + (−v) = ( u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 ,... , un − vn )

−space
Properties of Vector Operations in n−
Properties of Vector in Rn

If u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) , v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn) and w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn) are vectors in Rn and k
and m are scalars then

(a) u+v=v+u
(b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
(c) u+0=0+u

2
 (d) u + (−u ) = 0
u – u = 0
(e) k( m u ) = ( k m ) u
(f) k (u + v) = ku + kv
(g) (k + m) u = ku + mu
(h) 1u=u

Example 1
Let u = (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) , v = ( 3, 2, 0, −4), w = ( 0, 1, 2, 3) , k = 2 and m = − 3 . Show that

(a) u+v=v+u
(b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
(c) u+0=0+u
(d) u + (−u ) = 0
u – u = 0
(e) k( m u ) = ( k m ) u
(f) k (u + v) = ku + kv
(g) (k + m) u = ku + mu
(h) 1u=u

Solution

(a) u+v=v+u
u + v = (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) + ( 3, 2, 0, −4) = (5 , 1 , 3 , 0 )
v + u = ( 3, 2, 0, −4) + (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) = (5 , 1 , 3 , 0 )

(b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
(u + v) + w = (5 , 1 , 3 , 0 ) + ( 0, 1, 2, 3) = (5 , 2 , 5 , 3 )

(c) u + (v + w) = (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) + [( 3, 2, 0, −4) + ( 0, 1, 2, 3)]

= (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) + (3 , 3 , 2 , −1)
= (5 , 2 , 5 , 3 )

(d) u+0=0+u
(2 , −1, 3, 4 ) + ( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0) = (2 , −1, 3, 4 )
( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0) + (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) = (2 , −1, 3, 4 )

3
 (e) u + (−u ) = 0
u – u = 0
(2 , −1, 3, 4 ) + − (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) = ( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0)

(f) k( m u ) = ( k m ) u
(2)(−3(2 , −1, 3, 4 )) = (2)(−6 , 3, −9 , −12 ) = (−12 , 6 , −18 , −24 )
(2)(−3) (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) = (−6) (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) = (−12 , 6 , −18 , −24 )

(g) k (u + v) = ku + kv
(2) (5 , 1 , 3 , 0 ) = ( 10 , 2 , 6 , 0 )
(2)(2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) + (2)( 3, 2, 0,−4) = ( 4 ,−2 , 6 , 8 ) + ( 6 , 4 , 0 ,−8 ) = ( 10 , 2 , 6 , 0 )

(h) (k + m) u = ku + mu
(2+(−3)) (2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) = (−1) (2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) = (−2 , 1, −3, −4 )
(2)(2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) + (−3) (2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) = ( 4 ,−2 , 6 , 8 ) + (−6 , 3, −9 , −12 )
= (−2 , 1, −3, −4 )

(i) 1u=u
(1)(2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) = (2 ,−1, 3, 4 )

Euclidean n-Space

Definition
If u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) are vectors in Rn , then the Euclidean inner
product u . v is defined by
u . v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + . . . +un vn

u . v
the dot product.

Example 2
Let u = (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) , v = ( 3, 2, 0, −4) in R4. Find u . v

Solution
u . v = (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) . ( 3, 2, 0, −4) = (2 )(3) + (−1)(2) + (3)(0) + (4 )(−4) = −12

4
Properties of Euclidean Inner Product

If u, v and w are vectors in Rn and k is any scalar, then

(a) u.v=v.u
(b) (u + v) . w = u . w + v . w
(c) (ku) . v = k( v . u)
(d) v.v≥0

Norm and Distance in Euclidean n-Space

Euclidean Norm (Euclidean Length) of vector u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) in Rn is

1
| | u || = ( u .u ) 2 = ( u 1 .u 1 ) + ( u 2 .u 2 ) ... + ( u n .u n )
2 2 2
= u 1 + u 2 ... + u n

Euclidean Distance between u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) in Rn is

d ( u , v ) = || u − v ||
= ( u1 − v1 ) 2 + ( u 2 − v 2 ) 2 ... + ( u n − v n ) 2

Example 3
Let u = (2 , −1, 3, 4 ) , v = ( 3, 2, 0, −4) in Rn . Find norm u and norm v and the distance
between u and v.

