Women Ent Review of Literature 4

Women Entrepreneurs in the Global Economy
Susanne E. Jalbert, Ph.D.
March 17, 2000
1
Table of Contents
Preface by Phyllis Bonanno:

Women: The Emerging Economic Force 3
Executive Summary 7
Introduction 9
Section 1: Review and Analysis of Current Literature 14
Women Business Owners 15
Women Business Owners Active in NGOs 17
Women’s Participation in the Economy 18
General Literature 19
Section 2: What Women Entrepreneurs Bring to the Global Economy 22

Why Women Start Businesses 22
Female Contributions to the Global Market 24
Barriers Faced by Women Doing International Business 25
A. Credit Barriers 26
B. Technology, Education, Training 28
C. Double Shift, Double Burden 30
Characteristics of Women Entrepreneurs 31
Entrepreneurs Functioning as Role Models 32
Economic Impact of Women Entrepreneurs 33
Section 3: Women’s Business Associations 38

The Impact of Business Associations 39
Role of Women’s Business Associations 42
Role of Women’s Business Associations in Promoting
International Trade 44
Section 4: Global Data on the Status of Women Entrepreneurs 48

International Trade Impact 48
An Action Agenda 49
Conclusions 58
References 60
2
Women: The Emerging Economic Force
By Phyllis Bonanno
As technology speeds up lives and the new millennium is now upon us, it
is useful to take time to reflect on what will surely be one of the driving
forces of the global economy of the 21st century. Women are an emerging
economic force that policymakers cannot afford to ignore. What are the
implications of this for businesswomen throughout the world? How can
women’s business associations best channel this potential and maximize it to
improve the status of women in the world economy?
The world’s modern economy, and in fact democracy, depends on the
participation of both sexes. Wouldn’t it be ideal to envision as normal a
global international order based on democracy, free enterprise, and
international law? Since no such system has ever existed, this system looks
utopian, if not naive. However, governments and institutions promoting
democratic values make a real difference in women’s business organizations
in newly emerging market democracies.
In the global economy of the 21st century, international trade will be a
key source of economic growth and development. Recent surveys conducted
in several countries by the National Foundation of Women Business Owners
(NFWBO) indicate that women-owned firms involved in the global marketplace
3
have greater revenues, are more optimistic about their business prospects
and are more focused on business expansion than women-owned firms that
are domestically oriented. Obviously, expanding into international trade can
pay off for women-owned firms. However, it is not clear that smaller
enterprises are benefiting from this potential as much as larger firms.
Women's business associations can and should ensure that their
members—large and small—are equipped to reap the rewards of expanding
into the international arena. Women must learn how to play the international
trade game, and a global network of women's business associations can help
them do that. Information technology can help identify markets, provide
industry information and spotlight trends about what the role of women in
national economies can be. More information about women-owned business
enterprises is sorely needed to force policymakers to realize that women are
an economic force to be reckoned with. Part of this process is to document
the economic significance of women-owned enterprises in order to establish
a constructive dialogue. What women’s business organizations (WBOs) can
provide may be summed up in three words: access, organization, and
advocacy.
4
❑ Access. WBOs can offer access to contacts for sources of credit, access
to training in international trade issues, access to mentoring, as well as
access to the more basic skills of operations management and marketing.
The importance of access to information technology cannot be
underestimated. Information technology can help identify markets, provide
important industry information, spotlight trends, and highlight potential
niches.
❑ Organization. WBOs can advance women within the business community,
identify their interests, and advocate for them. CIPE's upcoming June 2000
conference for directors of women's business associations and women
entrepreneurs is designed to deliver valuable practical information on how
these groups can expand their capacity and better serve the needs of the
women's business community worldwide.
❑ Advocacy. WBOs can demonstrate how successfully targeted advocacy is
critical if women are to overcome the institutional and informal constraints
that continue to hamper them in many parts of the world. Advocacy can
increase access to education, foster the growth and dynamism of women-
owned firms, spur reform of laws, raise the awareness of international
5
development organizations, and alert trade negotiators to consciously
communicate ramifications of trade pacts. Most importantly, advocacy can
change attitudes.
One thing is certain. The national business associations and
policymakers of the world can no longer ignore the burgeoning power of
women in the world economy. Encouraging that realization and helping it take
root sooner rather than later must be our major goal for the new millennium.
Phyllis O. Bonanno is a CIPE board member, and an independent international

consultant.
6
Executive Summary
Today’s world is changing at a startling pace. Political and economic
transformations seem to be occurring everywhere—as countries convert
from command to demand economies, dictatorships move toward
democracy, and monarchies build new civil institutions. These changes have
created economic opportunities for women who want to own and operate
businesses. Today, women in advanced market economies own more than
25% of all businesses1 and women-owned businesses in Africa, Asia, Eastern
Europe, and Latin America are growing rapidly.2
In some regions of the world, transformation to a market economy
threatens to sharpen gender inequality. Some of these changes are simply
the legacy of a gender imbalance that existed prior to political and economic
reforms. Other changes reflect a return to traditional norms and values
that relegated women to a secondary status. As countries become more
democratic, gender inequalities lessen; thus, offering a more productive
atmosphere for both sexes. This paper examines how women entrepreneurs
affect the global economy, why women start businesses, how women’s
7
business associations promote entrepreneurs, and to what extent women
contribute to international trade.
Women’s business associations play a vital role in identifying
appropriate and/or emerging sectors where women entrepreneurs can
succeed. The areas that are likely to take off quickly during a nation’s
market revitalization are public relations, transport, delivery, producing and
marketing consumer goods, commercial banking, financial services,
insurance, and other service-related industries. In this process, women
business owners are innovators, job creators, and providers of economic
security. As owners of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) women
can also supply multinational companies with ideas, inventions, technology,
raw materials, supplies, components, and business services. Ultimately,
female business owners will be recognized for who they are, what they do,
and how significantly they impact the global economy. Change is afoot in the
global economy and it is bearing a woman’s face.
1
National Foundation of Women Business Owners. Women entrepreneurs are a growing trend.
1998.
2
OECD, Women entrepreneurs in small and medium enterprises. 1998. United Nations, Women
in a changing global economy: 1994 World survey on the role of women in development. 1995.
8
Introduction
“Global markets and women are not often used in the same sentence, but
increasingly, statistics show that women have economic clout—most visibly
as entrepreneurs and most powerfully as consumers.”
Irene Natividad,
1998 Summit Director, The Fifth Global Summit of Women and
Chair Woman, US National Commission on Working Women1
Worldwide, many women are entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship emerges
from an individual’s creative spirit into long-term business ownership, job
creation, and economic security. Women bring commitment and integrity
because they care about economic empowerment, entrepreneurial
development and innovation. Female entrepreneurs seek the professional
and personal support that is found in business associations. Economic
globalization has encouraged the expansion of female business ownership. “.
. . The growing economic power and influence of women-owned businesses
are changing the shape of the global economy,” remarked Sakiko Fukuda-
Parr, director of the UN Development Program’s Human Development
Report. 2
The global impact of women entrepreneurs is just beginning to gain
intensity. Worldwide, the number of female business owners continues to
9
increase steadily. For example, women produce more than 80 percent of the
food for Sub-Saharan Africa, 50-60 percent for Asia, 26 percent for the
Caribbean, 34 percent for North Africa and the Middle East, and more than
30 percent for Latin America. 3 Female entrepreneurs are active at all levels
domestically, regionally, and globally.
A recent United Nations report concluded that economic development
is closely related to the advancement of women. In nations where women
have advanced, economic growth has usually been steady. By contrast, in
countries where women have been restricted, the economy has been
stagnant. According to the 1995 UN survey, “two changes have occurred
over the past 10 years in the enabling environment for women in the
economy. One is the establishment of legal equality for women. The other is
granting women equal access to education and training.” Women
entrepreneurs are significantly affecting the global economy (see box 1).
Box 1. Ownership Facts
• Women in advanced market economies own more than 25% of all