Solution
1
2 2 + (− 1 )
2
| | u || = ( u .u ) 2 = + 32 + 42 = 30
1
32 + 2 2 + 0 2 + (− 4 ) =
2
| | v || = ( v .v ) 2 = 29

d ( u , v ) = || u − v ||
= ( 2 − 3) 2 + ( − 1 − 2 ) 2 + (3 − 0 ) 2 + ( 4 − ( − 4 )) 2
= ( − 1) 2 + ( − 3) 2 + (3) 2 + (8 ) 2
= 83

5
 − SCHWARZ INEQUALITY IN Rn
CAUCHY−

Definition
If u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) and v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) are vectors in Rn , then

| u . v | ≤ ||u|| ||v||

| u . v | = | ||u|| ||v|| cos 0 | ≤ ||u|| ||v||

Properties of length in Rn
If u and v are vectors in Rn and k is any scalar, then

(a) || u|| ≥ 0

(b) || u|| = 0 if and only if u = 0

(c) || ku|| = |k| || u||

(d) || u + v|| ≤ || u || + || v || (Triangle inequality)

u v u+v

Properties of Distance in Rn
If u ,v and w are vectors in Rn and k is any scalar, then

(a) d (u,v) ≥ 0
(b) d (u,v) = 0 if and only if u = v
(c) d (u,v) = d (v, u)
(d) d (u,v) ≤ d (u,w) + d (w,v) (Triangle inequality)

If u and v are vectors in Rn with the Euclidean inner product, then

1 1
u . v = 4 ||u + v ||2 − 4 || u - v ||2

6
Orthogonality

Definition
Vectors u and v in Rn are called orthogonal if u.v = 0

Example 4
Let u = (2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) , v = ( 3, 4,−2, 1).Determine whether vectors u and v in Rn are orthogonal.

Solution
u.v =(2)( 3)+ (−1)(4) + (3)(−2) + ( 4 )(1) = 0

Therefore u and v are orthogonal.

Pythagorean Theorem in Rn

If u and v are orthogonal vectors in Rn with the Euclidean inner product, then

||u + v ||2 = || u ||2 + || v ||2

Example 5
Let u = (2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) , v = ( 3, 4,−2, 1). Find || u ||, || v || , u + v and || u + v ||.

Solution
1
2 2 + (− 1 )
2
| | u || = ( u .u ) 2 = + 32 + 42 = 30
1
3 2 + 4 2 + ( − 2 ) + 12 =
2
| | v || = ( v .v ) 2
= 30

u + v = (2 ,−1, 3, 4 ) + ( 3, 4,−2, 1) = ( 5 , 3 , 1 , 5 )

|| u + v || = 52 + 32 + 12 + 52 = 60

Try this.
Find ||u + v ||2 and || u ||2 + || v ||2. Is ||u + v ||2 = || u ||2 + || v ||2 ?

7
Notation for Vectors in Rn
 u1 
u 
Vector u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un) in Rn also can be written as u =  2 
 ⋮ 
 
 u n 
A Matrix Formula for the Dot Product

Example 6
 1  −2
 2   3 
Let u =
  and v =
  . Find u .v and v T u.
−3  1 
   
 4   0 

Solution

u .v =(1, 2 , −3 , 4) . (−2 , 3 , 1 ,0) =(1)(−2)+(2)(3) + (−3)(1) + ( 4)(0) = 1

 1 
 2 
v T u = [− 2 3 1 0 ]  = [( 1 ) ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( 1 ) + ( 4 ) ( 0 ) ] = [1 ]
−3
 
 4 

4.2 Linear Transformations From Rn To Rm

Consider a function of the form W = F(X)

A vector in Rm A vector in Rn

Functions from Rn to R
description
f (x) f(x) = x2 R
R
f (x , y) f(x , y) = x2 + y2 R2
R
f (x, y, z) f(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 R3
R
f (x1, x2, . . ., xn) f(x1, x2, . . ., xn) = x12+ x22+ . . .+ xn2 Rn
R

8
Functions from Rn to Rm
note
map f: Rn
Rm n>m
n<m
Rm f Rn n=m

Notes:
* Transformation is for Rn
Rm
* Operator is for Rn
Rn

Let f1 , f2, . . . , fn are real-valued function of n real variables, say

w1 = f1 (x1, x2, . . ., xn ) Linear transformation

w2 = f2 (x1, x2, . . ., xn ) or
: (operator if m=n)
wm = fm (x1, x2, . . ., xn )

These m equations assign a unique point (w1, w2, . . ., wn) in Rm to each point (x1, x2, . . ., xn)
in Rn . And thus define a transformation from Rn to Rm . If we denote this transformation by T,
then T : Rn
Rm

T (x1, x2, . . ., xn) = (w1, w2, . . ., wm)

Example 7
Find the standard matrix T for the linear transformation defined by the equation
w1 = 7x1 + 2x2 − 8x3
w2 = − x2 + 5x3
w3 = 4x1 + 7x2 − x3
then calculate T ( 1,−2, 3)

Solution

 7 2 −8
 
The standard matrix T =  0 −1 5  and
 4 7 −1
7 2 −8  1   −21
 −1 5   −2  =  17 
T ( 1,−2, 3) =  0
 4 7 −1  3   −13

9
Example 8
Find the standard matrix for the linear transformation defined by the formula

(a) T (x1, x2) = (2x1 − x2, x1 + x2, x1 −x2)

(b) T (x1, x2 , x3, x4) = ( x4, x1 , x3, x2, x1 −x3)

(c) T (x1, x2 , x3) = (3x1 −2x2 + 4x3, 5x1 −x3)

Solution

(a) T (x1, x2) = (2x1 − x2, x1 + x2, x1 −x2)

 2 −1
 
The standard matrix T =  1 1 
 1 −1

(b) T (x1, x2 , x3, x4) = ( x4, x1 , x3, x2, x1 −x3)

0 0 1
0
1 0 0
0

0 0 1 0
The standard matrix T =  
0 1 0 0
1 0 −1 0

(c) T (x1, x2 , x3) = (3x1 −2x2 + 4x3, 5x1 −x3)

3 −2 4 
The standard matrix T =  
5 0 −1

Notation
T : Rn
Rm . Also can be written as T A : Rn
Rm to emphasize that A is

standard matrix for T.

T A (x) = A x
column matrix

Other notation used : T (x) = [ T ] x

[ TA ] = A

10
Zero transformation : T 0 (x) = 0. x = 0 Zero vector

Zero matrix

Identity operator on Rn : T I (x) = I x = x

Reflection Operators
Consider T : R2
R2 maps each vector into its symmetric , image some line

1 0   −1 0 0 1 
[ T ]x =   , [ T ]y =   , [ T ] x=y =  
0 −1  0 1 1 0 

Example 9
Use matrix multiplication to find the reflection of (−1, 2) about the x−axis, y−axis and line x=y.

Solution

reflection of (−1, 2) about the x− axis

1 0   −1  −1
[ T ] x (−1, 2)= 
0 −1  2  =  −2  = (−1, −2)
    

reflection of (−1, 2) about the y− axis

 −1 0   −1 1 
[ T ] y (−1, 2) =     =   = (1, 2)
 0 1  2  2

reflection of (−1, 2) about the line x=y

 0 1   −1  2 
[ T ] x=y (−1, 2) = 1 0   2  =  −1 = (2, −1)
    

Consider T : R3
R3 maps each vector into its symmetric, image some plane.