businesses
• In Japan - 23% of private firms are established by women
• In Russia - women own 64% of firms employing 10 people or more
• In China - women founded 25% of the businesses since 1978
• In Germany - women have created one-third of the new businesses since
1990 representing more than one million jobs
• In Europe and Newly Independent States Transition Economies - women are
25% of the business owners
10
• In Hungary - women started more than 40% of all businesses since 1990
• In Poland - women own 38% of all businesses
• In Mexico - 32% of women-owned businesses were started less than 5
years ago
• In France - women head one in four firms
• In Swaziland - Women account for about 70% of micro, small, and medium
enterprises
• In USA - women own 38% of all businesses (8 million firms), employ 27.5
million people (or 1 in 5 workers), and generate $3.6 trillion in annual sales
• In Great Britain - Women are one-fourth of the self-employed sector
• In the EU - one-third of new businesses are started by women
Sources: Estes, 1999; NFWBO, 1998; Women in Business-Lesotho, 1998; Jalbert, 1999c;
Carter & Cannon, 1992.
Growth in many countries, whether developed, developing, or
transitional, has been driven by trade. Evidence suggests a gender dimension
to trade development, which the UN’s International Trade Centre (ITC) has
addressed. Three factors galvanized the ITC to focus on female
entrepreneurship and trade. First is the expanding private sector, where
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are playing an increasingly large
role in developing and transitional countries. Second is the shift in general
economic policy from inward-looking, import-substitution policies to outward-
looking, market-oriented strategies. Third is that an increasing number of
SMEs are female owned and engage in international trade. This has enhanced
the visibility of women business owners around the globe.
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Entrepreneurship, the act of business ownership and business creation,
is a relatively new concept in many developing and transitional economies. In
the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, the demise of
dictatorships such as in Malawi as recently as 1994, has spurred female
entrepreneurial activity. In Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia the
catalyst for entrepreneurship was the end of the Cold War. Dr. Zoya
Khotkina, a senior researcher at Moscow’s Russian Academy of Sciences
Gender Centre, trains and consults potential entrepreneurs. Dr. Khotkina
stated, “The economic effect has yet to be seen, since there are no
statistics on [women entrepreneurs] as yet, and the process of women
setting up small enterprises, firms, foundations and associations, which
began so recently, is so dynamic that even information a month old is out of
date.” 4
Dr. Khotkina’s remarks could easily pertain to other regions of the
world as well. A highlight of CIPE’s 1997 conference “Organizing for
Success” was Jehan Sadat’s opening address titled Women: Preparing for
the Future. Mrs. Sadat noted, “in the most developed countries, business
women are off and running, while those in the less developed ones are taking
small steps . . . and there are those who yet realize that they too can enter
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the race.” 5 Khotkina and Sadat concur that female entrepreneurship is
catching on with great rapidity.
The purpose of this paper is the following:
• To survey the current literature concerning women business owners,
• To explore the role of women entrepreneurs in a global economy,
• To examine how women’s business associations can strengthen women’s
position in business and international trade, and
• To indicate areas in need of further research so that our understanding
of economic contributions by female enterprise owners is more
comprehensive.
1
WomenConnect.com. Study: Women impact global market. [On-line]. 1999.
2
Ibid.
3
Foster, as quoted in Roy, K.C., Tisdell, C.A., & Blomqvist, H.C. Economic development and
women in the world community. Praeger. 1996.
4
Khotkina, Zoya. Women in the labour market: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Verso. 1994.
5
Sadat, Jehan. Conference entitled: Women: Preparing for the Future. Center for International
Private Enterprise, Washington, DC. 1997.
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SECTION 1
REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT LITERATURE
"Entrepreneurship offers tremendous opportunities for women across

the world by opening doors to greater self-sufficiency, self-esteem,
education, and growth – not only for the women themselves, but also for
their families and their employees. And women are changing the face of
business ownership internationally; between one-quarter and one-third of
the world’s businesses are owned by women. As their numbers grow
and as their businesses prosper, they will change the way
the world does business."
Julie R. Weeks, 1 Director of Research

National Foundation for Women Business Owners
Material for this paper was gathered through field work (surveys,
focus groups, and interviews) and through examining the existing published
research. Most of the available literature on women’s business ownership
has concentrated on entrepreneurial development in industrialized countries
at the national level and within the less developed informal sector. Very
little is available on the role of women entrepreneurs in a global economy.
The available literature fell into four broad categories.
1. Women business owners—demographics, characteristics, strengths, and
weaknesses
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2. Women business owners active in non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
and their networking activities
3. Women’s participation in developing and transitional economies
4. General literature on poverty alleviation; microenterprises; small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs); microcredit; barriers to entering
business; feminist perspectives; and women’s business management
issues, styles, and techniques.
Women Business Owners
Many people have observed that self-employed women are contributing
in significant ways to economic health and competitiveness in countries
around the world. While specific theories about women entrepreneurs have
not been fully developed, theories about business ownership in general are
well advanced and accessible. This segment of the paper synthesizes a
variety of perspectives based on the general literature about women
business owners. The literature review touches upon assets, barriers,
characteristics, and economic impact. These topics are expanded upon in
Section 2: Women Entrepreneurs in a Global Economy.
Cultural and social traditions play a large role in determining who within
a society becomes an entrepreneur. For example, social conditions in some
15
societies inhibit women from starting their own businesses. For a female
business owner, the process of starting and operating a new enterprise can
be difficult because often they lack the skills, education, and support
systems that can expedite their business pursuits. Women’s motivations
for starting a business are related to their need to be independent, achieve
job satisfaction, attain personal accomplishment and fulfillment, be creative
and economically self-sufficient.
Men and women entrepreneurs are found in two distinct sectors: the
formal or traditional mainstream sector, and the informal or marginalized
sector. An informal sector that operates outside the formal sector is very
active in developing and transitional economies. Informal economic activities
and their related incomes and outlays often escape statistical reporting; yet
self-employment is an important economic opportunity for women. OECD’s
Bernard Ducheneaut added that the challenges facing women’s businesses
are common to all small and mid-sized enterprises, such as financing,
globalization of social and economic environments, marketing, and
management. There are even more difficult barriers, like banking, legal
aspects, political contacts, customs tariffs, bureaucracy, and extortion that
must be overcome in developing and transitional countries. In order to
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mitigate these marketplace challenges and gain a sense of community,
women actively seek out and participate in business associations.
Women Business Owners Active in NGOs
Literature about women business owners often discusses the
supportive role that women’s business associations perform. The NGO
approach, as the West defines it, is a relatively new concept in many
developing economies. A recent handbook, published by the Center for
International Private Enterprise, notes:
Though associations are not new phenomena in most parts of the