1 0 0  1 0 0   −1 0 0 
     
[ T ] xy = 0 1 0  , [ T ] xz =  0 −1 0  , [ T ] yz =  0 1 0
 0 0 −1  0 0 1   0 0 1 

11
Example 10
Use matrix multiplication to find the reflection of (2,− 5,3) about the xy−plane, xz−plane and
yz−plane.

Solution

reflection of (2,− 5,3) about the xy−plane

1 0 0   2   2 
    
[ T ] xy (2,− 5,3) =  0 1 0   −5 =  −5  = (2, −5, −3)
 0 0 −1  3   −3

reflection of (2,− 5,3) about the xz−plane

1 0 0   2   2 
    
[ T ] xz (2,− 5,3) =  0 −1 0   −5 =  5  = (2,5,3)
 0 0 1   3   3 

reflection of (2,− 5,3) about the yz−plane

 −1 0 0   2   −2 
    
[ T ] yz (2,− 5,3) =  0 1 0   −5 =  −5 = (−2, −5,3)
 0 0 1   3   3 

Projection Operators

Consider T : R2
R2 that maps each vector into its orthogonal projection on a line through
the origin.

1 0  0 0
[ T ]x =  , [ T ]y =  ,
0 0  0 1 
Consider T : R3
R3 that maps each vector into its orthogonal projection on a plane through
the origin.

1 0 0  1 0 0  0 0 0 
     
[ T ] xy = 0 1 0  , [ T ] xz = 0 0 0 , [ T ] yz = 0 1 0 
 0 0 0   0 0 1  0 0 1 

12
Example 11
Use matrix multiplication to find the orthogonal projection of (−2, 1, 3) on the xy−plane,
xz−plane and yz−plane.

Solution

orthogonal projection on the xy−plane

 1 0 0   −2   −2 
    
[ T ] xy (−2, 1, 3) =  0 1 0   1  =  1  = ( −2,1, 0)
 0 0 0   3   0 

orthogonal projection on the xz−plane

 1 0 0   −2   −2 
    
[ T ] xz (−2, 1, 3) =  0 0 0   1  =  0  = ( −2, 0,3)
0 0 1   3   3 

orthogonal projection on the yz−plane

 0 0 0   −2   0 
    
[ T ] yz(−2, 1, 3) = 0 1 0   1  = 1  = (0,1,3)
0 0 1   3   3 

Rotation Operators

An operator [T] that rotates each vector in R2 through a fixed angle θ

y (x, y) x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
r

θ x

13
 rotate at θ w1 = r cos ( α + θ )
y (w1, w2) w2 = r sin ( α + θ )

 cos θ − sin θ 
[T]= 
cos θ 
(x, y)
 sin θ
θ
α
x

An operator [T ] that rotates each vector in R3 through a fixed angle θ

1 0 0  Counterclockwise rotation about

 − sin θ 
[ T ] x =  0 cos θ
the positive x− axis through an
angle θ
0 sin θ cos θ 

 cos θ 0 sin θ  Counterclockwise rotation

 0  about the positive y − axis
[ T ]y =  0 1
through an angle θ
 − sin θ 0 cos θ 

 cos θ − sin θ 0 Counterclockwise rotation about

 0 the positive y − axis through an
[ T ] z =  sin θ cos θ
 angle θ
 0 0 1 

Example 12
Use matrix multiplication to find the image of the vector (1, 3, −4) when it is rotated through an
angle of
a) 30o about the x−axis
b) −30o about the y−axis
c) 90o about the z−axis

14
Solution
(a) 30o about the x-axis

 
1 0 0 
1 0 0   
1  1 
(1, 3, − 4) =  0 − sin 30 °   3  =  0
3 1 
[T ] x cos 30 ° −  3 
2 2
 0 sin 30 ° cos 30 °   − 4     − 4 
0 1 3
 2 2 
 
 1 
   
 3 3 3 3 3
= + 2  =  1, + 2, − 2 3 
 2   2 2 
3 
 − 2 3
 2 

(b) −30o about the y−axis

 cos ( −30° ) 0 sin ( −30° )   1 

  
[ T ]y (1, 3, − 4) =  0 1 0  3 
 − sin ( −30° ) 0 cos ( −30° )   −4 

 3 1  3 
 0 −   +2 
 2 2  1   2 
=  0 1 0   3  =  3 
   
  1  3   −4   1 − 2 3 
 −  − 2  0 2   2 
 

 3 1 
=  + 2, 3, − 2 3 
 2 2 

15
(c) 90o about the z−axis

 cos 90° − sin 90° 0   1 

[T ] z (1, 3, − 4) =  sin 90° cos 90° 0   3 
 0 0 1   −4 

 0 −1 0   1   −3
= 1 0 0   3  =  1  = ( −3, 1, − 4)
 0 0 1   −4   −4 

Dilation Operator
If k is a nonnegative scalar, then the operator T(x) = kx on R2 or R3 is called a dilation with
factor k if k ≥ 1
(x, y) w (kx, ky)