world, their operations and methodologies have historically
differed depending on their existing economic underpinning.
Associations in governmental-planned and -controlled systems
customarily performed public functions and were not involved in
efforts to expand job opportunities in their nations’ private
sectors. In contrast, associations in market-based economies
have always played a significant role, not only in shaping
investment and performance decisions for free enterprises, but
also in determining public policy decisions affecting private
business interests. 2
Why are NGOs important in a developing or transitional economy? Women
organize NGOs to overcome isolation, achieve goals, gain support, educate,
train, market products and services, promote one another’s interests, and
expand their businesses. Women’s business organizations offer a venue and
resources for females seeking to set up a business. Andrina Lever,
17
President of Women Entrepreneurs of Canada, noted “It is a source of
considerable comfort to know that you are not the first or only person to
have ever experienced cash flow problems, growth challenges, balancing
family, and career obligations or just being overwhelmed...” 3 NGOs are
vitally important to the health of budding enterprises and can help women
achieve access to the building blocks of a successful business—finance,
markets, information, training, influence on policymakers, support, role
models, and mentors. While NGOs are important for many reasons, perhaps
the key one is that they provide a collective voice to advocate for public
policies that benefit members.
Women’s Participation in the Economy
Unemployment and underemployment looms large for women in the
Newly Independent States (NIS) and Central and Eastern Europe. Gail Lapidus
delineated three features of the former communist system (which generally
apply to other regions) that deserve emphasis for their role in shaping
women’s economic position:
1. Women must overcome sexual stereotyping of occupations which is
sustained by governmental policies and societal attitudes.
2. Female occupational choices are profoundly influenced by men’s authority.
18
Women who pursued demanding careers encountered subtle but
widespread societal prejudices.
3. Because women are expected, culturally and at times legislatively, to
assume household responsibilities, they are subject to a double-shift
burden.
General Literature
The fourth category of literature was the most difficult to review and
synthesize primarily because of its sheer volume and diversity. Topics
concerning poverty alleviation, microenterprise, microcredit, barriers to
entering business, feminist perspectives, business management,
organizational and/or enterprise structure, and training issues tend to
overlap so much that singling out one is difficult. Four subjects were
completely intertwined: poverty alleviation, microenterprise, microcredit, and
barriers to entering business. The literature concerning poverty alleviation
cited numerous cases where microcredit significantly improved the well-being
of women and their families.
One recurrent theme is women’s difficulty in obtaining credit as a key
stumbling block to starting a business. “Why is it assumed that a street-
seller must grow into a restaurant to be worthy of credit, or that a weaver
19
of fine fabrics must start employing up to five helpers to be considered a
success?” 4 Credit is not the only barrier to entering business. The
literature indicates that feminist or anti-feminist perspectives, management
skills, understanding organizational structures, and training/re-training
issues are hurdles as well.
Setting up microenterprises, small and medium-sized enterprises in
both formal and informal economic sectors is now being proposed as a way
to achieve sustainable socio-economic development and eliminate poverty.
“Where the poor and unemployed are clustered, micro, small and medium-
scale enterprise projects support a variety of enterprises in all sectors
including manufacturing, trade and service . . .” 5 There is a discernible
difference between large free-market enterprises that focus on profit-
making, growth, and market expansion as opposed to microenterprises that
focus on family subsistence.
The literature review revealed how women entrepreneurs affect and
are affecting political, economic, cultural and social spheres. The shape,
scope, and perception of the current global entrepreneurial movement
cannot be understood without directly observing, surveying, and interviewing
women entrepreneurs at work. While it has become easier to find
information about poverty alleviation, microenterprise, micro-finance,
20
barriers to entering business, business management, enterprise structure,
and training issues, the crucial missing link is basic information about women
business-owners. One specific suggestion is to incorporate gender
categories when collecting data on SMEs. The world will never know the true
impact of women entrepreneurs upon the global economy or a country’s
economy without nationally gathered, statistically accurate, and timely data.
1
Weeks, Julie. Personal communication. 2000.
2
Milner, Larry S. Business associations for the 21st century, a blueprint for the future.
Center for International Private Enterprise. 1997. p. 11.
3
Lever, Andrina. Women’s business organizations: the hidden strengths and potential. Economic
reform today. 1997. p. 4.
4
Tinker, I. Women in micro- and small-scale development. Westview Press. 1995. p.31.
5
Creevey, L. Changing women’s lives and work. IT Publications. 1996, p. 1.
21
SECTION 2
WHAT WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS BRING TO THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
“More women than men in this country know where there is a market in
places as far as Mauritius, South Africa, Hong Kong, and London.”
Liz Chitiga, Chief Executive,

Minerals Marketing Corporation1
In the United States, entrepreneurship among women has passed the
test of time. It has, in fact, survived and grown significantly the past three
decades. Globally, evidence is mounting that business ownership by women is
on the rise. The defining feature of entrepreneurship in today’s global
economy is the focus on change in women’s lives, particularly for political
and economic empowerment that translates into access to financial
resources, increased opportunity for education and training, power to affect
decisions in their communities, and autonomy in personal life choices.
Why Women Start Businesses
D. P. Moore and E. H. Buttner suggest that women started their own
businesses from a desire for self-determination and for career challenge,
and that they expect the corresponding respect, recognition, and self-
22
esteem that both self-determination and challenge provide. Primarily,
entrepreneurship is a survival instinct that motivates women to start a
business. Around the world, dismal economic conditions, high unemployment
rates, and divorce catapult women into entrepreneurial activities. Desperate
to put food on the table for their children, women are defying societal norms
in order to survive.
Entrepreneurship is a highly personal, subjective process. Becoming an
entrepreneur is an evolution of encountering, assessing, and reacting to a
series of experiences, situations, and events produced by political,
economical, social, and cultural change. These diverse circumstances
prompt individual entrepreneurs to modify their personal living conditions.
Women who own and operate a business are not a homogeneous group.
Cultural and social patterns prescribe whether a woman can become an
entrepreneur within her society or not. Some constraints are obvious;
others are disguised in patriarchal heritage within cultures that preclude
female entrepreneurship. As Jehan Sadat said referring to business
ownership, there are those who yet realize that they too can enter the race.
But in spite of many obstacles, women somehow find a way to engage in
entrepreneurial activities. When the issue of entrepreneurship is at stake,
23
the question should not be a matter of “can she” or “why does she” but
“how does she” and “where can she go for help.”
For the woman entrepreneur, the process of starting and operating a
new enterprise can be tremendously difficult in both the formal and informal
sector because she often lacks the skills, education, and societal support
system to facilitate her efforts. Although women’s efforts may be thwarted
in many ways “entrepreneurship among women is a vibrant and growing trend
internationally,” noted NFWBO Director of Research Julie R. Weeks.2 Today
female business owners are making significant contributions to global
economic health, national competitiveness, and community commerce.
Female Contributions to the Global Market
Women business owners bring many assets to the global market.
Female entrepreneurs have demonstrated the ability to build and maintain
long-term relationships and networks, to communicate effectively, to
organize efficiently, to be fiscally conservative, to be aware of the needs of
their environment, and to promote sensitivity to cultural differences.
Women’s enterprises are qualitatively different from men’s. Studies
indicate that women business owners create a clear culture of their own.
Female enterprises tend to center on the delivery of services responding to
24
traditionally unsatisfied needs. Author Sally Helgesen commented that
women managers liberally seek information, exchange ideas with others, and
let information crystallize before making a final decision. Women
entrepreneurs show a tremendous willingness to seek business guidance and
education to compensate for perceived weaknesses.
Barriers Faced by Women Doing International Business
Obstacles that women face in international business include limited
international business experience, inadequate business education, and lack of
access to international networks. Challenges common to all enterprises
include securing funding, developing marketing and management skills, and
devising suitable business strategies to thrive in globalized social and
economic environments. Other impediments for women are societal,
cultural, and religious attitudes. In revitalizing economies they may also face
intractable infrastructure problems.
In reviewing the NFWBO 1998 surveys from Argentina, Mexico, Brazil,
Ireland, Russia, and Latin-and Iber-American countries, the uppermost
business concerns are making profits, hiring and keeping qualified employees,
acquiring state-of-the art technology, complying with government laws and
policies, obtaining business management training, securing adequate credit,
25
and improving the overall state of the economy. These obstacles parallel
concerns of women business owners in the US, Canada, and Britain. Other
researchers in developing and transitional economies point out the problems
of gender discrimination under patriarchal traditions, double-shift syndrome,
and corruption.
Credit Barriers
The importance of access to credit is identified as a major barrier to
entry into self-employment throughout the world. Women setting up
microenterprises, SMEs, or formal large-scale businesses all encounter
varying degrees of difficulty in obtaining capital, collateral, and fair lending
terms. In fact, according to a study by Peggy Clark and Amy Kays, 41% of
entrepreneurs report that lack of money is the greatest obstacle to starting
a business, and 47% cite lack of capital as the greatest barrier to business
growth.
Women in particular tend to seek small personal loans because, in
general, they tend to start small firms. The banking world has thus far
shown little interest in small loans or microcredits, given the relatively high
handling costs, with the result that institutionalized banking practices
remain, for the most part, rigidly opposed to microcredit concepts.
26
Conversations with Bank of America, NationsBank, Key Bank, and Norwest
loan officers indicate that profit margins are too narrow for traditional
banks to enter the microcredit market. Banks, not surprisingly, are inclined
toward low-risk ventures. Women were more likely to observe that they
were not given due respect by financial institutions; they did not think their
account managers were easy to talk to; they reported that they were not
made to feel comfortable by financial institutions; and they perceived that
bank employees discriminated against women. Bankers’ pessimistic view of
women’s creditworthiness fosters a reluctance to grant credits. This
constitutes another obstacle to female entrepreneurship.
On the positive side, however, the number of groups offering
microenterprise credit had grown to an estimated 3,000 worldwide by 1998,
reaching some 8 million people. The popularity of the microcredit strategy
propelled a global movement toward making micro-loans available to people all
over the world. Advocacy groups, existing banks, NGOs, and alliances such
as the International Coalition on Women and Credit, RESULTS Education Fund
(USA), Women’s World Bank, Grameen Bank (Bangladesh), Accion
International (USA), FINCA (USA), SEWA (India), VOICE (Africa) and many
others promoted the idea of microcredit microenterprises in policy circles.
The 1997 Microcredit Summit was a high point in mainstreaming the
27
microcredit approach by bringing together leaders of governments and
development organizations. In 1997, the Microcredit Summit launched its
“global campaign to reach 100 million of the world’s poorest families,
especially the women of those families by the year 2005.”3 Increasingly,
development agencies including USAID and the UN are making microenterprise
programs part of their tool chest (see box 2).
Box 2. Credit Programs
• In Georgia, women make up 30% of the borrowers at the Microfinance

Bank of Georgia with an average loan size of $7,000.
• In Ukraine, women obtained 38% of EBRD Small Business Fund loans and
women represent 35% of the entrepreneurs purchasing newly privatized
land parcels.
• In Malawi, a microfinance regulatory framework and strategy were
launched in 1998.
• In Bangladesh, Grameen Bank reports a loan repayment rate of 95-98%
from women entrepreneurs.
• USA based Accion International disbursed 270,000 loans to entrepreneurs
in 14 countries disbursing $330 million with a payback rate of 98%.
Sources: Accion International, 1997; Counts, 1996; Estes, 1999; Shawa, 1999.
Technology, Education, Training
Creating educational tactics for improving technical skills is
fundamental for entrepreneurial growth. Technology, education, and training
issues are tightly interwoven and can prevent women entrepreneurs from
28
reaching their profitability potential. The World Bank President, James
Wolfensohn, mentioned in a 1995 address to the Bank’s Board of Governors,
“we have learned that investing in people, particularly through education
programs, is the principal engine of social and economic progress. We have
seen the power of the contributions of women, as the main agents for
change in their families and communities.”4 Secretary Madeline Albright
echoed Wolfensohn, “focusing on women is not simply the right thing to do; it
is the smart thing to do.”5 The focus these days should be on technology,
education, and training.
Training is the essential component for producing an able corps of
entrepreneurs who not only survive but thrive and contribute to the local,
and ultimately, the global economy. Skill-based training, technical training,
technology training, and delivery of management skills are necessary to
strengthen not only entrepreneurs, but also associations. Technical
assistance, in other words, is especially valuable in developing and
transitional economies where business and managerial skills are often
completely lacking.
According to a survey of Russian women entrepreneurs, women
business owners strongly desire training, management, and technical
assistance. In fact, the survey noted that 59% specifically asked for
29
training in finance, marketing, and related business topics. Interestingly,
NFWBO’s surveys of women entrepreneurs in Argentina, Latin and Iber-
American countries, Mexico, Ireland, Brazil, and Canada reflect strikingly
similar percentages. Women worldwide recognize that they cannot grow
without the right tools.
Double Shift, Double Burden
The combination of two jobs, one at work and one at home, is difficult
for a woman in any country, but it is doubly taxing for a woman in a
developing or transitional economy where poverty and lack of infrastructure
can make the most basic tasks harder and more time-consuming. Yet, what
choice do women have? Goscilo said society “exhorted women to be both
producers and reproducers. As a consequence, they [bear] the double load
of full-time work and all domestic responsibilities.” 6 In many ways the
“double shift, double burden” stems from patriarchal traditions that are still
followed in the majority of the world’s countries. Yet, change is happening as
countries modernize and integrate with the global economy.
30
Characteristics of Women Entrepreneurs
Woman entrepreneurs tend to be highly motivated and self-directed.
They also exhibit a high internal locus of control and achievement.
Researchers contend that women business owners possess certain specific
characteristics that promote their creativity and generate new ideas and
ways of doing things (see box below).
Box 3. Characteristic Tendencies of Women Business Owners
Risk-taking propensity,
focus,
high energy level,
personal motivations,
married, first born,
self-employed father,
general business management skills,
social adroitness,
interpersonal skills, competence in finance, and in managing relationships.
One of the qualities that women business owners cite as key to their
success is the ability to focus intensely. For example authors Neff and
Citrin note, as the former head of the Red Cross, one of the world’s largest
NGOs, Elizabeth Dole managed 1.3 million volunteers, revenues of $2.l billion,
and supplied relief to victims of more than 60,000 natural and man-made
disasters each year. According to Dole, focus was key for “the
management of inner resources.” Other women business owners also cited
31
focus as a principal characteristic enhancing their successes. Women
business owners’ opinions are supported by a comparative study in Estonia,
Russia, and Scandinavia by Kauppinen-Toropainen (1993) and by interviews
conducted by Neff and Citrin (1999).
In sum, women entrepreneurs share these characteristics: 1) sharp
communication skills, 2) intuitive people skills, 3) consensus building
competencies, and 4) nurturing, integrating abilities. Women need to use all
these skills as they strive to make appropriate decisions for their families
and for themselves.
Entrepreneurs Functioning as Role Models
For some entrepreneurs, role models and mentors played a key role in
carving out paths for them to follow. As revealed in interviews and
discussions, some role models were historic figures or fictional characters
who overcame adversity; more often they were admired and respected
members of NGOs. Mentors included business men and women, family
members, women with a high public profile, and an occasional consultant.
“Women are changing the conventional role of mentoring at a time when the
practice is enjoying a rebirth,” remarked author Susan Caminiti. 7 What
Caminiti means is that there is benefit to being mentored and to being a
32
mentor. She professes that human nature dictates a propensity for giving
advice and that doing so is an ego payoff for all the years spent acquiring
know-how. Mentors often view mentoring as a responsibility, a way of
ensuring entry for the next generation of women.
Association members, community trainers, and foreign consultants are
acting as role models by instructing women, not only on the technical issues
of starting a business, but also by modeling professional behavior and
demonstrating how to broaden one’s outlook. Within women’s business
associations, business management, economic empowerment, and advocacy
techniques combine with the more humanistic skills of fostering mutual
respect, improving ethical standards, and improving health in order to equip
female entrepreneurs to succeed in a competitive business environment.
Economic Impact of Women Entrepreneurs
What is the real economic impact of women entrepreneurs? How many
women-owned businesses are there in the world? While no exact data are
available on the number of entrepreneurs, there is a worldwide pool of
economically active persons, known as the Women’s Indicators and
Statistical Data Base (WISTAT), from which one can extrapolate the general
number of women entrepreneurs. WISTAT titles the category “employers
33
and own-account workers,” but the category could be termed as well as self-
employed or business owners. The category describes those who are
economically independent and who could be entrepreneurs (see chart 1). The
number of women to 100 men in each region is represented for three
decades spanning 1970 to 1990.
Chart 1 - Ratio of women to men of total business owners by region, 1970-