Equations on R2 : w1 = kx k 0 
w2 = ky 0 k 
for k ≥1  

Equations on R3 : w1 = kx k 0 0 
w2 = ky 0 k 0 
w3 = kz  
 0 0 k 
for k ≥1

Example 13
Use matrix multiplication to find the dilation of (−2, 1, 3) with factor k = 3

Solution
3 0 0  −2  −6 
T ( − 2,1, 3) =  0 3 0   1  =  3  = ( − 6, 3, 9)
 0 0 3   3   9 

16
Contraction Operator
If k is a nonnegative scalar, then the operator T(x) = kx on R2 or R3 is called a contraction
with factor k if 0 ≤ k ≤ 1
(x, y) w (kx, ky)
x

Equations on R2 : w1 = kx
k 0 
for 0 ≤ k ≤ 1
0 k 
w2 = ky  

Equations on R3 : w1 = kx
k 0 0 
w2 = ky 0 k 0
w3 = kz for 0 ≤ k ≤ 1  
 0 0 k 

Example 14
Use matrix multiplication to find the dilation of (−2, 1, 3) with factor k = ½

Solution
 
½ 0 0   −2   −1 
T ( − 2,1, 3) =  0 ½ 0  1  = 1  = ( − 1, 1 , 3 )
    2  2 2
 0 0 ½   3   3 
 2 

Composition of Linear Transformation

Let T A : Rn
Rk then the transformation followed by T B : Rk
Rm

TA TB
Rn Rk Rm

T B oT A

17
This is called composition of T B with T A denoted by T B o T A defined as

(T B o T A)(x) = T B (T A(x))
= T BA(x)
= [T B ][ T A]  product

or (T B o T A)(x) = T B (T A(x))
= B [ A(x) ]
= BA(x)

Consider the linear transformations

Rn T1 T2 T3 Rm
Rk Rt

Composition T 3 o T 2 o T 1 : Rn
Rm

T 3 o T 2 o T 1 (x) = T 3(T 2 (T 1(x) ))

Standard matrices
[T 3 o T 2 o T 1] = [T 3][T 2][T 1] = T CBA

For T 1 = A , T2=B and T 3 = C

Example 15
Find the standard matrix for the stated composition of linear operators on R2
(a) A rotation of 60o , followed by an orthogonal projection on the x−axis, then followed by a
reflection about the line y = x

(b) A rotation of 15o , followed by a rotation of 105o then followed by a rotation of 60o

(c) A dilation with factor k = 2, followed by a rotation of 45o, then followed by a reflection
about the y−axis.

18
Solution

 1 − 3
 cos 60° − sin 60°   2

2 

(a) [ T1 ] =  sin 60° cos 60°  =
   3 1 
 
 2 2 
1 0 
[ T ]2 =  
0 0 

0 1 
[ T ]3 = 1 0 
 

 1 − 3
 0 1  1 0    0 0 
T = [T 3 o T 2 o T 1] =    2 2 =  
  1 − 3
1 0  0 0   3 1 
 2
  2 
 2 2 

 cos15° − sin15° 
(b) [ T1 ] =  
 sin15° cos15° 

 cos105° − sin105° 
[ T2 ] =  
 sin105° cos105° 

 cos 60° − sin 60°

[ T3 ] =  
 sin 60° cos 60° 

 cos180° − sin180°   −1 0 
T = [T 3 o T 2 o T 1] = 
sin180 ° cos180 °  =  0 −1
   

19
 2 0
(c) [ T1 ] =  
0 2
 1 1 
−
cos 45° − sin 45°   2 2
[ T2 ] =  = 
 sin 45° cos 45°   1 1 
 2 2 
 −1 0 
[ T3 ] =  
 0 1