90 (number of women per 100 men)
Region 1970 1980 1990
Africa 35 50 50
Asia and the Pacific 16 9 22
Eastern Europe 67 47 56
Latin America and the Caribbean 22 33 48
Western Europe and other 22 37 38
World 26 39 40
Source: UN, 1995.
Data from the OECD in 1998 parallel available figures from the UN.
Chart 2 shows the proportion of women business owners in selected OECD
countries. The two charts present an interesting similarity evidencing the
growth of women’s business ownership in five regions (chart 1) and in 19
34
individual countries (chart 2). The growth of women entrepreneurs in many
countries has been driven by international trade, and if the global boom
predictions are to be believed, then there is no end in sight.
It is important to note that the gap between men and women business
owners has narrowed significantly. In 1970 women numbered 26 for each
100 men, but by 1990 women numbered 40 for each 100 men who were self-
employed during the periods indicated below. Although largely absent from
the decision-making positions in multinational corporations, women are
advancing as major actors in entrepreneurial activities.
35
Chart 2 - Percent of women employers to total self-employed in selected

OECD countries (excluding farm sector and family workers)
Avg. Annual % Change
Country 1976 1986 1996 1976-86 1986-96
Australia 26.0 30.9 32.8 0.49 0.19
Belgium 28.3 28.4 28.7 0.01 0.03
Canada n.a. n.a. 41.6 n.a. n.a.
Czech Republic n.a. n.a. 27.4 n.a. n.a.
Finland 34.8 36.1 30.5 0.14 -0.56
Germany 34.3 26.6 27.9 -0.77 0.13
Greece 18.2 16.4 19.7 -0.20 0.37
Hungary n.a. n.a. 30.7 n.a. n.a
Italy 27.4 22.4 23.7 -0.50 0.13
Japan 33.0 35.9 32.2 0.29 -0.37
Korea n.a. n.a. 30.7 n.a. n.a.
Mexico n.a. n.a. 36.1 n.a. n.a.
Norway 23.9 23.4 30.3 -0.05 0.69
Poland n.a. n.a. 30.7 n.a. n.a.
Spain 26.2 24.8 27.7 -0.14 0.29
Sweden 22.6 31.2 25.9 0.86 -0.53
Turkey n.a. n.a. 5.3 n.a. n.a.
United Kingdom 21.0 25.7 30.6 0.47 0.61
United States 26.9 33.3 39.2 0.64 0.59