 1   2 2 
1 −
 −1 0   −
2 2 0  2 2
= 
2
T = [T 3 o T 2 o T 1] =     0
 0 1  1 1   2   2 2 
 2 2   2 2 

4.3 Properties Of Linear Transformation

One-To-One Linear Transformations

Definition
A linear transformation TA : Rn
Rm is said to be one-to-one if T maps distinct vectors
(points) in Rn into distinct vectors (points) in Rm .
Rn Rm Rn Rm

one-to-one not one-to-one

Theorem : Equivalent Statements

If A is an nxn matrix and TA : Rn
Rm is multiplication by A, then the following statements
are equivalent
(a) A is invertible
(b) The range of TA is Rn
(c) TA is one-to-one transformation

20
Example 16
Prove A is one – one transformation

 cos 600 − sin 600 

A=  0 
 sin 60 cos 600 
Solution

1 3
−
− sin 60  1  1   3  3
0 0
cos 60 2 2
det( A) = = =     −  −   =1
sin 600  2   2   2   2 
0
cos 60 3 1
2 2

Since det(A) ≠ 0 , and by Equivalent Statement A is one – one transformation

Inverse of One-To-One Linear Operator

By equivalent statement

If TA : Rn
Rm is one-to-one linear operator, then TA : Rn
Rm is the inverse of TA

TA (TA (x)) = AA −1 x = I x = x
TA (TA (x)) = A −1 Ax = I x = x
TA oTA = T1 TA
TA oTA = T1 x w

TA
−1 −1
Also [T ] =[T ]

Example 17

 cos θ − sin θ 
T = 
 sin θ cos θ 

Therefore

 cos θ sin θ  cos(−θ ) − sin(−θ ) 

[T −1] =  −1
cos θ   sin(−θ ) cos(−θ ) 
= = [T ]
 − sin θ

21
Example 18
Determine whether the linear operator T : R2
R2 defined by the equation is one-to-one; if so,
find the standard matrix for inverse operator, and find T −1(w1 , w2 )
(a) w1 = x1 + 2x2 (b) w1 = 4x1 − 6x2
w2 = − x1 + x2 w2 = −2x1 + 3x2

Solution

 1 2 −1
1 1 −2 
T=   3 1 1 
(a) and T =
 −1 1 

1 1 −2   w1   31 − 3 2 
w 2w

= 
3 1 1   w2   w31 + w32 
T −1(w1 , w2 ) = 

 4 −6  −1
(b) T=   and T does not exist because det(T) = 12 − 12 = 0
 −2 3 

Properties of Linear Transformation

A transformation T : Rn
Rm is linear if and only if the following relationships hold for all
vectors u and v in Rn and for every scalar c.

(a) T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v) (b) T (u) = cT (u)

Example 19
Determine whether T : R2
R2 is a linear transformation
a) T (x, y) = ( x + 2y , x – y )
b) T (x, y) = ( x + 2 , y )
Solution
(a) T ( x, y ) = ( x + 2 y , x − y ) and Let u = ( x1 , y1 ) and v = ( x2 , y2 )

T (u + v) = T (( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 ))
= T ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
= ( ( x1 + x2 ) + 2 ( y1 + y2 ) , ( x1 + x2 ) − ( y1 + y2 ) )
= ( x1 + 2 y1 + x2 + 2 y2 , x1 − y1 + x2 − y2 )

22
 T (u ) + T (v) = T ( x1 , y1 ) + T ( x2 , y2 )
= ( x1 + 2 y1 , x1 − y1 ) + ( x2 + 2 y2 , x2 − y2 )
= ( x1 + 2 y1 + x2 + 2 y2 , x1 − y1 + x2 − y2 )
= T (u + v)

T (cu ) = T (c( x1 , y1 ))
= T (cx1 , cy1 )
= ( cx1 + 2cy1 , cx1 − cy1 )

cT (u ) = cT ( x1 , y1 )
= c ( x1 + 2 y1 , x1 − y1 )
= ( cx1 + 2cy1 , cx1 − cy1 )
= T (cu )

Thus , T is a linear transformation

(b) T ( x, y) = ( x + 2, y) and Let u = ( x1 , y1 ) and v = ( x2 , y2 )

T (u + v) = T (( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 ))
= T ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
= ( ( x1 + x2 ) + 2, ( y1 + y2 ) )
= ( x1 + x2 + 2 , y1 + y2 )

T (u ) + T (v) = T ( x1 , y1 ) + T ( x2 , y2 )
= ( x1 + 2, y1 ) + ( x2 + 2, y2 )
= ( x1 + x2 + 4 , y1 + y2 )
≠ T (u + v)
Thus , T is not a linear transformation

23
Example 20
Determine whether T : R3
R3 is a linear transformation
a) T (x, y, z) = ( x + 2y –z , y +3z)
b) T (x, y, z) = ( x – 2z + 1 , y + z)

Solution
(a) T ( x, y ) = ( x + 2 y − z , y + 3 z ) and Let u = ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = ( x2 , y2 , z2 )

T (u + v) = T (( x1 , y1 , z1 ) + ( x2 , y2 , z2 ))
= T ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
= ( ( x1 + x2 ) + 2 ( y1 + y2 ) − ( z1 + z2 ) , ( y1 + y2 ) + 3 ( z1 + z2 ) )
= ( x1 + 2 y1 − z1 + x2 + 2 y2 − z2 , y1 + 3 z1 + y2 + 3 z2 )

T (u ) + T (v) = T ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) + T ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
= ( x1 + 2 y1 − z1 , y1 + 3 z1 ) + ( x2 + 2 y2 − z2 , y2 + 3 z2 )
= ( x1 + 2 y1 − z1 + x2 + 2 y2 − z2 , y1 + 3 z1 + y2 + 3 z2 )
= T (u + v)

T (cu ) = T (c( x1 , y1 , z1 ))
= T (cx1 , cy1 , cz1 )
= ( cx1 + 2cy1 − cz1 , cy1 + 3cz1 )

cT (u ) = cT ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
= c ( x1 + 2 y1 − z1 , y1 + 3 z1 )
= ( cx1 + 2cy1 − cz1 , cy1 + 3cz1 )
= T (cu )

Thus , T is a linear transformation

24
(b) T ( x, y, z) = ( x − 2 z + 1 , y + z ) and let u = ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = ( x2 , y2 , z2 )

T (u + v) = T (( x1 , y1 , z1 ) + ( x2 , y2 , z2 ))
= T ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
= ( ( x1 + x2 ) − 2( z1 + z2 ) + 1 , (y1 + y2 ) + (z1 + z2 ) )
= ( x1 + x2 − 2 z1 − 2 z2 + 1 , y1 + y2 + z1 + z2 )
= ( x1 − 2 z1 + x2 − 2 z2 + 1 , y1 + z1 + y2 + z2 )

T (u ) + T (v) = T ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) + T ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
= ( x1 − 2 z1 + 1 , y1 + z1 ) + ( x2 − 2 z2 + 1 , y2 + z2 )
= ( x1 + x2 − 2 z1 − 2 z2 + 2 , y1 + y2 + z1 + z2 )
≠ T (u + v)

Thus , T is not a linear transformation

The properties T(u+v) = T(u) +T(v) an be extended to three or more terms.

For example, u ,v and w are any vectors in Rn , then T(u + v + w) = T(u) +T(v) + T(w)
In general, for any vectors v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v k in Rn then
T (v 1 + v 2 + . . . + v k) = T (v 1)+ T (v 2) +. . . + T (v k).

Now, to find the matrix A, let e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n be the vector

1  0 0
0  1  0
     
e1 =  ⋮  , e2 =  ⋮  , . . . , en = ⋮
     
0  0 1 

and let A be the matrix whose successive column vectors are T (e 1) + T (e 2) +. . . + T (e n) that is
A = [T (e 1) | T (e 2) | . . . |T (e n)]

 x1 
x 
If x =  2  is any vector in Rn , then the product Ax is a linear combination of
 ⋮  the column vectors of A with coefficient from x
 
 x n 

25
then
 x1 
x 
Ax = [T (e1) | T (e2 ) | . . . | T (en )]  2 
⋮
 
 xn 
= T (e1 ) x1 + T (e 2 ) x2 + . . . + T (en ) xn
= T (e 1x1 ) + T (e 2x2 ) + . . . + T (enxn )
= T (e 1x1 +e 2x2 + . . . + e nxn )
= T (x)

The vectors e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n are called the standard basis vectors for Rn .