Source: OECD, 1998
36
As demonstrated by NFWBO, UN, OECD, and other studies, it is
apparent that women’s entrepreneurship has grown significantly in the past
decades. Various national estimates indicate surprisingly high regional
increases of women entrepreneurs. In fact, 10 percent of the new
enterprises in North Africa, 33 percent in North America, and 40 percent
the former German Democratic Republic states were started by women. 8
The OECD in 1998 estimated that 75 to 80% of new enterprises in the United
States are created by women. Canadian research shows a 172% increase in
the number of self-employed women between 1975 and 1990. The
increasing percentages reveal that women business owners are decidedly the
new economic actors.
1
Getecha, Ciru & Chipika, Jesimen. Zimbabwe women’s voices. Zimbabwe Women’s Resource
Centre and Network, 1995.
2
National Foundation for Women Business Owners. Women entrepreneurs are a growing
international trend. 1997. p.1.
3
Micro Credit Summit Draft Declaration. 1995.
4
Wolfensohn, John D. New directions and new partnerships. World Bank. 1995.
5
Blackman, Ann. Seasons of her life: A biography of Madeleine Korbel Albright. Scribner.
1998.
6
Goscilo, H. Dehexing sex: Russian womanhood during and after glasnost. University of
Michigan Press. 1997. p. 8.
7
Caminiti, Susan. Straight talk. Working woman. 1999.
8
UN. Women in a changing global economy: 1994 world survey n the role of women in
development. 1995.
37
SECTION 3
WOMEN’S BUSINESS ASSOCIATIONS
“In many countries, women entrepreneurs do not use the existing networks
or the existing resources. Governments can more effectively work with
associations of women entrepreneurs, so that they are not re-inventing the
wheel, but basically buying and tying pre-existing resources.”
Virginia Littlejohn1
President, Global Enterprise Group
Voluntary organizations are an important agent in the process of
economic empowerment of women. Women’s grassroots organizations have
played a valuable role throughout the world in improving the socioeconomic
status of their members and attempting to lessen gender-based
discrimination against them. Now, women’s business associations need to
erect and implement their own agendas for increased economic protection.
The following section highlights women’s business associations that have
garnered national success, the expected purposes of women’s business
associations, and the role of women’s businesses associations in
international trade.
38
The Impact of Business Associations
Women’s business associations are increasing steadily in developed,
developing, and transitional countries. Approximately 700 women’s business
organizations are registered in the US alone, representing over 8 million
women-owned businesses. A vital link to economic decision-making
processes, these associations have made their members’ visions and
priorities a part of the national political and economic agenda. Around the
globe many more organizations are contributing in similar ways.
In Russia’s transition economy numerous women's business
associations have taken root, such as the Novgorod Women’s Parliament,
Perm Business Women's Club, the St. Petersburg Institute for International
Entrepreneurship Development, Archangelsk Women Entrepreneurs,
Novosibirsk Association of Women Entrepreneurs, and so many more. There
are also affiliates to several US-based business organizations, including the
Alliance of American and Russian Women, Business and Professional Women,
and National Association of Women Business Owners (NAWBO). One of the
strongest associations is the Union of Russian Women. Long established, the
Union has a history of acknowledging the contributions of working women.
With the advent of a market economy, the Union is providing training and
individual support for entrepreneurial women.
39
In Malawi, which became a democracy in 1994, the National Association
of Business Women (NABW), led by the visionary Joyce Banda, provides a
voice for women entrepreneurs. Registered in 1990, NABW is a multifaceted
NGO that encourages and promotes women business owners through
advocacy, business and technical skills training, and microcredit loans.
NABW’s principal goal is to improve the economic status of Malawian women
through developing programs that promote and expand productivity and
profitability of women-owned businesses thereby increasing employment
opportunities for women. Founded in 1990, its membership has reached
about 15,000 people by 1999.
In Nepal, the Women Entrepreneurs Association of Nepal (WEAN) is a
decade old. WEAN is an autonomous association formed for, and by,
Nepalese women entrepreneurs with the goal of drawing and encouraging
them to work toward excellence in their businesses. WEAN assembled a
network to enable women business owners from all regions of Nepal to meet,
exchange expertise, distribute information, and help each other discover
their own potential and capabilities. WEAN’s mission of empowering women
through entrepreneurship evolved under Yangzi Sherpa, its founding
president who led WEAN for eight eventful, struggling years. Her goal, and
40
that of her cofounders—Rita Thapa, Renchin Yonjan, Nilam Panday—was to
build an organization on a solid institutional base with clear legal validity.
Women’s business associations are especially well-placed to offer
training in fields where women have expressed special interest, including
technical training and business skills. Associations provide the moral and
psychological advocacy required to start a small business by creating a safe
and growth-oriented atmosphere that is ideal for incubating new businesses.
Associations in Brazil, Canada, Ireland, Malawi, Mexico, Nepal, Russia, the
United Kingdom, and many other countries have provided a strong voice and
vision for their entrepreneurial members.
In many countries there is still some resistance to joining organizations
and other networks. One legacy of the Soviet period is an antipathy toward
collective actions and organizations—after years of being pushed and
prodded into collectivism by the Communist Party people resist efforts to
persuade them to join associations. However, as women watch one another,
learn from one another, and communicate more freely, these networks
expand. Typically, women who are surveyed report that mutual support is
the primary reason they decide to join business associations.
41
Role of Women’s Business Associations
Associations cover a wide spectrum of activities encompassing credit,
business skills training, technical and technology training, employment
creation, marketing services, legal assistance, psychological counseling, and
some social welfare programs. Some organizations, like the Grameen Bank in
Bangladesh, specialize in providing microcredit. The New York-based
Women’s World Bank offers business training and credit. Others, such as
NABW in Malawi and Nepal’s WEAN, take a more holistic approach, addressing
country-wide problems such as hunger and lack of health care, in addition to
credit, education, and business resources.
Since associations encourage solidarity and collective action between
the groups they help organize and among the members who join, the
increasing contact between associations and other institutions can help
create a commanding web of alliances dedicated to the political and economic
empowerment of women. Partners in these new social pacts should build on
the survival strategies devised by grassroots associations. Grassroots
tactics have proved successful in many regions: in poor women’s
cooperatives, in businesswomen’s organizations, and in associated
movements
42
There has long been an argument whether women should join a male-
dominated organization such as trade associations or chambers of
commerce. Billie Lee, an international writer on workplace issues based in
US, has written persuasively that women should join only mainstream
chamber or business groups. Lee believes that women are be most likely to
meet those who can demonstrate and coach powerful business techniques
only in male-dominated organizations. Lee asks, “Why splinter off and
declare that you are women first, business people second?” 2
While Lee’s question is logical, it ignores the fact that in many
societies, women’s ability in gaining access to mainstream organizations is
limited. Creating and growing women’s not-for-profit organizations is a way
of exercising freedom, and a key to building a civil society. By forming and
joining an association, one can demonstrate economic clout and force larger
organizations and governments to pay attention to a specific cause. In
addition business associations provide a system of bonding. “Women
certainly do seek out opportunities to assist other women” Sharon Hadary,
executive director of NFWBO asserted, “So many of the issues and problems
are the same. The bond of being a woman business owner supersedes the
cultural differences.” 3 Without women’s business organizations,
43
entrepreneurs say they feel isolated. “Isolation is a dream killer,” 4 and it is
most certainly a business killer as well.
Role of Women’s Business Associations in Promoting International
Trade
In a recent focus group held for women entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe, all
participants expressed eagerness about the possibility of entering the
international trade arena, yet only five of twenty-seven surveyed reported
engaging in international activity. NFWBO5 research on the involvement of
women business owners in trade showed the following percentages: 38% in
Ireland; 30% in Canada; 25% in Brazil; 21% in Mexico; and 13% in the US.
However, these surveys are based on women attending conferences, and
may not be indicative of the country as a whole. This points again to the
need for more gender disaggregated data for the purposes of measuring
national and international economic activity.
The Zimbabwean entrepreneurs readily admitted that they were
unprepared to dive into the global arena. They wanted more marketing
analysis, industry sector information, linkages to networks, and technological
equipment and training. Further, they indicated that training in international
trade would be extremely valuable for their women’s business associations.
44
Training topics that held the greatest appeal were globalization, export
promotion, import rules, and foreign direct investment as related to joint
ventures. The main concern was how to convert an initial short-term
training program offered by international consultants into a long-term
association service program for members. As Mary Banda from
Mozambique, said, “I don't think our associations right now have the funding
or the capabilities of [experts] to impart knowledge. Who would train
members after an inaugural training program was concluded by an expert?”
None of the participants felt that the local women’s business associations
had enough expertise to implement a training program in international trade.
This issue leads directly to what can be done to strengthen not only women’s
business associations in Africa, but also other associations globally.
Global surveys reveal strong opinions from women entrepreneurs on
what their associations should do to help grow their businesses. Most
participants indicated that they needed some form of assistance. When
asked what kind of specific assistance they wanted their associations to
supply, entrepreneurs responded with a broad array of suggestions, as listed
below.
• Technology (members need hardware, software, and training; the most
frequent request is access to the Internet)
45
• International trade training
• International linkages via trade shows and trade missions
• Business plan development
• Market identification, partner identification, strategic alliance
identification
• Negotiation assistance
• Industry information, trends, niches
• Contacts for sources of credit, letters of credit, finance counseling
• Mentoring and professional peer counseling
• Skill development in operations, management, and marketing
• Advocacy (understanding what it is and how to implement it)
• Legislative pressure techniques
• Policymaking assistance
The major threats that women entrepreneurs face in the global
marketplace are competition from foreign products arising from trade
liberalization, technological advancements outpacing current technology now
used within one’s business, and insufficient skills to conduct business in the
global marketplace. To combat these obstacles, the role of women’s
business associations in every region of the world should be to prepare
aggressively and meticulously their members for future participation in the
46
global economy by providing access to intensive training on how to shape
niche markets and develop agile and innovative interactive marketing skills.
1
Littlejohn, Virginia. as quoted from OECD. Women entrepreneurs in small and medium
enterprises. 1998.
2
Lee, Billie. Women’s groups still don’t understand power. San Diego business journal. 1996.
p. 7a.
3
Chun, Judy. Equal access: women business owners find their place in the world. Entrepreneur
23, 1995.
4
Sher, Barbara. Wishcraft: How to get what you really want. Ballantine. 1979.
5
NFWBO. Country studies (see references). 1998.
47
SECTION 4
GLOBAL DATA ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
“Economic issues and trade will be the principal