Theorem
If T : Rn
Rm is a linear transformation, and e 1 , e 2 , . . ., e n are the standard basis vectors for
Rn, then the standard matrix for T is [T ] = [T (e 1) |T (e 2)|. . .|T (e n)]

Example 21
Find the standard matrix for the linear operator from the image of the standard basis vectors
a) the reflection operators on R2 about x − axis.
b) the reflection operators on R3 about yz − plane.
c) the rotation operator on R3 about z − axis.

Solution
(a) the reflection operators on R2 about x − axis

 1    1   0    0 
T   =   , T   =  
 0    0   1    −1

1 0 
[T ] =  
 0 −1

26
(b) the reflection operators on R3 about yz − plane.

 1    −1  0  0   0   0 

         
T  0   =  0  , T  1   = 1  , T   0   = 0 
 0    0     
      0    0   1   1 

 −1 0 0 
[T ] =  0 1 0 
 0 0 1 

(c) the rotation operator on R3 about z − axis

 1    cos θ    0    − sin θ   0   0 
       
T  0   =  sin θ  , T  1   =  cos θ  , T  0   =  0 
 0    0   0    0   1   1 
           

cos θ − sin θ 0
[T ] =  sin θ cos θ 0 
 0 0 1 

Example 22
Find the standard matrix for T : R3
R3 from the images of the standard basis vectors.

a) T : R3
R3 reflects a vector about the xz – plane and then contracts the vector by a
factor 1/5

b) T : R3
R3 reflects a vector about the xy – plane, then reflects that vector about the
xz –plane and then reflects that vector about yz-plane.

27
Solution
(a) T : R3
R3 reflects a vector about the xz – plane and then contracts the vector by a
factor 1/5
 1   1   0   0    0   0 
     
T1   0   =  0  , T1  1   =  −1 , T1   0   = 0 
 0  0   0   0   1   1 
           

1 0 0 
[T1 ] = 0 −1 0
 0 0 1 

1   
0
 1    5   0      0   0 
         
T2   0   =  0  T2  1   =   T2   0   =  0 
1
, ,
      5    
  0    0   0    0   1    1 
 
  5

1 
5 0 0
 
1
[T2 ] =  0 0

5
 
0 1
0
 5 

1  1 
5 0 0  0 0
  1 0 0  5 
0   0 0  =  0
1 1
[T ] = [T2 • T1 ] =  0 
−1

− 0

5 5
  0 0 1   
0 1  0 1
0 0
 5   5 

28
(b) T : R3
R3 reflects a vector about the xy – plane, then reflects that vector about the xz –
plane and then reflects that vector about yz-plane.
 1   1   0  0   0  0
  0    1    0
T1   0   =   , T1   1   =   , T1   0   =  
 0   0   0   0   1    − 1
     

1 0 0
[T1 ] =  0 1 0 
 0 0 − 1

 1   1   0  0  0   0 
  0    − 1   0 
T2   0   =   , T2   1   =   , T2   0   =  
 0    0     1  
    0    0     1 

1 0 0
[T2 ] =  0 − 1 0 
 0 0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 0  1 0 0 
[T ] = [T2 • T1 ] = 0 −1 0 0 1 0  = 0 −1 0 
0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 −1

Theorem : Equivalent Statements

If A is an nxn matrix and ifTA : Rn
Rn is multiplication by A, then the following

statements are equivalent

(a) A is invertible
(b) The Ax = 0 has only trivial solution
(c) The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices
(e) Ax = b is consistent for every nx1 matrix b
(f) Ax = b has exactly one solution
(g) det(A) ≠ 0
(h) The range of TA is Rn
(i) TA is one-to-one

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