diplomatic mediums of the 21st century.”
Charlene Barshefsky
Chief US Trade Negotiator1
This section addresses four topics: women business owners’ impact on
international trade, current analytical and statistical data about women
entrepreneurs involved in international trade, predictions for the future, and
a summary.
International Trade Impact
According to the UN Development Program’s Human Development
Report, a survey showed that four out of ten women business leaders are
currently involved in the international marketplace. Of the women surveyed,
about half became involved only within the past year. Moreover, nearly half
of those surveyed who were not yet involved in trade say they planned to do
so within the next three years. However, accurate data about the number of
women entrepreneurs involved in international business are sketchy at best.
48
Box 4. International Trade Facts
• Ireland - 38% of women surveyed are involved in international trade

• Canada - 30% of women surveyed are involved in international trade
• Brazil - 25 % of women surveyed are involved in international trade
• Mexico - 21% of women surveyed are involved in international trade
Sources: NFWBO, 1998; WIIT, 1998
An Action Agenda
To promote women entrepreneurs, the UN International Trade
Center’s (ITC) Women in Trade Development Program defined three areas
where intervention is needed: 1) grassroots level as an individual
entrepreneur, 2) operational level in cooperation with women’s business
associations, and 3) policy and institutional level to systematize
governmental efforts. The suggestions below are based on best practices
that have proven successful for female entrepreneurs and their business
associations. There are five broad categories.
1. Research, Analysis, Statistical Data Gathering
The consistent lack of data about women entrepreneurs is a barrier not
only because women are undercounted but also because they are not taken
into account when public policies are formulated.
49
ACTION - Compile local and national directories on women
entrepreneurs at all levels (micro, small, medium-sized, and large), in all
sectors, and include international trade activity.
Examples - NAWBO’s local, state, and national directories.
2. Technology, Education, Training
Provide management, marketing, business planning, technology, and
technical assistance to women entrepreneurs. Every country report NFWBO
compiled indicated that training was a top concern for women business
owners. Ducheneaut at OECD remarked that women running SMEs are quite
frequently handicapped by lack of management training; further, he
criticized higher education for not sufficiently emphasizing SMEs. With high-
speed technology blurring an entrepreneur’s market edge, technology skills
and business ownership education must be made available and constantly
updated.
ACTION - Survey women entrepreneurs through existing associations
to establish a baseline for technology, education, and training needs; then
generate the supporting training structures and/or partnerships to expand
businesses and overcome obstacles.
50
Examples - New Opportunities for Women provided by the European
Commission to promote women’s enterprise creation and strengthen existing
enterprises through specialized training programs.
3. Access to Credit
A major impediment to starting and later expanding a business is
finance. Access to credit for women can be improved by linking women’s
business associations’ awareness campaigns and public policy platforms to
government and institutional policies.
ACTION - Identify, define, and explain the common problems women
experience in obtaining credit. Research credit schemes that have worked in
other countries that would be applicable to your community; assess
transferability and adaptability. Organize, lobby, and campaign for funds
that women’s business associations can disburse to members.
Examples - African Development Bank has listened to the requests of
women’s associations. It now has a “Women in Development” division
advising the Bank.
United Republic of Tanzania set up the Small Industries Development
Organization which has established a women’s desk that surveys the needs
51
of female entrepreneurs and designs programs to assist them in obtaining
loans. In just two years loans increased from 35 to 129.
4. Legal Issues
Prescribing necessary policies and institutional reforms to improve the
business environment facing women entrepreneurs is tied into the regulatory
and legal framework governing competition, investment, commercial
transactions, contractual laws, labor regulations, taxes, property rights, and
procurement procedures.
ACTION - Turn the obstacles, challenges, and problems into legitimate
policy papers. Advocate using public forums, media targeting, and direct
lobby pressure upon legislators to change laws that are discriminatory
toward women entrepreneurs.
Example - The South African National Congress’ Land Manifesto
specifically mentions equal rights in all land-related issues. The manifesto
has been taken to task collectively by South African women’s business
associations who are monitoring its appropriate application after decades of
abusing women’s land rights.
Enforcing women’s rights to land has always been difficult in India. The
Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), Working Women’s Forum
52
(WWF), Mahila Mangal Dal (MMD), and Comprehensive Rural Operations Service
Society (CROSS) are raising the issue of securing land and other rights for
women, underscoring the close relationship between economic and social
oppression.
5. Association Leadership
Business women’s associations can disseminate information, explain
change, and provide services to help members handle economic and political
shifts effectively. In this last section, the actions and examples are tied
together as follows:
ACTION AND EXAMPLE
• Seminars in legal literacy - Ukrainian business women’s association.
• Public policy platform - Malawi’s NABW designed an advocacy program to
improve the economic status of Malawian women.
• Technology transfer - Women's Technology Cluster is a business incubator
for women-owned technology start-ups based in San Francisco, CA with
connections to venture capital.
• Training and credit - WEAN in Nepal offers a substantial number of
training packages, networking activities, advocacy initiatives, a fully
staffed retail cooperative, savings programs, and a formal credit
53
program molded by assistance from and affiliation with Women's World
Bank.
• Trade fairs, shows, and events - The MERCOSUR Women’s Forum: A
Challenge for the Third Millennium held in 1997. The SADC Women’s
regional trade show is being organized by 14 women’s business
associations located in Africa’s Sub-Saharan region. Plan to attend in
September 2000.
• Workshops and conferences on gender discrimination - Business and
Professional Women (BPW) International in St. Petersburg, Russia offers
expert counseling on combating societal gender indifference and
discrimination.
• Research, Data Collection, and Statistical Repository - The NFWBO is a
premier source of information on women business owners in the US. It
supports the growth of women business owners by conducting research;
then sharing and disseminating data collected.
• International Trade Training - Ghana Association of Women Entrepreneurs
(GAWE) hosted the First Global Women Entrepreneurs’ Trade and
Investment Forum in 1996 drawing 504 participants from 44 countries
and 30 international organizations. GAWE offered participants a variety
54
of conference sessions dealing with international trade. GAWE plans
another conference in May 2000.
How can a women’s business organization advocate cooperatively and
efficiently to influence policymakers? The OECD outlined a number of
effective suggestions from a recent study of policies that foster
entrepreneurship in five countries—Australia, The Netherlands, Spain,
Sweden, and the United States. The following chart presents some of its
broad policy guidelines that can be applied to developing and transitioning
countries as well. Each country and each businesswomen’s association needs
to examine how these policies could best be applied within its own situation.
Broad policy guidelines must examine the overall institutional framework
within which economic activity takes place in order to establish whether it
provides maximum scope for entrepreneurship to flourish (see box 5).
Box 5. Selected Policy Options to Promote Entrepreneurship by OECD
* Examine whether current regulations governing financial institutions and/or

financial markets inhibit or facilitate the availability and optimal allocation of
finance for entrepreneurial activities.
* Allow scope for flexible employment contracts to be negotiated, with

remuneration arrangements and working conditions that are well adapted to
the needs of dynamic enterprises. Relax employment protection measures
that inhibit restructuring or discourage entrepreneurs from taking on new
workers.
55
* Examine the costs of complying with government-imposed administrative

or regulatory requirements and identify where reductions could be made.
* Examine the overall effects of the tax system on entrepreneurship.
* Review and simplify the registration procedures required to create a

business.
* Advocate to government to widen the target population for

entrepreneurship programs, where possible, to attract the participation of
women, the young and minorities.
* Ensure that resources for programs to foster entrepreneurship are

decentralized.
* Provide regular opportunities to exchange information at a national level on

the experiences of local authorities in designing and implementing
entrepreneurship programs.
* Promote public awareness of entrepreneurship and examine the role the

education system could play in developing entrepreneurial skills and
attitudes.
* Increase opportunities for the unemployed to create their own jobs through
self-employment schemes.
* Facilitate networking among firms in order to foster a culture of mutual

cooperation and risk-taking.
* Promote the entrepreneurial nonprofit sector by contracting-out where

possible the delivery of public services that meet pressing demands in
economic and social development.
Source: OECD. 1998. Fostering Entrepreneurship.
56
Two final recommendations:
1. Report successes. New as well as established entrepreneurs want
to hear success stories. What are the best practices? Describe your best
management training course or your best export initiative or your best
enterprise links initiative. Are there regional differences in best practices?
If yes, explain why doing business in South Africa is different from doing
business in Zambia. What advocacy efforts have been successful? Explain
your most advantageous advocacy approaches like meeting one-on-one with
legislators or holding legislative issues breakfast meetings, focus groups, or
press conferences. What is the most valuable membership service that
could be shared? Describe how members can act as ambassadors to attract
in prospective members or how trade shows might best draw attention to
your organization. Ascertain all methods that reflect your accomplishments
and pass them along to the world by analyzing, reporting, distributing, and
disseminating what has been learned in a written format. Broadcast
generously.
2. Track and summarize association member details. For example,
practice crafting member surveys such as needs assessment questionnaires
or legislative issues polls or training program evaluations. Also, categorize
member’s demographics such as their types of business, number of years in
57
operation, obstacles, characteristics, economic impacts, credit concerns,
and business needs. Summarize your findings and submit your discoveries to
government officials, banking institutions, and other entrepreneurial support
organizations. At the same time, use the members’ input to assess your
organization’s products, services, training programs, printed materials,
newsletters, and staff. Continue to research, collect data, and record
statistics pertinent to the member entrepreneurs needs and goals. Non-
governmental organizations aren’t doing it. Governments claim they haven’t
the money to do it.
Conclusions
In a world of rapid change, all entrepreneurs must have the flexibility
and creativity to meet the changes they face. The importance of a strong,
mindful vision that can lead toward a better world is often underestimated.
Recently, a participant from the Russian Far East who was attending a US
Department of Commerce business planning seminar remarked that she
really appreciated the vision/mission portion of the day. She said that she
thought the vision process was just to generate a meaningless slogan. What
she realized after the visioning exercise was the importance of using an
58
effectively articulated mission as a driving force to propel her company to
what she wanted it to achieve.
Without directly tracking, observing, surveying, and interviewing
individual enterprise owners it is difficult to understand with clarity and
assurance the current entrepreneurial movement or women’s economic
opportunities. Even the data we have collected over the past 10 years are
insufficient and hardly correlate with the growing number of women
entrepreneurs. As female entrepreneurs, as members of active, effective
women’s business associations, we are responsible for producing the
literature, research, and statistics that are currently missing. This is
essential for assessing women’s financial contributions to the global
economy. We can do better.
Individually, business ownership provides women with the independence
they crave and with economic and social success they need. Nationally,
business ownership has great importance for future economic prosperity.
Globally, women are enhancing, directing, and changing the face of how
business is done today. Ultimately, female business owners must be
recognized for who they are, what they do, and how significantly they impact
the world’s global economy.
1
Greenberger, R. S. Working for a fair trade. Hemispheres. 1999.
59
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Women Entrepreneurs in the Global Economy

Susanne E. Jalbert, Ph.D.

March 17, 2000

Preface by Phyllis Bonanno:

Section 2: What Women Entrepreneurs Bring to the Global Economy 22

Section 3: Women’s Business Associations 38

Section 4: Global Data on the Status of Women Entrepreneurs 48

Women: The Emerging Economic Force

implications of this for businesswomen throughout the world? How can

women’s business associations best channel this potential and maximize it to

improve the status of women in the world economy?

The world’s modern economy, and in fact democracy, depends on the

participation of both sexes. Wouldn’t it be ideal to envision as normal a

global international order based on democracy, free enterprise, and

utopian, if not naive. However, governments and institutions promoting

democratic values make a real difference in women’s business organizations

in newly emerging market democracies.

In the global economy of the 21st century, international trade will be a

key source of economic growth and development. Recent surveys conducted

in several countries by the National Foundation of Women Business Owners

(NFWBO) indicate that women-owned firms involved in the global marketplace

are domestically oriented. Obviously, expanding into international trade can

enterprises are benefiting from this potential as much as larger firms.

Women's business associations can and should ensure that their

members—large and small—are equipped to reap the rewards of expanding

them do that. Information technology can help identify markets, provide

national economies can be. More information about women-owned business

enterprises is sorely needed to force policymakers to realize that women are

an economic force to be reckoned with. Part of this process is to document

the economic significance of women-owned enterprises in order to establish

a constructive dialogue. What women’s business organizations (WBOs) can

provide may be summed up in three words: access, organization, and

to training in international trade issues, access to mentoring, as well as

access to the more basic skills of operations management and marketing.

The importance of access to information technology cannot be

underestimated. Information technology can help identify markets, provide

important industry information, spotlight trends, and highlight potential

❑ Organization. WBOs can advance women within the business community,

conference for directors of women's business associations and women

entrepreneurs is designed to deliver valuable practical information on how

women's business community worldwide.

❑ Advocacy. WBOs can demonstrate how successfully targeted advocacy is

critical if women are to overcome the institutional and informal constraints

increase access to education, foster the growth and dynamism of women-

owned firms, spur reform of laws, raise the awareness of international

development organizations, and alert trade negotiators to consciously

communicate ramifications of trade pacts. Most importantly, advocacy can

One thing is certain. The national business associations and

policymakers of the world can no longer ignore the burgeoning power of

Phyllis O. Bonanno is a CIPE board member, and an independent international

Today’s world is changing at a startling pace. Political and economic

transformations seem to be occurring everywhere—as countries convert

from command to demand economies, dictatorships move toward

businesses. Today, women in advanced market economies own more than

25% of all businesses1 and women-owned businesses in Africa, Asia, Eastern

Europe, and Latin America are growing rapidly.2

In some regions of the world, transformation to a market economy

threatens to sharpen gender inequality. Some of these changes are simply

reforms. Other changes reflect a return to traditional norms and values

that relegated women to a secondary status. As countries become more

democratic, gender inequalities lessen; thus, offering a more productive

business associations promote entrepreneurs, and to what extent women